4.

2 Sampling Methods
BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER FOUR: THE RESEARCH DESIGN  4.2 Sampling Methods

What is sampling?

Sampling involves the  selection  of  a  number  of  study  units  from  a  defined  study
population. The population is too large  for  us  to  consider  collecting  information  from  all  its
members. Instead we select a sample of individuals hoping that the sample is representative of
the population.

When taking a sample, we will be confronted with the following questions:

a.   What is the group of people from which we want to draw a sample?

b.   How many people do we need in our sample?

c.   How will these people be selected?

Definitions

Target population (reference population): Is that population about which an investigator

wishes to draw a conclusion.

Study population (population sampled): Population from which the sample actually was
drawn and about which a conclusion can be made. For Practical  reasons the study population is
often more limited than the target population. In some instances, the target population and the
population sampled are identical.

Sampling unit:  The unit of selection in the sampling process. For example, in a sample of
districts, the sampling unit is a district; in a sample of persons, a person, etc.

Study unit: The unit on which the observations will be collected. For example, persons in a
study of disease prevalence, or households, in a study of family size.

N.B. The sampling unit is not necessarily the same as the study unit.

Sample design: The scheme for selecting the sampling units from the study population.

Sampling frame:  The list of units from which the sample is to be selected.

The existence of an adequate and up-to-date sampling frame often defines the study population.

Sampling methods

An  important  issue  influencing  the  choice  of  the  most  appropriate     sampling     method   
is whether a sampling frame is  available, that is, a listing of all the  units that compose the study
population.

A.   Non-probability sampling methods

1. Convenience sampling: is a method in which for convenience sake the study units that happen
to be available at the time of data collection are selected.

2.  Quota  sampling:  is  a  method  that  insures  that  a  certain  number  of  sample  units  from
different categories  with  specific  characteristics  appear  in  the  sample  so  that  all   these 
characteristics are represented. In this method the investigator interviews as many people in each
category of study unit as he can find until he has filled his quota.
3.  Purposeful sampling strategies for qualitative studies: Qualitative research methods are
typically used when focusing on a limited number of informants, whom we select strategically so
that their in-depth information  will  give  optimal  insight  into  an  issue  about  which  little,  is
known.  This  is  called purposeful sampling.

Random sampling strategies to collect quantitative data: If the aim of a study is

to measure  variables  distributed  in  a  population  (e.g.,  diseases)  or  to  test  hypotheses
about  which  factors  are  contributing significantly to a certain problem, we have to be sure that
we can generalise the findings obtained from a sample to the total study population. Then,
purposeful sampling methods are inadequate, and probability or random sampling methods have
to be used.

Probability sampling methods:

They  involve random  selection  procedures  to  ensure that each unit of the sample is chosen on
the basis of chance.  All  units  of the  study population should have an equal or at least a known 
chance of  being  included  in  the sample.

1.   Simple Random Sampling (SRS): This is the most basic scheme of random sampling. To
select a simple random sample you need to:

 Make a numbered list of all the units in the population from which you want to draw a
sample. Each unit on the list should be numbered in sequence from 1 to N (Where N is
the Size of the population).
 Decide on the size of the sample
 Select the required number of sampling units, using a “lottery” method or a table of
random numbers.

2.   Systematic Sampling: Individuals are chosen at regular intervals (for example, every 5th,
10th, etc.) from the sampling frame. Ideally we randomly select a number to tell us where to start
selecting individuals from the list. For example, a systematic sample is to be selected from 1000
students of a school. The sample size is decided to be 100. The sampling fraction is: 100/1000 =
1/10. The number of the first student to be included in the sample is chosen randomly by picking
one out of the first ten pieces of paper, numbered 1 to 10. If number 5 is picked, every tenth
student will be included in the sample, starting with student number 5, until 100 students are
selected. Students with the following numbers will be included in the sample: 5,15, 25,
35,45, . . . , 985, 995.

 ƒSystematic Sampling is usually less time consuming and easier to perform than
SRS.  It provides a good approximation to SRS.
 Should not be used if there is any sort of cyclic pattern in the ordering of the subjects on
the list.
 Unlike SRS, systematic sampling can be conducted without a sampling frame (useful in
some situations where a sampling frame is not readily available).

3.   Stratified sampling: If it is important that the sample includes representative groups of
study units with specific characteristics (for example, residents from urban and rural areas), then
the sampling frame must  be divided into groups,  or strata, according to  these characteristics.

Random or systematic samples of a predetermined size will then have to be obtained from each
group (stratum). This is called stratified sampling.

Some of the reasons for stratifying the population may be:

 ƒ Different sampling schemes may be used in different strata, e.g. Urban and rural
Conditions may suggest that prevalence rates will vary between strata:
 The overall estimate for the whole population will be more precise if stratification is
used.
 Administrative reasons may make it easier to carry out the survey through an
organization with a regional structure.

4.   Cluster sampling: When a list of groupings of study units is available (e.g. villages, etc.) or
can be easily compiled, a number of these  groupings can be randomly selected. The selection
of groups of study units (clusters) instead of the selection of study units individually is called
cluster sampling. Clusters are often geographic units (e.g. districts, villages) or organizational
units (e.g. clinics).

5.   Multi-Stage Sampling: This method is appropriate when the population is large and widely
scattered. The number of stages of sampling is the number of times a sampling procedure is
carried out.

 The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the sampling unit (or unit of selection in the
sampling procedure) in the first sampling stage;
 The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the sampling unit in the second sampling stage,
etc.

e.g.  After  selection  of  a  sample  of  clusters  (e.g.  household),  further  sampling  of
individuals  may  be  carried  out  within  each  household  selected.  This   constitutes twostage
sampling, with the PSU being households and the SSU being individuals.

Advantages: less costly, we only need to draw up a list of individuals in the clusters actually
selected, and we can do that when we arrive there.

Disadvantage: less precise than SRS.

When  we  take  a  sample,  our  results  will  not  exactly  equal  the  correct  results   for   the 
whole population. That  is, our   results  will  be  subject  to  errors.   This  error  has  two  
components: sampling and non-sampling errors.

B.   Sampling error (i.e., random error)

Random error, the opposite of reliability (i.e., Precision or repeatability), consists of random
deviations from the true value, which can occur in any direction.

Sampling error (random error) can be minimized by increasing the size of the
sample. Reliability (or precision): This refers to the repeatability of a measure, i.e., the degree
of closeness between repeated measurements of the same value. Reliability addresses the
question,  if  the  same  thing  is  measured  several  times,  how  close  are  the measurements to
each other?

The sources of variation resulting in poor reliability include:

a.   Variation in the characteristic of the subject being measured. Example: blood pressure

b.   The measuring instruments, e.g. questionnaires

c.   The persons collecting the information (observer variation)

Inter-observer variation: differences between observers in measuring the same observation

Intra-observer   variation:   differences   in   measuring   the   same   observation   by   the 
same observer on different occasions.

C.   Non Sampling error (i.e., bias)

Bias, the opposite of validity, consists of systematic deviations from the true value, always in the
same direction.

It is possible to eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error (bias) by careful design of 
thesampling procedure.

Validity: This refers to the degree of closeness between a measurement and the true value of
what is being measured. Validity addresses the question, how close is the measured value to the
true value?

To be accurate, a measuring device must be both valid and reliable. However, if one cannot have
both, validity is more important in situations when we are interested in the absolute value of
what is being measured. Reliability on the other hand is more important when it is not essential
to know the absolute value, but rather we are interested in finding out if there is a trend, or to
rank values.
Examples of types of bias in sampling include:

Bias resulting from incompleteness of the sampling frame: accessibility bias, season ability bias,
self-reporting bias, volunteer bias, non-response bias etc.

Non-response bias refers to failure to obtain information on some of the subjects included in the
sample to be studied. It results in significant bias when the following two situations are both
fulfilled.

1. When non-respondents constitute a significant proportion of the sample.

2. When non-respondents differ significantly from respondents.

The issue of non-response should be considered during the planning stage of the study:

1.   Non-response should be kept to a minimum. E.g. below 15%

Methods that may help in maintaining non-response at a low level could be:

• Training data collectors to initiate contact with study subjects in a respectful way and convince
them about the importance of the given study (this minimizes the refusal type of non-response)

• Offering incentives to encourage participation (this should be done by taking account of the
potential problems that may arise in conducting future research)

• By making repeated attempts (at least 3 times) to contact study subjects who were absent at the
time of the initial visit.

2.   The  number  of  non-responses  should  be  documented  according  to  type,  so  as  to
facilitate an assessment of the extent of bias introduced by non-response.

3.    As much information as possible should be collected on non-respondents, so as to see in

what ways they may differ from respondents.
4.3 Measurements
BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER FOUR: THE RESEARCH DESIGN  4.3 Measurements

Measurement is often viewed as being the basis of all scientific inquiry, and measurement
techniques and strategies  are therefore  an  essential  component of research  methodology. A 
critical juncture between scientific theory and application, measurement can be defined as a
process through which researchers  describe,  explain,  and  predict  the  phenomena  and
constructs  of  our  daily   existence (Kaplan, 1964; Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991). For example,
we measure how long we have lived in years, our financial suc-cess in dollars, and the distance
between two points in miles. Important life decisions are based on performance on standardized
tests that measure intelligence, aptitude, achievement, or individual adjustment. We predict that
certain things will happen as we age, become more educated, or make other significant lifestyle
changes. In short, measurement is as important in our daily existence as it is in the context of
research design.

The concept of measurement is important in research studies in two key areas. First,
measurement enables researchers to quantify abstract constructs and variables. As you may recall
from Chapter 2, research  is  usually    conducted    to    explore    the    relationship    between  
independent    and dependent variables. Variables in a research study typically must be
operationalized and quantified before they can be properly studied (Kerlinger, 1992). For
example, in a study of weight loss, a researcher might operationalize the variable “weight loss”
as a decrease in weight below the individual’s starting weight on a particular date.

The process of quantifying the variable would be relatively simple in this situation—for
example, the amount of weight lost in pounds and ounces during the course of the research study.
Without measurement, researchers would be able to do little else but make unsystematic
observations of the world around us. Second, the level of statistical sophistication used to analyse
data derived from a study is directly dependent on the scale of measurement used to quantify the
variables of interest (Anderson, 1961). There are two basic categories of data: nonmetric and
metric. Nonmetric data (also referred to as qualitative data) are typically attributes,
characteristics, or categories that describe an individual and cannot be quantified. Metric
data (also referred to as quantitative data) exist in differing amounts or degrees, and they reflect
relative quantity or distance. Metric data allow researchers to examine amounts and magnitudes,
while nonmetric data are used predominantly as a method of describing and categorizing (Hair,
Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995).

