CHAPTER FOUR

SAMPLING DESIGN

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Sample

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Sample

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 Basic Concepts in Sampling
 All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or
‘Population’.
 A population is a larger group of individual persons, objects, or
items from which samples are taken for measurement.
 Example, all people with AIDS and all pregnant teens.
 A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known
as a census inquiry/survey.
 It can be presumed that when all items are covered, no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
 But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of
bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of
observation increases
 Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of:
 time,

 money and,
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 energy.
The need to sample
For some research questions it is possible to collect data from
an entire population as it is of a manageable size. However, you
should not assume that a census would necessarily provide more
useful results than collecting data from a sample which
represents the entire population. Sampling provides a valid
alternative to a census when:
It would be impracticable for you to survey the entire
population;
 Your budget constraints prevent you from surveying the entire
population;
Your time constraints prevent you from surveying the entire
population;
You have collected all the data but need the results quickly.
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5 For all research questions where it would be impracticable for
 Sample is a group of units selected from a larger group (the

population).
 Sample is the selected elements (people or objects) chosen for

participation in a study; people are referred to as subjects or

participant.
 However, it needs to be emphasized that when the universe is a

small one, it is no use resorting to a sample survey.

 The sample corresponds to the larger population on the
characteristic(s) of interest.
 In that case, the researcher's conclusions from the sample are

probably applicable to the entire population.

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 Let the population size be N and a part of the size n (n<N).
 What is Sampling Design?
It is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given

population/universe.
 It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher

would adopt in selecting items for the sample.

It lays down the number of items to be included in the

sample i.e., the size of the sample.

Sample design is determined before data are collected.

Researcher must select/ prepare a sample design which

should be reliable and appropriate for his/her research

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study.
 Reasons for Sampling (Advantages of sampling)
Economic advantage (Cost factor):
Taking a sample requires fewer resources
than a census.
Time factor:
to collect vital information more quickly.
To complete study in short times,
Timely to deliver information for
decision-making.
The experiment may be destructive

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Samples may result in higher quality:
B/c trained and experienced
investigators generally conduct the
entire work in sample survey and
provide more accurate result.
 Detailed information:
More detailed information through
detailed analyses can be obtained through
sample survey, as the data is manageable.
Inaccessibility

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 Sampling Vs Non-Sampling Errors
a) Sampling Error:
It is an error that arises due to the fact that sample is taken
rather than the whole population.
 Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the
sample, and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of
homogeneous population.
Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design and
size. The measurement of sampling error is usually called the
‘precision of the sampling plan’. If we increase the sample size,
the precision can be improved.
There are two basic causes for sampling error:
 chance/random and
 sampling bias.
REMEMBER... A carefully selected small sample is
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better (i.e., more representative) than simply increasing
the size of a sample.
 b) Non-Sampling Error (systematic or measurement error):
 It is an error that results solely from the manner in which the
observations are made.
A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and
it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size.
 This type of error can occur whether a census or a sample is being
used.
Important Causes of the Systematic Bias:
 Inappropriate sampling frame:
biased representation of the universe, it will result in a
systematic bias.
 Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in
error, it will result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias
can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased.
 Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially
included in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias.
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Indeterminacy principle:

 sometimes individuals act differently when kept under

observation than what they do when kept in non-
observed situations.
 For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is
observing them in course of a work study, they can create
artificial situation than during the unobserved.
Natural bias in the reporting of data:

 Example: People generally understate their incomes if

asked about it for tax purpose, but they overstate the same
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 What is a good sample?
The ultimate test of a sample design is how well it
represents the characteristics of the population it purports
to represent.
 In measurement terms, the sample must be valid.
 Validity of a sample depends on two considerations. These are:
 Accuracy and
 Precision.
 Accuracy refers to the magnitude of non-sampling error
 Precision refers to the extent to which sample statistics
represent population parameters, degree of sampling
error.

