CHAPTER 5

SAMPLE DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

What is sampling?
Sampling- is the process of using a small number of items or parts of a larger population to make
conclusions about the whole population. It enables the researchers to estimate unknown
characteristics of the population.
Data is collected from target population using survey. If a survey covers all population, the
survey is called census and if the survey covers part of the population, the survey is called
sampling.
Why sampling?
a. Economic advantage (cost factor): The economic advantage of using a sample in research is
obviously. Taking a sample requires fewer resources than a census.
b. Time factor: Sampling helps to collect vial information more quickly. The speed of
execution reduces the time between the recognition of a need for information and the
availability of that information.
c. The experiment may be destructive: Sometimes "measuring" or "testing" something
destroys it. The government requires automakers who want to sell cars in the U.S. to
demonstrate that their cars can survive certain crash tests. Obviously, the company can't be
expected to crash every car, to see if it survives! So the company crashes only a sample of
cars.
d. Samples may result in higher quality: The results obtained by sampling often are almost as
accurate as and sometimes even more accurate than those obtained from census. This is
mainly because trained and experienced investigators generally conduct the entire work in
sample survey
e. Detailed information: More detailed information through detailed analyses can be obtained
through sample survey, as the data is manageable.
f. Inaccessibility: There are some populations that are so difficult to get access to that only a
sample can be used. Like people in prison, like crashed airplanes in the deep seas, president's
e.t.c. The inaccessibility may be economic or time related
Steps in Sampling Process
Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of the right elements from the population, so
that a study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics make it possible for
us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements. The five major steps in
sampling include:
1. Define the population.

Sampling begins with precisely defining the target population. The target population must be
defined in terms of elements, geographical boundaries, and time. For instance, for a banker interested
in saving habits of blue-collar workers in the mining industry in the United States, the target

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population might be all blue-collar workers in that industry throughout the country. For an
advertising agency interested in reading habits of elderly people, the target population might be the
German population aged 50 and over.

2. Determining the sample frame

The sampling frame is a (physical) representation of all the elements in the population from which
the sample is drawn. The complete list of the members of a population is known as sampling
frame or source list. The complete list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and
appropriate. It is absolutely essential for the source list to be representative of the universe as
possible. The payroll of an organization, the university registry containing a listing of all students,
faculty, administrators, and support staff in the university during a particular academic year or
semester could serve as the sampling frame for a study of the university population.
3. Determining the sampling design
There are two major types of sampling design: probability and non probability sampling. In
probability sampling, the elements in the population have some known non-zero chance or
probability of being selected as sample subjects. In non probability sampling, the elements do not
have a known or predetermined chance of being selected as subjects. Probability sampling designs
are used when the representativeness of the sample is of importance in the interests of wider
generalizability. When time or other factors, rather than generalizability, become critical, non
probability sampling is generally used.
4. Determining the sample size
This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This major
problem before a researcher. The size of sample should be optimum, which is neither excessively
large nor too small. An optimum or adequate sample is one, which fulfills the requirements of
efficiency, representatives, reliability and flexibility.
Is a sample size of 40 large enough? Or do you need a sample size of 75, 180, 384, or 500? Is a large
sample better than a small sample; that is, is it more representative? The decision about how large the
sample size should be can be a very difficult one. We can summarize the factors affecting decisions
on sample size as:
i) The size of the universe: The large the size of the universe, the bigger should be the sample
size.
ii) The resources available: If the resources available are vast, a large sample size could be
taken. However, in most cases resources constitute a big constraint on sample size.
iii) The standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level: The greater the degree of
accuracy or the level of precision desired the larger should be the sample size. However, it
does not necessarily mean that bigger samples always ensure greater accuracy.
iv) Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the Universe: If the universe consists of homogeneous
units, a small sample may serve the purpose but if the universe consists of heterogeneous
units, a large sample may be required.