Importance of Measurement in Research Design

Measurement is important in research design in two critical areas. First, measurement allows
researchers to quantify abstract constructs and variables. Second, the level of statistical
sophistication used to analyze data derived from a study is directly dependent on the scale of
measurement  used to quantify the variables of interest.

4.4 Measurement Scale

As part of the process of clarifying each of the variables to be studied, its scale of measurement
should be specified. There are four types of scales of measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval
and Ratio. They are listed in ascending order of power and preference.

1.   Nominal  Scale:  This  consists  of  two  or  more  named  categories  (classes)  which   are
qualitatively different from each other.

E.g Sex: male (1); Female (2)

Marital status: 1 married 2 single  3 Divorced  4 Widowed

Characteristics of Nominal Measurement Scales and Data

 Used only to qualitatively classify or categorize not to quantify.

 No absolute zero point.
 Cannot be ordered in a quantitative sequence.
 Examples include gender, religious and political affiliation, and maritalstatus.
 Purely descriptive and cannot be manipulated mathematically.

2.   Ordinal scale: This has the additional quality that the categories are ranked and have implied
order. However, the intervals between classes are not necessarily equal.

Example 1. Severity of a disease: Severe (grade III); moderate (grade II); mild (grade I); absent

(grade 0).

Example 2. Educational status: 0; 1-6; 7-8; 9 -12; more than 12.

Characteristics of Ordinal Measurement Scales and Data

• Build on nominal measurement.

• Categorize a variable and its relative magnitude in relation to other variables.

• Represent an ordering of variables with some number representing more than another.

• Information about relative position but not the interval between the ranks or categories.

• Qualitative in nature.

• Example would be finishing position of runners in a race.

• Lack the mathematical properties necessary for sophisticated statistical analyses.

3.   Interval scale: This has the additional quality that the intervals between classes are equal.

Example: Temperature (in Celsius)

Equal differences between any pair of numbers in the scale indicate equal differences in the
attribute being measured. The difference in temperature between 20… C and 25…C is the same
as the difference between 30…C and 35…C. The ratio between numbers in the scale is not,
however, necessarily the same as that between the amounts of the attribute. That is, a room at
30… C is not ‘twice as hot’ as one at 15…C. This is because the zero on the scale does not
indicate absence of the attribute.

Characteristics of Interval Measurement Scales and Data

• Quantitative in nature.

• Build on ordinal measurement.

• Provide information about both order and distance between values of variables.

• Numbers scaled at equal distances.

• No absolute zero point; zero point is arbitrary.

• Addition and subtraction are possible.

• Examples include temperature measured in Fahrenheit and Celsius.

• Lack of an absolute zero point makes division and multiplication impossible.

4.   Ratio scale: This has the additional quality that zero indicates absence of the attribute. As a
result, the ratio between numbers in the scale is the same as that between the amounts of the
attribute being measured.

Example: Weight measured in kilograms, height in cms., etc.

Characteristics of Ratio Measurement Scales and Data

• Identical to the interval scale, except that they have an absolute zero point.

• Unlike with interval scale data, all mathematical operations are possible.

• Examples include height, weight, and time.

• Highest level of measurement.

• Allow for the use of sophisticated statistical techniques.

2.4 Formulating a Research Problem
BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER TWO: FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM  2.4 Formulating a

Research Problem

After selecting a specific research topic and conducting a thorough literature review, you are
ready to take the next step in planning a research study: clearly articulating the research problem.
The research problem  typically takes the form of a concise question regarding the relationship
between two or more variables. Examples of research problems include the following:

(1) Is  the  onset  of  depression  among  elderly  males  related  to  the  development  of  physical
limitations?

(2) What effect does a sudden dip in the Dow Jones Industrial Average have on the economy of
small businesses?

(3) Will a high-fiber, low-fat diet be effective in reducing cholesterol levels among middle-aged
females?

(4) Can  a  memory  enhancement  class  improve  the  memory  functioning  of  patients  with
progressive dementia?

When articulating a research question, it is critically important to make sure that the question  is
specific enough to avoid confusion and to indicate clearly what is being studied. In other words,
the research problem should be composed of a precisely stated research question that clearly
identifies the variables being studied. A vague research question often results in methodological
confusion, because the research question does not clearly indicate what or who is being studied.

The following are some examples of vague and nonspecific research questions:
1.   What effect does weather have on memory?

2.   Does exercise improve physical and mental health?

3.   Does a taking street drug result in criminal behaviour?

As you can see, each of these questions is rather vague, and it is impossible to determine exactly
what is being studied. For example,

 In the first question, what type of weather  is being studied, and memory for what?
 In the second question, is the researcher studying all types of exercise, and the effects of
exercise on the physical and mental health of all people or a specific subgroup of people?
 Finally, in the third question, which street drugs are being studied, and what specific
types of criminal behaviour?

An effective way to avoid confusion in formulating research questions is by using operational

definitions. Through the use of operational definitions, researchers can specifically and clearly
identify what (or who) is being studied (see Kazdin, 1992). As briefly discussed in Chapter 1,
researchers use operational definitions to define key concepts and terms in the specific contexts
of their research studies. The benefit of using operational definitions is that they help to ensure
that everyone is talking about the same phenomenon. Among other things, this will greatly assist
future researchers who attempt to replicate a given study’s results. Obviously, if researchers
cannot determine what or whom is being studied, they will certainly not be able to replicate the
study. Let’s look at an example of how operational definitions can be effectively used when
formulating a research question.

Let’s say that a researcher is interested in studying the effects of large class sizes on the
academic performance of gifted children in highpopulation schools. The research question may
be phrased in the following manner: “What effects do large class sizes have on the academic
performance of gifted children in high-population schools?” This may seem to be a fairly
straightforward research question, but upon closer examination, it should become evident that
there are several important terms and concepts that need to be defined. For example, what
constitutes a “large class”; what does “academic performance” refer to; which kids are
considered “gifted”; and what is meant by “high population schools”?

To reduce confusion, the terms and concepts included in the research question need to be
clarified through the use of operational definitions. For example, “large classes” may be defined
as classes with 30 or more students; “academic performance” may be limited to scores received
on standardized achievement tests; “gifted” children may include only those children who are in
advancedclasses; and “high-population schools” may be defined as schools with more than 1,000
students. Without operationally defining these key terms and concepts, it would be difficult to
determine what exactly is being studied. Further, the specificity of the operational definitions
will allow future researchers to replicate the research study.

Criteria for Research Problems

Good research problems must meet three criteria (see Kerlinger, 1973).

 First, the research problem should describe the relationship between two or more
variables.
 Second, the research problem should take the form of a question.
 Third, the research problem must be capable of being tested empirically (i.e., with data
derived from direct observation and experimentation).

2.5 Specification of Objectives and

Hypotheses
BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER TWO: FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM  2.5 Specification of

Objectives and Hypotheses

Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should be able to:

1.   Describe the need for the development of research objectives

2.   Differentiate between general and specific objectives

3.   Formulate specific objectives and hypotheses

Introduction

Having decided what to study, and knowing why s/he wants to study it, the investigator can now
formulate his study objectives. Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the
problem. For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of health stations in a rural
district, the general objective of the study could be to assess the reasons for this low utilization.
If we break down this general objective into smaller and logically connected parts, then we get
specific objectives.

Definitions

General objectives: aim of the study in general terms

Example: In a study on missed opportunities for EPI in Addis Ababa the general objective was:
“to assess missed opportunities for EPI in Addis Ababa”.

Specific  objectives:  measurable  statements  on  the  specific  questions  to  be  answered.
Unlike  the general  objectives,    the    specific    objectives    are    more    specific    and    are  
related    to    the research problem situation. They indicate the variable to be examined and
measured.

Example: In the study of  missed  opportunity  for  EPI  in  Addis  Ababa  the  specific
objectives could be:
To find out the magnitude of missed opportunities for children who attend OPD, MCH, CDD,
etc. in Addis Ababa,

Formulation of the research objectives

The formulation of objectives will help us to:

• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)

•   Avoid  collection  of  data  that   are   not   strictly   necessary   for   understanding   and 
solving the identified problem

• Organize the study in clearly defined parts

The explicit formulation of study objectives is an essential  step  in  the  planning of  a  study.  It
is said that “a question well-stated is a question half-answered”, but a question that is poorly
stated or unstated is unlikely to be answered at all.

How should we state our objectives?

We have to make sure that our objectives:

• Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in
a logical sequence

• Are clearly expressed in measurable terms

• Are realistic considering local conditions

• Meet the purpose of the study

• Use action verbs that are specific enough to be measured

Examples of action verbs are:

  to determine
 to compare
 to verify
 to calculate
 to describe
 to find out
 to establish

Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as;

 to appreciate
 to understand
 to study
 to believe

Research objectives can be stated as:

•   Questions   –   the   objectives   of   this   study   are   to   answer   the   following   questions 
….

• Positive sentence  – the objectives of this study are to find out, to establish, to determine, …

•  Hypothesis  – the objective of  this  study  is  to  verify  the  following  hypothesis  (examples
are given below)

Based on the type of the study problem, it might be possible  to  develop  explanations  for  the
problem  that  can  be  tested.  If  so,  we  can  formulate  hypotheses  in  addition  to  the  other 
study objectives.

A hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship between one or more variables and the problem
under study. That is,  It specifies the relationship among variables. These variables are to be
statistically tested at a later stage. In order to measure the relationship among variables to be
studied the dependent and independent variables need to be identified. A few examples are given
below:

1. The health of children living in rural villagization projects is better than those living in
traditionalrural communities.

2. To  examine  whether  there  is  any  significant  difference  between  district  “A”  and
district “B”with respect to their malaria prevalence rates

3.  An increase in the frequency of face washing is followed by a reduction in trachoma

prevalence  One of the most important problems usually observed among students is the
tendency of stating too many study  objectives  which  are  not  appropriately  addressed  (or
sometimes will be forgotten) in the sections that follow. It  should  be  noted  that  it  is  on  the
bases  of these specific  objectives  that  the  methods,  results  and  discussion  sections  will  be
presented.

For example,  sample  size  calculations  for  each  stated    objective  and    identifying
(selecting)      the  most   appropriate   sample   size   that   will   answer   the   required   research
questions  is   not  covered in the development of most research proposals. This is also true
during the  write  up  of  the completed  research  work.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  come  across
a situation  in  which  some   of the specific objectives  are  not  addressed  in  the  results
section at  all.  It  is  therefore  advisable to limit the number of specific objectives. In most
practical situations, the number of  specific objectives should not exceed three.

Exercises

1. Define general objectives, specific objectives and hypotheses by giving your own examples.

2. The objectives of a study should be written after the statement of the research problem and
before the methods section. Does this statement sound true? Justify your answer.