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 Characteristics of a Good Sampling Design

A good sample design:

 must result in a truly representative sample.

 must results in a small sampling error.

 must be viable in the context of funds available for the

research
 must be the one that in which systematic bias can be

controlled in a better way

 should be such that the results of the sample study can

be applied, in general, for the universe with a

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reasonable level of confidence
 Planning a sampling strategy
 Stage One: Decide whether you need a sample, or whether it is possible
to have the whole population.
 Stage Two: Identify the population, its important features (the sampling
frame) and its size.
 Stage Three: Identify the kind of sampling strategy you require (e.g.
which variant of probability, non-probability, or mixed methods sample
you require).
 Stage Four: Ensure that access to the sample is guaranteed. If not, be
prepared to modify the sampling strategy.
 Stage Five: For probability sampling, identify the confidence level and
confidence intervals that you require. For non-probability sampling,
identify the people whom you require in the sample.
 Stage Six: Calculate the numbers required in the sample, allowing for
non-response, incomplete or spoiled responses,
 Stage Seven: Decide how to gain and manage access and contact.
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15Stage Eight: Be prepared to weight (adjust) the data, once collected.
Important statistical terms
A census: is a complete enumeration of the entire
population.
Target Population: is the set of all elements that
belong to a certain defined group to be studied/ to
which the investigator wants to generalize his/her
results
A sample: is apart (or a subset) of the population.
Sampling Unit: Smallest unit from which sample
can be selected
Sampling frame: List of all the sampling units
from which sample is drawn
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Sampling scheme: Method of selecting sampling
 Populations and Samples

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 Types of Sample Design
Sampling Techniques

Probability Non-probability

Simple random sampling
Complex random sampling
such as, cluster, Systematic,
stratified and Multi-stage
sampling.
Convenience/
Haphazard sampling
Purposive sampling such
as:
 quota sampling,
 judgment sampling
 Snowball sampling

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 A. Probability/Random/chance Sampling
 All elements in the population have some
opportunity/chance of being included in the sample.
 The mathematical probability that any one of them will be
selected can be calculated.
 Individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some technical process.
 It starts with a sampling frame.
 Sampling Frame:
 is a list of all elements in the population of interest e.g.,
 names of individuals,
 telephone numbers,
 house addresses
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 1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
is the most familiar type of probability sample b/c :
all elements in the sampling frame have an
equal chance of selection, and
sampling is done in a single stage with each
element selected independently.
Desirable Qualities associated with SRS:
1. EQUAL PROBABILITY = every element has an
equal probability of inclusion
2. INDEPENDENT SELECTION = Selection of one
element first doesn't have any influence on what
other elements get chosen

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Simple Random Sampling

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 Advantages of the SRS Method
Simple and easy method
Assures good representativeness of sample
(particularly if the population is large and
homogeneous).
Allows us to make generalizations/inferences.
Avoids biases that are possible in some of the other
methods.
Disadvantages of SRS Method:
The population is assumed to be homogenous
Have to have a list/sampling frame.
Have to number the list.

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2. Stratified Sampling
 If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does
not constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling
technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative sample.
 Under stratified sampling the population is divided into
several sub-populations that are individually more
homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-
populations are called ‘strata’) and then we select items
from each stratum to constitute a sample.
 Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping
groups (i.e., strata) N1, N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 + N2
+ N3 + ... + Ni = N.
 Then do a simple random sample of n/N percent in each
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stratum.
 Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total
population, we are able to get more precise estimates for each
stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the
component parts, we get a better estimate of the whole.
Advantages of Stratified Random Sampling
Increased accuracy at a given cost.
Higher degree of representation as compared to simple
random sampling. (Increased statistical efficiency.)
Enables use of different methods in the different strata,
Researcher controls sample size in strata.
Disadvantages
One must know the characteristic of the population so as
to apply stratification
Mostly costly and time consuming (it is expensive)
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3. Cluster sampling
 If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a
convenient way in which a sample can be taken is to divide
the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas
and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas
(usually called clusters), with the ultimate sample
consisting of all (or samples of) units in these small areas
or clusters.
Suppose we want to estimate the proportion of machine parts in
an inventory which are defective. Also assume that there are
20,000 machine parts in the inventory at a given point of time,
stored in 400 cases of 50 each. Now using a cluster sampling,
we would consider the 400 cases as clusters and randomly select
‘n’ cases and examine all the machine parts in each randomly
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selected case.
 Cont.……..
Cluster sampling divides the population into
groups, or clusters.
These clusters are internally heterogonous and
externally homogenous.
In other words, any two clusters are assumed to
be similar while individual elements within a
given cluster are different.
The basic premise in cluster sampling is that each
cluster will be a prototype of the population.
Hence, analysis conducted on one cluster will