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 v) Nature of study: For an intensive and continuous study a small sample may be suitable. But
for studies which are not likely to be repeated and are quite extensive in nature, it may be
necessary to take larger sample size.
vi) Nature of respondents: Where it is expected a large number of respondents will not co-
operate and send back the questionnaires, a larger sample should be selected.
5. Executing the sampling process
The following two examples illustrate how, in the final stage of the sampling process, decisions
with respect to the target population, the sampling frame, the sample technique, and the sample
size have to be implemented.
SAMPLING VERSUS NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
Two major types of error can arise when a sample of observations is taken from a population:
 Sampling Error: This is a type of error that arises due to the fact that sample is taken rather
than the whole population. Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample and
population that are due solely to the particular units that happen to have been selected. It
reflects the influences of chance in drawing the sample members. Sampling error is what is
left after all known sources of systematic variance have been accounted for. As the sample
size increases, the sampling error decreases and is altogether eliminated when census inquiry.
Moreover, the more homogenous the population, the smaller is the sampling error.
Factors Affecting Sampling Error
Sample size-the larger sample sizes decrease the sampling error. However this decrease is not
directly proportional.
The variability within the population- More variable populations give rise to larger errors as the
samples or the estimates calculated from different samples are more likely to have greater variation.
Sample design- An efficient sampling design will help in reducing sampling error.
Non-Sampling Error (systematic or measurement error): A non-sampling error is an error that
results solely from the manner in which the observations are made. Error that are not sampling
errors are called non-sampling errors. This type of error can occur whether a census or a sample
is being used. Some of the important causes of the systematic bias are: Inappropriate sampling
frame, natural bias in the reporting of data, non respondents and bias in the instrument of
collection
Types of samples- There are two main types of sampling
I. Random (probability) Sampling Techniques
A. Simple random sampling: the most widely used type of sampling is a simple random
sample. A sample selected so that each item or person in the population has the same chance
of being included. In simple random sampling, a research develops an accurate sampling
frame, selects elements from sampling frame according to mathematically random procedure,
then locates the exact element that was selected for inclusion in the sample.
B. Systematic Random Sample- This is a technique which in which an initial starting point is
selected by a random process, after which every nth number on the list is selected to
constitute part of the sample. The sampling interval (i.e. 1 in n where n is some number) tells
the researcher how to select elements from a sampling frame by skipping elements in the
frame before one for the sample. For example, if you need 100 members in your sample and
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 the population consists of 1000 people, you need to sample every 1000/100 (or 10th) member
of the population.
Steps in Systematic Sampling
1. Begin with a numbered sampling frame again.
2. Choose your sampling interval = number in population / by number desired in sample, or N/n.
3. Choose your random number between 1 and N/n
4. select the element that corresponds to the random number.
C. Stratified Random Sampling
All people in sampling frame are divided into "strata" (groups or categories). Within each
stratum, a simple random sample or systematic sample is selected. A stratum is a subset of the
population that shares at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males
and females, educated and uneducated, rural and urban and so on.
Example - If we want to ensure that a sample of 5 students from a group of 50 contains both
male and female students in same proportions as in the full population (i.e. the group of 50), we
first divide that population into male and female. In this case, there are 22 male students and 28
females. To work out the number of males and females in the sample:
No. of males in sample = (5 / 50) x 22 = 2.2. No. of females in sample = (5 / 50) x 28 = 2.8
We obviously can't interview .2 of a person or .8 of a person, and have to "round" the numbers.
Therefore we choose 2 males and 3 females in the sample. These would be selected using simple
random or systematic sample methods.
D. Cluster Sampling-
In cluster (area) sampling a population is divided into clusters using naturally occurred
boundaries. Then clusters are randomly selected and after clusters have been selected all or part
of the elements in each cluster are included in the sample.
These clusters are internally heterogonous and externally homogenous. In other words, any two
clusters are assumed to be similar while individual elements within a given cluster are different.
Within each cluster simple random sampling or some other method then chooses units.
Cluster sampling is used in large geographic samples where no list is available of all the units in
the population but the population boundaries can be well-defined. Two conditions foster the use
of cluster sampling: economic efficiency and practical unavailability of sampling frame.
II. Non-random (non-probability) sampling
a) Judgment sampling: In this way of sampling elements are selected by the judgment of the
researcher. If we believe that some population members have more or better information and
more representative of the population than other. And if we want to take small amount of
samples we use this method of sampling.
b) Convenience sampling: Here elements are selected for the convenience of the researcher.
The researcher will choose items that are readily available, nearby, and/or willing to
participate.
c) Snowball sampling: Selection of additional respondents is based on referrals from the
initial respondents. (i.e., friends of friends. with this approach, you initially contact a few

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potential respondents and then ask them whether they know of anybody with the same
characteristics that you are looking for in your research. For example, if you wanted to
interview a sample of vegetarians / cyclists / people with a particular disability / people who
support a particular political party etc., your initial contacts may well have knowledge
(through e.g. support group) of others.