3. List the characteristics of research objectives.

4. Comment on the statement: “A question well-stated is a question half-answered”.

5. Mention some of the problems that may arise as a result of having too many objectives.

Articulating Hypotheses

The next step in planning a research study is articulating the hypotheses that will be tested. This
is yet another step in the planning phase of a research study that can be somewhat intimidating
for inexperienced researchers. Articulating hypotheses is truly one of the most important steps in
the research planning process, because poorly articulated hypotheses can ruin what may have
been an otherwise good study. The following discussion regarding hypotheses can get rather
complicated, so we will attempt to keep the discussion relatively short and to the point.

As briefly discussed in Chapter 1, hypotheses  attempt to explain, predict, and explore the
phenomenon of interest. In many types of studies, this means that hypotheses attempt to explain,
predict, and explore the relationship between two or more variables (Kazdin, 1992; see
Christensen, 2001). To this end, hypotheses can be thought of as the researcher’s educated guess
about how the study will turn out. As such, the hypotheses articulated in a particular study should
logically stem from the research problem being investigated.

Before we discuss specific types of hypotheses, there are two important points that you should
keep in mind. First, all hypotheses must be falsifiable. That is, hypotheses must be capable of
being refuted based on the results of the study (Christensen, 2001). This point cannot be
emphasized enough. Put simply, if a researcher’s hypothesis cannot be refuted, then the
researcher is not conducting a scientific investigation. Articulating hypotheses that are not
falsifiable is one sure way to ruin what could have otherwise been a well-conducted and
important research study. Second, as  briefly discussed in Chapter 1, a hypothesis must make
a prediction (usually about the relationship between two or more variables). The predictions 
embodied in hypotheses are subsequently tested empiricallyby gathering and analysing data, and
the hypotheses can then be either supported or refuted.
Now that you have been introduced to the topic of hypotheses, we should turn our attention to
specific types of hypotheses.

There are two broad categories of hypotheses with which you should be familiar.

The first category of research hypotheses, which was briefly discussed in Chapter 1, includes
the null hypothesis and the alternate (or experimental) hypothesis. In research studies involving
two groups of participants (e.g., experimental group vs. control group), the null hypothesis
always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups being studied (Kazdin,
1992). If, however, a particular research study does not involve groups of study participants, but
instead involves only an examination of selected  variables,  the  null  hypothesis  predicts  that 
there  will be  no  relationship  between  the variables being studied. By contrast, the alternate
hypothesis always predicts that there will be a difference between the groups being studied (or a
relationship between the variables being studied). Let’s  look  at  an  example  to  clarify  the
distinction  between  null   hypotheses   and   alternate hypotheses. In a research study
investigating the effects of a newly developed medication on blood pressure levels, the null
hypothesis would predict that there will be no difference in terms of blood pressure levels
between the group that receives the medication (i.e., the experimental group) and the group  that
does  not  receive  the  medication  (i.e.,  the  control  group).  By  contrast,  the  alternate
hypothesis would predict that there will be a difference between the two groups with respect to
blood pressure levels. So, for example, the alternate hypothesis may predict that the group that
receives the new medication will experience a greater reduction in blood pressure levels than the
group that does not receive the new medication.

It is not uncommon for research studies to include several null and al- ternate hypotheses. The
number of null and alternate hypotheses included in a particular research study depends on the
scope and complexity of the study and the specific questions being asked by the researcher. It is
important to keep in mind that the number of hypotheses being tested has implications for the
number of research participants that will be needed to conduct the study. This last point rests on
rather complex statistical concepts that we will not discuss in this section. For our purposes, it is
sufficient to remember that as the number of hypotheses increases, the number of required
participants also typically increases.

In scientific research, keep in mind that it is the null hypothesis that is tested, and then the null
hypothesis is either confirmed or refuted (sometimes phrased as rejected or not rejected).
Remember, if the null hypothesis is rejected (and that decision is based on the results of
statistical analyses, which will be discussed in later chapters), the researcher can reasonably
conclude that there is a difference between the groups being studied (or a relationship between
the variables being studied). Rejecting the null hypothesis allows a researcher to not reject the
alternate hypothesis, and not rejecting a hypothesis is the most we can do in scientific research.
To be clear, we can never accept  a hypothesis; we can only fail to reject  a hypothesis (as was
briefly discussed in Chapter 1). Accordingly, researchers typically seek to reject the null
hypothesis, which empirically demonstrates that the groups being studied differ on the variables
being examined in the study. This last point may seem counterintuitive, but it is an extremely
important concept that you should keep in mind.

Directional Hypotheses and Non-directional Hypotheses

The second category of research hypotheses includes directional hypotheses and non-directional
hypotheses. In research studies involving groups of study participants, the decision regarding
whether to use a directional or a non-directional hypothesis is based on whether the researcher
has some idea about  how  the  groups  being  studied  will  differ.  Specifically,  researchers  use
non    directional hypotheses  when they believe that the groups will differ, but they do not have a
belief regarding how the  groups  will  differ  (i.e.,  in  which  direction  they  will  differ).  By 
contrast,   researchers   use directional hypotheses when they believe that the groups being
studied will differ, and  they have a belief regarding how the groups will differ (i.e., in a
particular direction).

A  simple  example  should  help  clarify  the  important  distinction  between  directional  and
non- directional hypotheses. Let’s say that a researcher is using a standard two-group design (i.e.,
one experimental group and one control  group) to investigate the effects of a memory
enhancement class on  college students’  memories.  At  the  beginning  of the  study,  all  of  the 
study  participants   are randomly assigned to one of the two groups. Subsequently, one group
(i.e., the experimental group) will be exposed to the memory enhancement class and the other
group (i.e., the control group) will not be exposed to the memory enhancement class. Afterward,
all of the participants in both groups will be administered a memory test. Based on this research
design, any observed differences between the two groups on the memory test can reasonably be
attributed to the effects of the memory enhancement class.

In this example, the researcher has several options in terms of hypotheses. On the one hand, the
researcher may simply hypothesize that there will be a difference between the two groups on the
memory test. This would be an example of a non-directional hypothesis, because the researcher
is hypothesizing that the two groups will differ, but the researcher is not specifying how the two
groups will differ. Alternatively, the researcher could hypothesize that the participants who are
exposed to the memory enhancement class will perform better on the memory test than the
participants who are not exposed to the memory enhancement class. This would be an example
of a directional hypothesis, because the researcher is hypothesizing that the two groups will
differ and specifying how the two groups will differ (i.e., one group will perform better than the
other group on the memory test). See the following  comparison  for  a  tip  on  how  to
distinguish  between  directional  and  non-directional hypotheses.

Non-directional Hypotheses vs. Directional Hypotheses

A reliable way to tell the difference between directional and nondirectional hypotheses is to look
at the wording of the hypotheses. If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a difference
between the two groups, then it is a nondirectional hypothesis. It is nondirectional because it
predicts that there will be a difference but does not specify how the groups will differ. If,
however, the hypothesis uses so- called comparison terms, such as “greater,”“less,”“better,” or
“worse,” then it is a directional hypothesis. It is directional because it predicts that there will be a
difference between the two groups and it specifies how the two groups will differ.
2.6 Concepts and Variables
BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER TWO: FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM  2.6 Concepts and

Variables

What is Concepts?

Concepts are general or abstract ideas that express the social and/or economic phenomena to be
studied. They are the subjects of inquiry and analysis that are of interest to users.

Concepts are highly subjective in nature and that makes it difficult to use them as they are in a
research study. These subjective thoughts cannot be measured on a statistical scale. Kumar
(2000) says that concepts are mental images and therefore their meanings vary markedly from
individual to individual. Concepts are subjective impressions and their understanding will differ
from person to person, which, if measured, would cause problems in comparing responses.
Concepts should be converted into variables so that they can be measured, although on different
scales same variable will have different precision.

If the researcher is using some concepts in his research he needs to find out some indicators that
are reflective of these concepts. these indicators can be chosen subjectively by the researcher but
they should have a logical link with the concept. The indicators can then be converted into
variables.

Example:

1.   Take an example of the effectiveness of a medicine in curing a disease, the researcher can
use the indicators: changes in the mortality rate, changes in morbidity, changes in recurrence of
that disease, or prevention from that disease. These indicators can then be converted into variable
to be able to be measured.

2.   We can take another example of another concept that is how rich someone can be? To
measure this concept you need an indicator and you can measure someone’s richness from his
wealth that he possesses. This wealth can be in the form of his income, money in his bank
accounts, owned houses or other property and so on.

3.   A psychologist might want to test the  effectiveness of his counselling to patients with
anxiety. Effectiveness is a concept and you cannot measure it on any statistical scale. He can
operationalize his concept  of  effectiveness  of  his  counselling  treatment  into  the  following
indicators:  percentage reduction in patients’ anxiety, reduction in his day offs from the
workplace, reduction in his visits to the psychologist office etc.

Without converting your concept into an indicator and then a variable you cannot measure it on
any scale. The subjectivity of these indicators make them not suitable to be used directly in a
research project. It should also be noted that the extent of variation can only be reduced by
operationalizing these concepts, it cannot be eliminated completely.

What is Variables?

Variables are measurable of course, with varying degree of accuracy. Measurability is the main
difference between concepts and variables. A variable can be measured either using crude or
refined method or either using subjective or objective methods. There are various scales and a
variable can be measured on either one of those scales. The statistical variables can be measured
on either nominal, ordinal, ratio or interval scale. This ability of the variables brings objectivity
in the research findings.

A s variables are capable of measurement they can take different values and every variable can
have different values. Generally speaking variables can be either independent variable or
dependent variable. There can also be extraneous and intervening variables

We are now very close to beginning the actual study, but there are still a few things remaining to
do before we begin collecting data. Before proceeding any further, it would probably be helpful
for us to take a moment and see where we are in this process of planning a research study. So far,
we have discussed how researchers
(1) come up with researchable ideas;

(2) conduct thorough literature reviews to see what has been done in their topic areas (and, if 
necessary,  to  refine the focus  of their  studies  based  on  the  results  of  the  prior research);

(3) formulate concise research problems with clearly defined concepts and terms (using
operational definitions); and

(4) Articulate falsifiable hypotheses.

We have certainly accomplished quite a bit, but there is still a little more to do  beforebeginning
the study itself. The next step in planning a research study is identifying what variables will be
the focus of the study.

There are many categories of variables that can appear in research  studies. However, rather than
discussing every conceivable one, we will focus our attention on the most commonly used
categories. Although not every research study will include all of these variables, it is important
that you are aware of the differences among the categories and when each type of variable may
be used.

Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables

When discussing variables, perhaps the most important distinction is between independent and
dependent variables. The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or controlled by
the researcher. In most studies, researchers are interested in examining the effects of the
independent variable. In its simplest form, the independent variable has two levels: present or
absent. For example, in a research study investigating the effects of a new type of psychotherapy
on symptoms of anxiety, one group will be exposed to the psychotherapy and one group will not
be exposed to the psychotherapy. In this example, the independent variable is the psychotherapy,
because the researcher can  control  whether  the  study  participants  are  exposed  to  it  and  the
researcher  is  interested  in examining the effects of the psychotherapy on symptoms of anxiety.
As you may already know, the group in which the independent variable is present (i.e., that is
exposed to the psychotherapy) is referred to as the experimental group, whereas the group in
which the independent variable is not present (i.e., that is not exposed to the psychotherapy) is
referred to as the control group.

Although, in its simplest form, an independent variable has only two levels (i.e., present or
absent), it is certainly not uncommon for an independent variable to have more than two levels.
For example, in a research study examining the effects of a new medication on symptoms of
depression, the researcher may include three groups in the study—one control group and two
experimental groups.As usual, the control group would not get the medication (or would get a
placebo), while one experimental group may get a lower dose of the medication and the other
experimental group may geta higher dose of the medication. In this example, the independent
variable (i.e., medication) consists ofthree levels: absent, low, and high. Other levels of
independent variables are, of course, also possible,  such  as low, medium, and high; or absent,
low, medium, and high. Researchers make decisions regarding the number of levels of an
independent variable based on a careful consideration of several  factors, including the number
of available study participants, the degree of specificity of results they desire to achieve with the
study, and the associated financial costs.

It is also common for a research study to include multiple independent variables, perhaps with
each of the independent variables consisting of multiple levels. For example, a researcher may
attempt to investigate the effects of both medication and psychotherapy on symptoms of
depression. In this example, there are two independent variables (i.e., medication and
psychotherapy), and each independent variable could potentially consist of multiple levels (e.g.,
low, medium, and high doses of medication; cognitive behavioral therapy, psychodynamic
therapy, and rational emotive therapy). As you can see, things have a tendency to get
complicated fairly quickly when researchers use multiple independent variables with multiple
levels.

At this point in the discussion,  you should be actively resisting the urge to be intimidated by the
material presented so far in this chapter. We have covered quite a bit of information, and it is
getting more complicated as we go. Keeping track of the different categories and types of
variables can certainly be difficult, even for those of us with considerable research experience. If
you are getting confused, it may be helpful to reduce things to their simplest terms. In the case of
independent variables, the important point to keep in mind is that researchers are interested in
examining the effects of an independent variable on something, and that something is the
dependent variable (Isaac & Michael, 1997). Let’s now turn our attention to dependent variables.

The dependent variable is a measure of the effect (if any) of the independent variable. For
example, a researcher may be interested in examining the effects of a new medication on
symptoms of depression among college students. In this example, prior to administering any
medication, the researcher would most likely administer a valid and reliable measure of
depression—such as the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, &
Erbaugh, 1961)—to a group of study participants. The Beck Depression Inventory is a well-
accepted self-report inventory of symptoms of depression. Administering a measure of
depression to the study participants prior to administering any medication allows the researcher
to obtain what is called a baseline measure of depression, which simply means a measurement of
the levels of depression that are present prior to the administration of any intervention (e.g.,
psychotherapy, medication). The researcher then randomly assigns the study participants to two
groups, an experimental group that receives the new medication and  a control group that does
not receive the new medication (perhaps its members are administered a placebo).

After administering the medication (or not administering the medication, for  the  control group),
the researcher would then re-administer the Beck Depression Inventory to all of  the participants
in both groups. The    researcher now has two Beck Depression Inventory scores for eachof the
participants in both groups—one score from before the medication was administered and one
score from after the medication was administered. By the way, this type of research design is
referred to as a pre/post design, because the dependent variable is measured both before and
after the intervention is administered. These two depression scores can then be compared to
determine whether the medication had any effect on the levels of depression. Specifically, if the
scores on the Beck Depression Inventory decrease (which indicates lower levels of depression)
for the participants in the experimental group, but not for the participants in the control group,
thenthe researcher can reasonably conclude that the medication was effective in reducing
symptoms of depression. To be more precise, for the researcher to conclude that the medication
was effective in reducing symptoms of depression, there would need to be a statistically
significant difference in Beck Depression Inventory scores between the experimental group and
the control group, but we will put that point aside for the moment.

Before proceeding any further, take a moment and see whether you can identify  the independent
and dependent variables in our example. Have you figured it out? In this example, thenew
medication is the independent variable because it is under the researcher’s control and
theresearcher is interested in measuring its effect. The Beck Depression Inventory score is the
dependent variable because it is a measure of the effect of the independent variable. When
students are exposed to research terminology for the first time, it is not uncommon for them to
confuse the independent and dependent variables. Fortunately, there is an easy way to remember
the difference between the two. If you get confused, think of the independent variable as the
“cause” and the dependent variable as the “effect.” To assist you in this process, it may be
helpful if you practice stating your research question in the following manner: “What are the
effects of     on        ?”  The  first  blank  is  the  independent  variable  and  the second blank is
the dependent variable. For example, we may ask the following research question: “What are the
effects ofexercise on levels of body fat?”

In this example, “exercise” is the independent variable and “levels of body fat” is  the dependent
variable. The following summarizes the distinction between the two;

Independent Variables and Dependent Variables

The independent variable is called “independent” because it is independent of the outcome being
measured. More specifically, the independent variable is what causes or influences the outcome.

The dependent variable is called “dependent” because it is influenced by the independent

variable. For example, in our hypothetical study examining the effects of medication  on
symptoms of depression, the measure of depression is the dependent variable because it is
influenced by (i.e., is dependent on) the independent variable (i.e., the medication).

Now that we know the difference between independent and dependent variables, we should focus
our attention on how researchers choose  these  variables  for  inclusion  in  their  research
studies. An important point to keep in mind is that the researcher selects the independent  and
dependent variables based  on  the  research  problem  and  the  hypotheses.  In  many  ways, 
this  simplifies  the process  of selecting  variables by requiring the selection of  independent and
dependent  variables to flow logically from the statement of the research problem and the
hypotheses. Once the research problem and the hypotheses are articulated, it should not take too
much effort to identify the independent and dependent variables.

Perhaps another example will clarify this important point. Suppose that a researcher is interested 
in examining  the  relationship  between  intake  of  dietary  fiber  and  the  incidence  of  colon
cancer among elderly males. The research problem may be stated in the following manner:
“Does increased consumption of dietary fiber result in a decreased incidence of colon cancer
among elderly males?” Using our suggested phrasing from the previous paragraph, we could also
ask the following question: “What are the effects of dietary fiber consumption  on  the
incidence  of  colon  cancer among elderly males?”  Following  logically  from  this  research
problem,  the  researcher   may  hypothesize  the following: “High levels of dietary fiber
consumption will decrease the incidence of colon cancer among elderly males.” Obviously,
several terms in this hypothesis need to be operationally defined, but we can skip that step for the
purposes of the current example. It takes only a cursory examination of the research problem and
related hypothesis to determine the independent variable and dependent variable  for  this  study.
Have  you  figured  it  out  yet?  Because  the  researcher is  interested  in examining the effects
of consuming dietary fiber on the incidence of colon cancer, “dietary fiber consumption” is the
independent variable and a measure of the “incidence of colon cancer” is the dependent variable.

Categorical Variables vs. Continuous Variables

Now that you are familiar with the difference between independent and dependent variables,we
will turn our attention to another category of variables with which you should be familiar. The
distinction between  categorical  variables  and  continuous  variables  frequently  arises  in  the 
context  of  many research studies. Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific
values only within a defined range of values. For example, “gender” is a categorical variable
because you can either be male or female. There is no middle ground when it comes to gender;
you can either be male or female; you must be one, and you cannot be both. “Race,” “marital
status,” and “hair color” are other common examples of categorical variables. Although this may
sound obvious, it is often helpful to think of categorical variables as consisting of discrete,
mutually exclusive categories, such as “male/female,” “White/Black,”
“single/married/divorced,” and “blonde/brunette/redhead.” In contrast with categorical
variables,    continuous    variables    are    variables    that    can    theoretically    take     on   
any value along a continuum. For example, “age” is a continuous variable because, theoretically
at least, someone  can  be  any  age.  “Income,”  “weight,”  and  “height”  are  other  examples
of   continuous variables. As we will see, the type of data produced from using categorical
variables differs from the type of data produced from using continuous variables.

In some circumstances, researchers may decide to convert some continuous variables into
categorical variables. For example, rather than using “age” as a continuous variable, a researcher
maydecide to make  it  a  categorical  variable  by creating  discrete  categories  of  age,  such  as
“under  age 40” or “age 40 or older.” “Income,” which is often treated as a continuous variable,
may instead be treated as a categorical variable by creating dis-crete categories of income, such
as “under $25,000 per year,” “$25,000– $50,000 per year,” and “over $50,000 per year.” The
benefit of using continuous variables is that they can be measured with a higher degree of
precision. For example, it is more informative to record someone’s age as “47 years old”
(continuous) as opposed to “age 40 or older” (categorical). The use of continuous variables gives
the researcher access to more specific data.

Categorical Variables vs. Continuous Variables

The decision of whether to use categorical or continuous variables will have an effect on the
precision of the data that are obtained. When compared with categorical variables, continuous
variables can be measured with a greater degree of precision. In addition, the choice of which
statistical tests will be used  to  analyze  the  data  is  partially  dependent  on  whether  the 
researcher  uses  categorical   or continuous variables. Certain statistical tests are appropriate for
categorical variables, while other statistical tests are appropriate for continuous variables. As
with many decisions in the research- planning process, the choice of which type of variable to
use is partially dependent on the question that the researcher is attempting to answer.

Quantitative Variables vs. Qualitative Variables

Finally, before moving on to a different topic, it would behoove us to briefly discuss the
distinction between qualitative variables and quantitative variables. Qualitative variables  are
variables that vary in kind,  while  quantitative variables  are those  that  vary in  amount  (see
Christensen,  2001).  This is an important yet subtle distinction that frequently arises in research
studies, so let’s take a look at a few examples.

Rating something as “attractive” or “not attractive,” “helpful” or “not helpful,” or “consistent” or

“not consistent” are examples of qualitative variables. In these examples, the variables are
considered qualitative because they vary in  kind  (and not  amount).  For example, the thing
being rated is either “attractive” or “not attractive,” but there is no indication of the level (or
amount) of attractiveness. By contrast, reporting the number of times that something happened or
the number of times that someone engaged in  a  particular  behaviour  are  examples  of 
quantitative  variables. These variables are considered quantitative because they provide
information regarding the amount of something.