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reflect the attribute of the whole population.
Cont.……
The primary sampling unit is not the
individual element, but a large cluster of
elements.
Either the cluster is randomly selected or the
elements within are randomly selected.
Why? Frequently used when no list of
population available or because of cost
Ask: is the cluster as heterogeneous as the
population? Can we assume it is
representative?
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Cluster Sampling

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Advantages
Reduced costs (economic efficiency).
No need of having complete sampling
frame.
Simplified fieldwork and administration is
more convenient.
Disadvantages
Less accurate results are often obtained due
to higher sampling error than for simple
random sampling with the same sample size
(low statistical efficiency)
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 4. Systematic Sampling
Under systematic sampling only the first unit of the sample is
selected at random and the remaining units are selected at fixed
intervals.
An initial starting point is selected by a random process, and then
every nth number on the list is selected.
Systematic sampling is especially applicable when the population
to be studied is arranged in time.
Steps in Systematic Sampling
Begin with a numbered sampling frame again.
Choose your sampling interval = number in population divided
by number desired in sample, or N/n.
If a systematic sample of 500 students were to be carried out in a
university with an enrolled population of 10,000, the sampling
interval would be: I = N/n = 10,000/500 =20.
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If I is not a whole number, then it is rounded
up.
Choose your random number between 0 and
N/n
Select the element that corresponds to the
random number.
Then instead of picking a second random
number, etc., count out the interval (N/n) and
choose that element.
When you get to the end of the list go back to
the beginning until you have your full sample.
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Systematic sampling

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Advantages of Systematic sampling method
Simple and flexible.
It also gives a good spread right across the
population
Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling:
Still need a list/sampling frame that is
numbered.
Might run into periodicity problem.

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 5. Multistage Sampling
Multi-stage sampling is like cluster sampling, but
involves selecting a sample within each chosen
cluster, rather than including all units in the cluster.
Thus, multi-stage sampling involves selecting a
sample in at least two stages.
The advantages :
convenience, economy and efficiency
Multi-stage sampling does not require a complete
list
The Disadvantage :
lower accuracy due to higher sampling error.
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B. Non-probability Sampling
 Nonprobability sampling is a sampling technique
in which some units of the population have zero
chance of selection or where the probability of
selection cannot be accurately determined.
Because selection is non-random, it does not allow
the estimation of sampling errors, and may be
subjected to a sampling bias.
Therefore, information from a sample cannot be
generalized back to the population

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Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques :
Convenience Sample
Quota Samples
Judgmental Sample
Snowball Sampling

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1. Convenience Sample
 Also called accidental or opportunity sampling, this is a
technique in which a sample is drawn from that part of the
population that is close to hand, readily available, or
convenient.
 The sampling procedure used to obtain those units or
people most conveniently available.
 Why: speed and cost.
 For instance, if you stand outside a shopping center and
hand out questionnaire surveys to people or interview
them as they walk in, the sample of respondents you will
obtain will be a convenience sample.
 This is a nonprobability sample because you are

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systematically excluding all people who shop at other
shopping centers.
1. Quota Sample
 In this technique, the population is segmented into
mutually exclusive subgroups (just as in stratified
sampling), and then a non-random set of observations
is chosen from each subgroup to meet a pre defined
quota.
Two types of quota sampling:
 Proportional quota sampling
 Non-proportional quota sampling
 For instance, if the American population consists of 70%
Caucasians, 15% Hispanic-Americans, and 11% African
Americans, and you wish to understand their voting
preferences in a sample of 96 people, you can stand outside
38 a shopping center and ask people their voting preferences.
1. Snowball Sample
In snowball sampling, you start by
identifying a few respondents that match the
criteria for inclusion in your study, and then
ask them to recommend others they know
who also meet your selection criteria.
For instance, if you wish to survey computer
network administrators and you know of
only one or two such people, you can start
with them and ask them to recommend
others who also do network administration.
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Cont.………

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Judgment sampling
The sampling procedure in which an
experienced researcher selects the sample
based on some appropriate characteristic of
sample members… to serve a purpose.
Purposive sampling: the process whereby
the researcher selects a sample based on
experience or knowledge of the group to be
sampled…called “judgment” sampling

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 Thank You!!!

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