As stated at the beginning of this section, there are several other categories of variables that we
will not be discussing in this text. What we have covered in this section are the major categories
that most commonly appear in research studies. One final comment is necessary. It is important
to keep in mind that a single variable may fit into several of the categories that we have
discussed. For example, the variable “height” is both continuous (if measured along a
continuum) and quantitative (because weare getting information regarding the amount of height).
Along similar lines, the variable “eye color”is both categorical (because there is a limited
number of discrete categories of eye color) and qualitative (because eye colour varies in kind, not
amount).                                                                                          

If this discussion of variables still seems confusing to you, take comfort in the fact that even
seasoned researchers can still get turned around on these issues. As with most aspects of
research, repeated exposure to (and experience with) these concepts tends to breed a comfortable
level of familiarity. So, the next time you come across a research study, practice identifying the
different types of variables that we have discussed in this section

1.   What is literature review?

2.   Why researcher Review other previous study?

3.   How to write the literature review on the proposed study?

4.   What is variable in research?

5.   What are hypotheses in research methodology?

6.   How To write a research proposal?

7.   How to write objective of the study?

5.5 Report Writing

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA  5.5 Report Writing

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a
systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the
research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that
clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-
written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas
of the research process. So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are
some of the basic features that define a research report.

•   It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables
and graphs.

•   It is written in a formal language.

•   A research report is usually written in the third person.

•   It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.

•   It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.

•   It always includes recommendations for future actions.

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If
you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and
if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report.

Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-
based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical
audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study.
In  a technical  research  report,  the  researcher is  expected  to  provide  specific information 
about  the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of
language is highly specialized and filled with jargon.

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports.

Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not
necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make
information accessible to everyone.

It  is  written  in  very  simple  language,  which  makes  it  easy  to  understand  the   findings
and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in
newspapers and magazines.

Importance of a Research Report

•   Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is
to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report.
A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic
investigation to all and sundry.

•   Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify

knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at
other areas needing systematic investigation.

•   In  market  research,  a  research  report  would  help  you  understand  the  market  needs  and
peculiarities at a glance.

•   A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner.
•   It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time
detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via
email and have stakeholders look at it.

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different
requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken
down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

•   Title

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the
aims, objectives, and findings of a research report.

•   Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

•   Abstract

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the
research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a
summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner.

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of
your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and
How.

•   Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as
the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report
introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or
would require more work. In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research
problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is
expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.

•   Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words,
it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are
relevant to your systematic investigation.

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your
research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its
possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study.

•   An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and
research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process
including the data collection and analysis procedures.

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and
other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report,
you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research
including interviews and focus groups.

•   Findings

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation.

•   Discussion
This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected
to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your
hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

•   Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the
entire study.

•   References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources.

Written and oral Reports

Presenting a quality presentation of research findings can have an inordinate effect on a reader’s
or a listener’s perceptions of a study’s quality. The oral presentations of research findings should
be developed with concern for organization, visual aids, and delivery in unique communication
settings. Presentation quality can enhance or detract from what might otherwise be excellent
research.

A final report, which documents the methodology and findings of the research, is an essential
requirement of the every research project. The researcher has an obligation to report failures, as
well as successes, so that others can benefit from the experiences. Other researchers may be able
to modify the procedures used in an unsuccessful study to produce a positive outcome. But this
can only be done if the unsuccessful study is documented properly. One can also argue that
research reports are more likely to be written, and to  a  higher  standard,  in  agencies  which
have  a  strong  research  function.  While  this  is  largely  a management and organizational
issue, it is a fact that when staff performs research studies that also have line responsibilities,
there are pressures to use the results and little incentive to document the findings. Conversely,
when  research  is  conducted  in  accordance  with  a  plan,  by  staff  that  recognizes  the
importance of reports, especially if they can call on the assistance of an editor and report
production staff, there is a much greater probability that a high quality report will materialize.
Writing a report is hard work, which may be why some reports are never completed! There is no
single way to write a report with respect to organization, content or format. However, there are a
number of guidelines, which make the task easier, and improve the quality of the final product.
The other form of publication of interest to the transportation community is the scientific paper.
A paper is often written after a final report because, as discussed in Chapter One, publication,
especially in a peer-reviewed journal, increases the awareness of the study, and contributes to the
professional reputation of the authors. A paper is not a substitute for a final report because
limitations on the length of papers usually mean that data, explanations and mathematical
derivations must be condensed.

Writing style

A scientific paper is a formal text written in an impersonal, objective, neutral and professional
way. The writing is concise with specific wordings and formulations. The writing should be clear
as well and lead to a deeper understanding of the subject.

1. Avoid colloquial or informal language. Eliminate all ‘filler’ and needless words. Biased
language is not acceptable in academic writing.

2. Avoid personal or familiar language. Do not directly address the reader and do not ask
rhetorical questions. Remember that the use of personal pronouns does not fit into an objective,
scientific paper.

3. Avoid ambiguous, imprecise or vague words such as ‘various’, ‘some’, ‘particular’,

‘numerous’. Try to avoid impersonal expressions. Be clear, concrete, specific, precise and direct.
If possible, choose specific wordings which will lead to more concise writing.

4. Do not use ‘wordy’ expressions either. To illustrate:

✓   ‘Since’ or ‘because’ are easier to read than ‘for the reason that’ or ‘owing to the fact that’.
✓   ‘Although’ is easier to read than ‘despite the fact that’ or ‘regardless of the fact that’.

✓   ‘If’ is easier to read than ‘in the event that’

Written language

Scientific papers should be written with correct grammar, spelling and punctuation.

1. Write out numbers at the beginning of a sentence.

2. Spell out cardinal numbers from one to nine and ordinal numbers from first to ninth. Numbers
below 10 are usually written as words. Also write out hundred, thousand and million in words.
Please consider the following exceptions:

Write the number in numerals if numbers have been measured or calculated, followed by a unit
of measurement. Usually, a space is inserted between the number and the unit.

3. Writing correctly punctuated sentences is essential to enhance readability:

✓   Do not forget punctuation.

✓   Make sure you are using punctuation marks correctly. Do not use• commas instead of full
stops.

To separate items in a list, use a colon. Commas are used between each item (use a semicolon if
you are including the items on a separate line in the text) and end the last item in the list with a
full stop.

✓   Do not use excessive punctuation.

3.3 Criteria of Good Research

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER THREE: THE RESEARCH PROCESS  3.3 Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on thecommon ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria:

1.   The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

2.   The  research  procedure  used  should  be  described  in  sufficient  detail  to  permit  another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.

3.   The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objectiveas possible.

4.   The  researcher  should  report  with  complete  frankness,  flaws  in  procedural  design  and
estimate theireffects upon the findings.

5.   The  analysis  of  data  should  be  sufficiently  adequate  to  reveal  its  significance  and  the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.

6.   Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those forwhich the data provide an adequate basis.

7.   Greater  confidence  in  research  is  warranted  if  the  researcher  is  experienced,  has  a
good reputation inresearch and is a person of integrity.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:

1.   Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2.   Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the
process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise.
In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.

3.   Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.

3.1 Major Steps in the Research Process

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER THREE: THE RESEARCH PROCESS  3.1 Major Steps in the Research Process

Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a briefoverview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The
chart shown in Figure 3.1 well illustrates a research process.

A Research process
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the
very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject- matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially
the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the
problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a
working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a
specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two
steps are involved in formulating the research  problem,  viz.,  understanding  the  problem
thoroughly,  and  rephrasing  the  same  into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having someexpertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the
help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it
down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental
organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the
researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and whatconsiderations are
involved in its possible solutions.

The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature the conceptual literature
concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research  problem  in  a  meaningful  context.  After  this
the  researcher  rephrases  the  problem  into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the
problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research
problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from
irrelevant ones. Care must be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts
concerning the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the
objective is of basic importance because it determines the data which are to be collected, the
characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of
techniques to be used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are certain
pertinent terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the
problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number
of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one
phrased in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and
resources.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write
a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for
approval. At this juncture the  researcher  should  undertake  extensive  literature  survey
connected  with  the  problem.  For  this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature
of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The
earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in-hand, should be carefully studied. A good
library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should

state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide
the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the  analysis.  In  most
types  of  research,  the  development  of working hypothesis  plays  an  important  role.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to
be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research
and to keep him on the  right track. It sharpens his thinking and  focuses attention on the more
important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of
methods of data analysis to be used.

How  does  one  go  about  developing  working  hypotheses?  The  answer  is  by  using  the
following approach:

(a)  Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking asolution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiaritiesand other clues;

(c)  Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and

(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.

Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of
the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested
parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It
may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not
need working hypotheses,  especially  in  the  case  of  exploratory  researches  which  do  not
aim  at   testing  the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in
another basic step of the research process in most research problems.

4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other
words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends
mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,

(i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research
design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when the
purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between
variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the
data collected and analyzed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis 
testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without
control, after- only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as
completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and
complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher  must select one for his own project. The
preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually
the consideration of the following:

(i)   the means of obtaining the information;

(ii)  the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);

(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and thereasoning leading to the selection;

(iv) the time available for research; and

(v)   the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It canbe presumed that in such an inquiry when all the
items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice
this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and
larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the
element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a
city’s 200 drugstores in a  certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either
probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a
known probability of being included in the sample but the non- probability samples do not allow
the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified  sampling,  cluster/area  sampling  whereas
non- probability  samples  are  those  based  on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and
quota sampling techniques. A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:

(i)      Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability

sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of
the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population elements
are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience
sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed
number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations. This  would  be an 
example of convenience  sample of gasoline buyers.  At  times  such  a procedure may give very
biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous. On the other hand,
in judgment sampling  the researcher’sjudgment is used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population. For example, a judgement sample of college students might be
taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is used quite
frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather
than to generalize to larger populations.

(ii)     Simple  random  sampling:  This  type  of  sampling  is  also  known  as  chance  sampling
or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the
same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items  from
a universe  of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on
slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another method of
random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then,
300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select some random
starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might
start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and
then move to the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds the limit of the
numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next number
selected that does fall within the relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a
completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an
equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a
random sample is controlled by the same probability and that successive selections are
independent of one another.

(iii)    Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select
every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this
type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this
kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This
procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the
selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is
selected until the desired number is secured.

(iv)    Stratified sampling:  If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-
overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the
items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first
stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

(v)     Quota sampling:  In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different
strata, the actualselection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is
called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the
size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than
random samples.
(vi)    Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population
and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued
its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list
of 15,000 card holders  could  be  formed  into  100  clusters  of  150  card holders each. Three
clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size  must  often  be  larger
than  the  simple  random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster
sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error are usually accentuated.
The clustering approach can, however, make the  sampling procedure relatively easier and
increase the efficiency of field work, especially in thecase of personal interviews.

(vii)   Area sampling  is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total 
area into  a  number of smaller non-overlapping  areas,  generally  called  geographical clusters,
then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are
included in the sample. Area sampling is especially helpful where we do not have the list of the
population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can
do many interviews at each location.

(viii)  Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This

technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an
entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units  such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.
If the technique of random- sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described
as multi-stage random sampling.

(ix)    Sequential   sampling:  This  is  somewhat  a  complex  sample  design  where  the
ultimate size  of  the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical
decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually
adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same
study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally
one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be
estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small
and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under
which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like
convenience and low costs. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher
taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal ofthe researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help
of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can
be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i)        By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of

investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained
relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or
future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and
the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable
in inquiries where large samples are concerned.

(ii)     Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of
collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of
the interviewer to a large extent.
(iii)    Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays
an important role inindustrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to
be accomplished in a verylimited time.

(iv)    By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact
with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents
with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in
various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for
testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveal the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information.

(v)     Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents   with these  schedules.  Data  are  collected  by  filling  up  the  schedules  by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of
enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the
enumerators may ensure sincere work.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration
the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time
and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much
depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very
aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and
experiences the chief teacher.

7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would
be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine- processed. In such a situation, questions as well as
the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The training
may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the
interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers
are doing their assigned job sincerely  and efficiently.  A  careful  watch  should  be kept  for
unanticipated  factors  in  order  to  keep  the  survey  as  much realistic as possible. This, in other
words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so
that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some
of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this
problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-
respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous
efforts can be made for securing response.

8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should
classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually
done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure  that  improves  the  quality  of  the  data  for 
coding.  With  coding  the  stage  is  ready  for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical
procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can
be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by
computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of
variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

Analysis  work  after  tabulation  is  generally  based  on  the  computation  of  various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the
process of analysis, relationships  or  differences  supporting  or  conflicting  with  original  or
new  hypotheses  should  be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly
wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts  of the same city, giving two
different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly
different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can
establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the
difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two samples come from different
universes and if the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples
belong to the same universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in
analyzing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly
different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the help of
various statistical measures.

9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to

test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the  facts support the  hypotheses or
they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing
hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The  hypotheses  may  be tested through the use of one or more of
such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will
result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to
start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be
testedby subsequent researches in times to come.

10.   Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it

may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter
of fact, the real value of research  lies  in its  ability  to  arrive at  certain  generalizations.  If the
researcher had  no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process ofinterpretation may quite often trigger
off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
11.     Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report
of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view
the following:

1.   The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and
(iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of
tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main text of the report should
have the following parts:

a.   Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study
along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

b.   Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should
besummarized.

c.   Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken- down into readily identifiable sections.

d.   Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results
of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.
Index should also be given specially in a published research report.

2.   Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding  vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3.   Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.

4.   Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.

Chater 1

1.1 What is Research?

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER ONE: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH  1.1 What is Research?

Definition: Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. It is
the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate new knowledge and
answer a certain question or solve a problem.

Research is the process of discovering new knowledge. This knowledge can be either the
development of new concepts or the advancement of existing knowledge and theories, leading to
a new understanding that was not previously known.

The purpose of research is to enhance society by advancing knowledge through the development
of scientific theories, concepts and ideas. A research purpose is met through forming hypotheses,
collecting data,  analysing  results,  forming  conclusions,  implementing  findings  into  real-life
applications  and forming new research questions.

Characteristics of research

 It demands a clear statement of the problem

 It requires a plan (it is not aimlessly “ looking” for something in the hope that you will
come across a solution)
 It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings
  New data should be collected as required and be organized in such a way that they
answer the research question(s)

However,  we  will  focus  on  two  of  the  most  common  types  of  research  correlational
research and experimental research.

From weather forecasts to the discovery of antibiotics, researchers are constantly trying to find
new ways to understand the world and how things work – with the ultimate goal of improving
our lives.

The purpose of research is therefore to find out what is known, what is not and what we can
develop further. In this way, scientists can develop new theories, ideas and products that shape
our society and our everyday lives.

The purpose of research is to further understand the world and to learn how this knowledge can
be applied to better everyday life. It is an integral part of problem solving.

Although research can take many forms, there are three main purposes of research:

Exploratory:  Exploratory research is the first research to be conducted around a problem that
has not yet been clearly defined. Exploration research therefore aims to gain a better
understanding of the exact nature of the problem and not to provide a conclusive answer to the
problem itself. This enables us to conduct more in-depth research later on.

1.   Descriptive: Descriptive research expands knowledge of a research problem or phenomenon

by describing it according to its characteristics and population. Descriptive research focuses on
the ‘how’ and ‘what’, but not on the ‘why’.

2.   Explanatory: Explanatory research, also referred to as casual research, is conducted to

determine how variables interact, i.e. to identify cause-and-effect relationships. Explanatory
research deals with the ‘why’ of research questions and is therefore often based on experiments.
1.2 Research and Theory
BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER ONE: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH  1.2 Research and Theory

A theory is a conceptualization, or description, of a phenomenon that attempts to integrate all

that we know about the phenomenon into a concise statement or question.

Finally, theories often serve as a good source for research ideas. Theories can serve several
purposes, but in the research context, they typically function as a rich source of hypotheses that
can be examined empirically. This brings us to an important point that should not be glossed
over— specifically, that research ideas (and the hypotheses and research designs that follow
from those ideas) should be based on some theory (Serlin, 1987). For example, a researcher may
have a theory regarding the development of depression among elderly males. In this example, the
researcher may theorize that elderly males become depressed due to their reduced ability to
engage in enjoyable physical activities. This hypothetical theory, like most other theories, makes
a prediction. In this instance, the theory makes a specific prediction about what causes
depression among elderly males. The predictions suggested by theories can often be transformed
into testable hypotheses that can then be examined empirically in the context of a research study.

Throughout this discussion, you may have noticed that we have not commented on the quality of
the research idea. Instead, we have limited our discussion thus far to how researchers choose
research ideas, and not to whether those ideas are good ideas. There are many situations,
however,in which the quality of the research idea is of paramount importance. For example,
when submitting a research proposal as part of a grant application, the quality of the research
idea is an important consideration in the funding decision. Although judging whether a research
idea is good may     appearto be somewhat subjective,  there are some  generally  accepted
criteria that  can  help  in  this  determination.  Is  the research  idea  creative?  Will  the  results
of  the  research  study  make  a  valuable  and  significant contribution to the literature or
practice in a particular field? Does the research study  address a question that is considered
important in the field? Questions like these can often be answered by looking through the
existing literature to see how the particular research study fits into the bigger picture. So, let’s
turn our attention to the logical next step in the planning phase  of a research study: the literature
review.

1.3 The Scientific Approach

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER ONE: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH  1.3 The Scientific

Approach

The scientific   approach is   an empirical method   of   acquiring knowledge that   has 
characterized   the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable
practitioners in previous centuries). It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism
about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can   distort   how   one   interprets   the
observation.   It   involves   formulating hypotheses, via induction,     based     on     such   
observations; experimental and     measurement-based     testing of deductions drawn from the
hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental
findings.

1.3.1    Overview of science and the scientific method

In  simple  terms,  science  can  be  defined  as  a  methodological  and  systematic  approach  to 
the acquisition of new knowledge. This definition of science highlights some of the key
differences between how scientists and non-scientists go about acquiring new knowledge.
Specifically, rather than relying on mere casual observations and an informal approach to learn
about the world, scientists attempt to gain new knowledge by making careful observations and
using systematic, controlled, and methodical approaches (Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1997).
By doing so, scientists are able to draw valid and reliable conclusions about what they are
studying. In addition, scientific knowledge is not based on the opinions, feelings, or intuition of
the scientist. Instead, scientific knowledge is based on objective data that were reliably obtained
in the context of a carefully designed research study.  In short, scientific knowledge is based on
the accumulation of empirical evidence (Kazdin, 2003a), which will be the topic of a great deal
of discussion in later chapters of this book. The defining characteristic of scientific research is
the scientific method (summarized in Rapid Reference 1.2). First described by the English
philosopher and scientist Roger Bacon in the 13th century, it is still generally agreed that the
scientific method is the basis for all scientific investigation. The  scientific method is best
thought of as an approach to the acquisition of new knowledge, and this approach effectively
distinguishes science from no science. To be clear, the scientific method is not actually a single
method, as the name would  erroneously  lead  one  to  believe,  but  rather  an  overarching
perspective  on  how  scientific

   investigations  should  proceed.  It  is  a  set  of  research  principles  and  a  method  that  helps
researchers obtain valid results from their research studies. Because the scientific method deals
with the general approach to research rather than the content of specific research studies, it is
used by researchers in all different scientific disciplines. As will be seen in the following
sections, the biggest benefit of the scientific method is that it provides a set of clear and agreed
upon guidelines for gathering, evaluating, and reporting information in the context of a research
study (Cozby, 1993).

The development of the scientific method is usually credited to Roger Bacon, a philosopher and
scientist from 13th-century England; although some argue that the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei
played an important role in formulating the scientific method. Later contributions to the scientific
method were made by the philosophers Francis Bacon and René Descartes. Although some
disagreement exists regarding the exact characteristics of the scientific method, most agree that it
is characterized by the following elements:

 Empirical approach
 Observations
 Questions
 Hypotheses
 Experiments
 Analyses
 Conclusions
  Replication

There has been some disagreement among researchers over the years regarding the elements that
compose the scientific method. In fact, some researchers have even argued that it is impossible to
define a universal approach to scientific investigation. Nevertheless, for over 100 years, the
scientific method has been the defining feature of scientific research. Researchers generally
agree that the scientific method is composed of the following key elements (which will be the
focus of the remainder of this chapter): an empirical approach, observations, questions,
hypotheses, experiments, analyses, conclusions, and replication. Before proceeding any further,
one word of caution is necessary. In the brief discussion of the scientific method that follows, we
will be introducing several new terms and concepts that are related to research design  and
methodology. Do not be intimidated if you are unfamiliar with some of the content contained in
this discussion. The purpose of the following is simply   to set the stage for the chapters that
follow, and we will be elaborating on each of the terms and concepts throughout the remainder
of the book.

Empirical Approach

The scientific method is firmly based on the  empirical approach.  The empirical approach is  an
evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation and experimentation in the acquisition
of new knowledge (see Kazdin, 2003a). In the empirical approach, scientific decisions are made
based on the data derived from direct observation and experimentation. Contrast this approach to
decision making with the way that most non-scientific decisions are made in our daily lives. For
example, we have all made decisions based on feelings, hunches, or “gut” instinct. Additionally,
we may often reach conclusions or make decisions that are not necessarily based on data, but
rather on opinions, speculation, and a hope for the best. The empirical approach, with its
emphasis on direct, systematic, and careful observation, is best thought of as the guiding
principle behind all research conducted in accordance with the scientific method.

Observations
An important component in any scientific investigation is observation. In this
sense, observation refers to two distinct concepts—being aware of the world around us and
making careful measurements. Observations of the world around us often give rise to the
questions that are addressed through scientific research. For example, the Newtonian observation
that apples fall from trees stimulated much research into the effects of gravity. Therefore, a keen
eye to your surroundings can often provide you with many ideas for research studies. In the
context of science, observation means more than just observing the world around us to get ideas
for research. Observation also refers to the process of making careful and accurate
measurements, which is a distinguishing feature of well-conducted scientific investigations.
When making measurements in the context of research, scientists typically take great precautions
to avoid making biased observations. For example, if a researcher is observing the amount of
time that passes between two events, such as the length of time that elapses between lightning
and thunder, it would certainly be advisable for the researcher to use a measurement device that
has a high degree of accuracy and reliability. Rather than simply trying to “guesstimate” the
amount of time that elapsed between those two events, the researcher would be advised to use a
stopwatch or similar measurement device. By doing so, the researcher ensures that the
measurement is accurate and not biased by extraneous factors. Most people would likely agree
that the observations that we make in our daily lives are rarely made so carefully or
systematically.

An important aspect of measurement is an operational definition. Researchers define key

concepts and terms in the context of their research studies by using operational definitions. By
using operational definitions, researchers ensure that everyone is talking about the same
phenomenon. For example, if a researcher  wants to study the effects of exercise on stress levels,
it would be necessary for the researcher to define what “exercise” is. Does exercise refer to
jogging, weight lifting, swimming, jumping rope, or all of the above? By defining “exercise” for
the purposes of the study, theresearcher makes sure that everyone is referring to the same thing.
Clearly, the definition of “exercise”can differ from one study to another, so it is crucial that the
researcher define “exercise” in a precise manner in the context of his or her study. Having a clear
definition of terms also ensures that the researcher’s study can be replicated by other researchers.
Questions

After getting a research idea, perhaps from making observations of the world around us, the next
step in the research process involves translating that research idea into an answerable question.
The term “answerable” is particularly important in this respect, and it should not be overlooked.
It  would obviously  be  a  frustrating  and  ultimately  unrewarding  endeavour  to  attempt  to
answer   an unanswerable  research  question  through  scientific investigation.  An  example of
an  unanswerable research question is the following: “Is there an exact replica of me in another
universe?” Although this is certainly an intriguing question that would likely yield important
information, the current state of science cannot provide an answer to that question. It is therefore
important to formulate a research question that can be answered through available scientific
methods and procedures. One might ask, for example, whether exercising (i.e., perhaps
operationally defined as running three times per week  for 30 minutes each time) reduces
cholesterol levels. This question could be researched and answered using established scientific
methods.

Hypotheses

The next step in the scientific method is coming up with a hypothesis, which is simply an
educated— and testable—guess about the answer to your research question. A hypothesis is
often described as an attempt by the researcher to explain the phenomenon of interest.
Hypotheses can take various forms, depending on the question being asked and the type of study
being conducted. A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must make a
prediction. Remember that hypotheses are the researcher’s attempt to explain the phenomenon
being studied, and that explanation should involve a prediction about the variables being studied.
These predictions are then tested by gathering and analysing data, and the hypotheses can either
be supported or refuted on the basis of the data. In their simplest forms, hypotheses are typically
phrased as “if-then” statements. For example, a researcher may hypothesize that “if people
exercise for 30 minutes per day at least three days per week, then  their cholesterol levels will be
reduced.” This hypothesis makes a prediction about the effects of exercising on levels of
cholesterol, and the prediction can be tested by gathering and analysing data. Two types of
hypotheses with which you should be familiar are the null hypothesis and the alternate (or
experimental) hypothesis. The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences
between the groups being studied. By contrast, the alternate hypothesis predicts that there will
be a difference between the groups. In our example, the null hypothesis would predict that the
exercise group and the no-exercise group will not differ significantly on levels of cholesterol.
The alternate hypothesis would predict that the two groups will differ significantly on cholesterol
levels.

Experiments

After  articulating  the  hypothesis,  the  next  step  involves  actually  conducting  the
experiment   (or research study). For example, if the study involves investigating the effects of
exercise on levels of cholesterol, the researcher would design and conduct a study that would
attempt to address that question. As previously mentioned, a key aspect of conducting a research
study is measuring the phenomenon of interest in an accurate and reliable manner. In this
example, the researcher would collect data on the cholesterol levels of the study participants by
using an accurate and reliable measurement device. Then, the researcher would compare the
cholesterol levels of the two groups to see if exercise had any effects.

Analyses

After conducting the study and gathering the data, the next step involves analyzing the data,
which generally  calls  for the use of statistical techniques. The type  of statistical techniques
used  by a researcher depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered,  and
the  questions being asked. Although a detailed discussion of statistics is beyond the scope of this
text, it is important to be aware of the role of statistics in conducting a research study. In short,
statistics help researchers minimize  the likelihood of reaching  an  erroneous  conclusion  about
the relationship  between  the variables being studied.

A key decision that researchers must make with the assistance of statistics is whether the null
hypothesis should be rejected. Remember that the null hypothesis always predicts that there will
be no difference between the groups. Therefore, rejecting the null hypothesis means that
there is  a difference between the groups. In general, most researchers seek to reject the null
hypothesis because rejection means the phenomenon being studied (e.g., exercise, medication)
had some effect.

It is important to note that there are only two choices with respect to the null hypothesis.
Specifically, the null hypothesis can be either rejected or not rejected, but it can never be
accepted. If we reject the null  hypothesis,  we are  concluding  that  there  is  a significant 
difference between  the  groups.  If, however, we do not reject the null hypothesis, then we are
concluding that we were unable to detect a difference between the groups. To be clear, it does
not mean that there is no difference between the two groups. There  may  in  actuality  have  been
a  significant  difference  betweenthe two groups, but we were unable to detect that difference in
our study. We will talk more about this important distinction in later chapters.

The decision of whether to reject the null hypothesis is based on the results of statistical
analyses, and there are two types of errors that researchers must be careful to avoid when making
this decision Type I errors and Type II errors. A Type I error occurs when a researcher
concludes that there is a difference between the groups being studied when, in fact, there is no
difference. This is sometimes referred to as a “false positive.” By contrast, a Type II error occurs
when the researcher concludes that there  is  not  a  difference  between   the  two   groups
being   studied  when,  in   fact, there  is a difference. This is sometimes referred to as a “false
negative.” As previously noted, the conclusion regarding whether there is a difference between
the groups  is based  on the results of  statistical analyses.  Specifically,  with  a  Type  I  error,
although  there  is  a  statistically  significant  result, it occurred  by  chance  (or  error)  and
there  is  not  actually  a  difference  between  the  two  groups  ( Wampold, Davis, & Good,
2003). With a Type II error, there is a nonsignificant statistical result when, in fact, there actually
is a difference between the two groups ( Wampold et al.).

The  typical  convention  in   most  fields  of  science  allows  for  a  5%  chance  of  erroneously
rejecting the null hypothesis (i.e., of making a Type I error). In other words, a researcher will
conclude that there is a significant difference between the groups being studied (i.e., will reject
the null hypothesis) only if the chance of being incorrect is less than 5%. For obvious  reasons,
researchers want to reduce the likelihood of concluding that there is a significant difference
between the groups being studied when, in fact, there is not a difference. The distinction between
Type I and Type II errors is very important, although somewhat complicated. An example may
help to clarify these terms. In our example, a researcher conducts a study to determine whether a
new medication is effective in treating depression. The new medicationis given to Group 1, while
a placebo medication is given to Group 2. If, at the conclusion of the study, the researcher
concludes that there is a significant difference in levels of depression between Groups 1 and 2
when, in fact, there is no difference, the researcher has made a Type I error. In simpler terms, the
researcher has detected a difference between the groups that in actuality does not exist; the
difference between the groups occurred by chance (or error). By contrast, if the researcher
concludes that there is no significant difference in levels of depression between Groups 1 and 2
when, in fact, there is a difference, the researcher has made a Type II error. In simpler terms, the
researcher has failed to detecta difference that actually exists between the groups. Which type of
error is more serious Type I or Type II? The answer to this question often depends on the context
in which the errors are made. Let’s use the medical context as an example. If a doctor diagnoses
a patient with cancer when, in fact, the patient does not have cancer (i.e., a false positive), the
doctor has committed a Type I error. In this situation, it is likely that the erroneous diagnosis will
be discovered  (perhaps  through  a  second  opinion)  and  the  patient  will  undoubtedly  be
relieved.  If, however, the doctor gives the patient a clean bill of health when, in fact, the patient
actually has cancer (i.e., a false negative), the doctor has committed a Type  II error. Most people
would likely agree that a Type II error would be more serious in this example because it would
prevent the patient from getting necessary medical treatment.

You may be wondering why researchers do not simply set up their research studies so  that there
is even less chance of making a Type I error. For example, wouldn’t it make sense  for
researchers to set up their research studies so that the chance of making a Type I error is less than
1% or, better yet, 0%? The reason that researchers do not set up their studies in this manner has
to do with the relationship between making Type I errors and making Type II errors.
Specifically, there is an inverse relationship between Type I errors and Type II errors, which
means that by decreasing the probability of making a Type I error, the researcher is increasing
the probability of making a Type II  error. In other words, if a researcher reduces the probability
of making a Type I error from 5% to 1%, there is now an increased probability that the
researcher will make a Type II error by failing to detect a difference that actually exists. The 5%
level is a standard convention in most fields of research and represents a compromise between
making Type I and Type II errors.

1.4 Stage of the Research Process

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER ONE: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH  1.4 Stage of the Research

Process

Research has more than seven stapes as showing below. Whether you are University or college
student, you have to take research subject for you to be able to receive your Degree / diploma. To
ease your burden in doing research, here are the seven steps in the research process:

1.4.1     Identification of a research problem

A good research always starts with a good problem. You can observe people or things, visit
places, read print materials, or consult experts to find the research problem that is right for you.
The research problem guides you in formulating the hypothesis and interpretation of your
findings so that you can formulate the right conclusion. A good research problem is important
because it is the basis of all subsequent research activities you are going to undertake. Factors
like area of interest, availability of fund, socio-economic significance of the study, and the safety
measures to be undertaken should be considered in finding a good research problem.

1.4.2    Formulation of Hypothesis

After finding your research problem, the next step is to formulate your own hypothesis. A
hypothesis is a theoretical statement in solving a logical relationship between variables. Do not
be afraid if your hypothesis proves to be incorrect after the experimentation because it is only
considered as an educated guess. Always remember that when you formulate a hypothesis, it
should be based on the research problem being solved.

1.4.3     Review of Related Literature

A research problem is vague at first. To give you a bright picture of the whole research, you shall
read various publications or surf the internet to become aware of the previous works already
done. In doing so, it could spur an idea that can be the subject of your investigation. The review
of related literature can be taken from science books, magazines, journals, newspapers, or even
in the internet.

1.4.4     Preparation of Research Design

A research design is the blueprint of the research you are going to undertake. It serves as the
work plan of the whole study not only because it entails the resources needed in conducting the
research but also the ways these resources are utilized.

1.4.5     Actual experimentation

Actual experimentation is an implementation of the research design. In actual experimentation,

you have to conduct an experiment to prove the validity of the hypothesis you have formulated.
Actual experimentation includes the methodology that you have followed in doing your research.
The methodology should be carefully planned prior to the actual experimentation to ensure the
validity and accuracy of the result.

1.4.6     Results and Discussion

This is the heart of the research process because this is part where the findings of the research
can be found. You can use table and graph to interpret the results of your research.

1.4.7   Formulation of Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusion is a statement where you will present the solution to the proposed problem based on
the findings of the investigation. They are tied up to the questions investigated. Your conclusion
will show whether or not your experiment worked. It should answer your hypothesis and
research problem. In your concluding statement you can also infer on the possible benefits to
society that your results might present. You can state any plans you might have to continue
working on other aspects related to your area of study. We must remember that
recommendations are based on conclusions and conclusions are based on findings

Conducting research is a tiresome task because it is a year-round activity. You have to be

committed to become successful in making a good research which would benefit not only you
but of everyone. The willingness in you in making future researches should always be there
because doing research without your ‘heart’ and ‘mind’ on it is a burden on your part. Never
hesitate to ask questions. Asking questions from other people who is aware of your research
topic would help you arrive at the correct conclusions. Now that you have finally learned the
steps in the research process, you can now start doing one.

1.5 Components of Research Proposal

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER ONE: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH  1.5 Components of

Research Proposal

A research proposal is a written document that provides an overview of the project, why it is
important, and what is needed to get it done. Learn what a research proposal is, the questions to
consider before beginning, and the main components through some example

1.5.1    The Title

Try to come up with a title that is unique and at the same time easy to remember. It should also
make a lasting impression to the reader and make them want to come back and read your
proposal. The title must  also  capture  the main  concepts of  the  study. As  the  research
process  is lengthy, it  is important that you choose a topic that you are so curious about that you
remain motivated for the duration of the research process.  Select a topic that you will be able to
complete within the time frame that you have for your research.

1.5.2    Introduction to the Research

This section of the proposal must provide a broad overview of the topic. The jargon and key
terms used in the particular topic must also be thoroughly explained in order to avoid confusion.
The interest of the researcher in the particular topic must also be clearly outlined while at the
same time mentioning, albeit briefly at this point, a critical review of the main literature that
covers the topic.  The researcher must also provide the aim  of  the  research by clearly  and
concisely stating  the problem, as  well  as  the research questions to be dealt with.  This section
must also indicate what the research study will not be covering.

1.5.3    The Background

The background to the topic of your intended research must be clear and precise. It must not only
include an in-depth explanation of the key points of your subject but also all the developments in
the field as well as their timelines. The researcher must also explain the compelling interest in
the research issue as well as the personal interest (if any) in the topic. This section must also
indicate the specific area within which the topic falls in your particular field of study or subject.
also, how will the proposed study contribute to a particular  field?  In  other  words, the  impact
and  the  significance  in  a  subject  area  must  be  clearly outlined. The target audience must
also be clearly described.

1.5.4    The Research questions

The research questions must state clearly what your proposed study is meant to address or
answer. Ensure that   you   use simple   language that   is   easy   to   understand, while   being 
cognisant   of   the level of your intended audience.

1.5.5    Objective of the Research

It is important that the objectives are in alignment with the research questions. The objectives
must indicate what the aim of the research study is.  In fact, objectives give you a clear indication
of the steps that you  will  take to  achieve  the  aim  of  the  research. The  objectives  must  be
specific,  measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound.

1.5.6    Research methodology

This section outlines the approach which the researcher will follow in order to address the
research problem and to answer all the research questions from the researcher. The research
design must be clearly defined,   e.g.,   is   the research Descriptive,   Correlational,   Causal-
Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, Experimental, Diagnostic or Explanatory.

State clearly

 how the research will be conducted in terms of the theoretical resources that will be used
 the theoretical framework for conducting the research, which is the theoretical approach
drawn from your literature review to support your research study
 proposed research method(s)
 a  comparison  of  the  advantages,  limitations  and  suitability  of  the  available
approaches  and methods for conducting your research
 Participants, instruments, procedure, analysis, etc.

1.5.7    Literature Review

Collect and present relevant literature on your topic of choice. It is important to include all the
main authors or experts in  a particular field.   Depending  on  your field  of study  or topic,
ensure that  you include recent literature as well as literature that presents counterarguments to
the topic. The justification for the study needs to based on existing literature. Click here for more
information on how to write a literature review.

1.5.8    Limitation and Delimitation of the study

The researcher must indicate the limitations of the study which are what the researcher cannot do
or factors that are beyond the researcher’s control, as well as delimitations that the researcher
chooses not to address for the purposes of the study. Delimitations are boundaries that the
researcher has set for the study. The reasons both for limitations and delimitations must be
discussed in this section.

1.5.9    Significance of the Research

The researcher must provide justification for the need to conduct the study. What is the gap that
the study will fill, and what is its contribution to the existing body of knowledge? The originality
and importance of the research which will be level appropriate, must be clearly described, for
instance, the required level of originality for a fourth year research project is different to that of a
doctoral candidate.

The impact of   the   study   for the subject   field must   be   indicated.   In   other   words, how 
will   the research improve the field, who will it impact, how will it make changes in your
industry or field etc.? Lastly, the proposed research must be relatable, interesting and engaging.

1.5.10  Work Plan

Your schedule for the research must be stated clearly including the projected timelines for the
various stages of your study.

1.5.11  References

All the sources  that  you  have used  for your proposal  must  be listed  in  alphabetical  order
using  a referencing style that your lecturer has prescribed for your subject field.

1.6 Writing a Research Proposal

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS  CHAPTER ONE: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH  1.6 Writing a Research

Proposal
In a research proposal, the goal is to present the author’s plan for the research they intend to
conduct. In some cases, part of this goal is to secure funding for said research. In others, it’s to
have the research approved by the author’s supervisor or department so they can move forward
with it. In some cases, a research proposal is a required part of a graduate school application. In
every one of these circumstances, research proposals follow the same structure.

In a research proposal, the author demonstrates how and why their research is relevant to their
field. They demonstrate that the work is necessary to the following:

 Filling a gap in the existing body of research on their subject

 Underscoring existing research on their subject, and/or
 Adding new, original knowledge to the academic community’s existing understanding of
their subject

A research proposal also demonstrates that the author is capable of conducting this research and
contributing to the current state of their field in a meaningful way. To do this, your research
proposal needs to discuss your academic background and credentials as well as demonstrate that
your proposed ideas have academic merit.

But demonstrating your research’s validity and your personal capability to carry it out isn’t
enough to get your research proposal approved. Your research proposal also has to cover these
things:

 The research methodology you plan to use

 The tools and procedures you will use to collect, analyze, and interpret the data you
collect
 An  explanation  of  how  your  research  fits  the  budget  and  other  constraints  that
come  with conducting it through your institution, department, or academic program

If you’ve already read our post on literature reviews, you may be thinking that a research
proposal sounds pretty similar. They’re more than just similar, though—a literature review is
part of a research proposal. It’s the section that covers which sources you’re using, how you’re
using them, and why they’re relevant. Think of a literature review as a mini-research proposal
that fits into your larger, main proposal.

How long should a research proposal be?

Generally, research proposals for bachelor’s and master’s theses are a few pages long. Research
proposals for meatier projects, like Ph.D. dissertations and funding requests, are often longer and
far more detailed. A research proposal’s goal is to clearly outline exactly what your research will
entail and accomplish, so including the proposal’s word count or page count isn’t nearly as
important as it is to ensure that all the necessary elements and content are present.

Research proposal structure

A research proposal follows a fairly straightforward structure. In order to achieve the goals
described in the previous section, nearly all research proposals include the following sections:

Introduction

Your introduction achieves a few goals:

 Introduces your topic

 States your problem statement and the questions your research aims to answer
 Provides context for your research

In a research proposal, an introduction can be a few paragraphs long. It should be concise, but
don’t feellike you need to cram all of your information into one paragraph.

In some cases, you need to include an abstract and/or a table of contents in your research
proposal. These are included just before the introduction.

Background significance
This is where you explain why your research is necessary and how it relates to established
research in your field. Your work might complement existing research, strengthen it, or even
challenge it—no matter how your work will “play with” other researchers’ work, you need to
express it in detail in your research proposal.

This is also the section where you clearly define the existing problems your research will
address. By doing this, you’re explaining why your work is necessary in other words, this is
where you answer the reader’s “so what?”

In your background significance section, you’ll also outline how you’ll conduct your research. If
necessary, note which related questions and issues you won’t be covering in your research.

Literature review

In your literature review, you introduce all the sources you plan to use in your research. This
includes landmark studies and their data, books, and scholarly articles. A literature review isn’t
merely a list of sources (that’s what your bibliography is for); a literature review delves into the
collection of sources you chose and explains how you’re using them in your research.

Research design, methods, and schedule

Following your research review, you’ll discuss your research plans. In this section, make sure
you cover these aspects:

 The type of research you will do. Are you conducting qualitative or quantitative research?
Are you collecting original data or working with data collected by other researchers?
 Whether you’re doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research
 The data you’re working with. For example, if you’re conducting research in the social
sciences, you’ll need to describe the population you’re studying. You’ll also need to
cover how you’ll select your subjects and how you’ll collect data from them.
  The  tools  you’ll  use  to  collect  data.  Will  you  be  running  experiments?  Conducting
surveys? Observing phenomena? Note all data collection methods here along with why
they’re effective methods for your specific research.

Beyond a comprehensive look at your research itself, you’ll also need to include:

 Your research timeline

 Your research budget
 Any potential obstacles you foresee and your plan for handling them

Suppositions and implications

Although you can’t know your research’s results until you’ve actually done the work, you should
be going into the project with a clear idea of how your work will contribute to your field. This
section is perhaps the most critical to your research proposal’s argument because it
expresses exactly why your research is necessary.

In this section, make sure you cover the following:

•   Any ways your work can challenge existing theories and assumptions in your field

•   How your work will create the foundation for future research

•   The practical value your findings will provide to practitioners, educators, and other academics
in your field

•    The problems your work can potentially help to fix

•    Policies that could be impacted by your findings

•   How your findings can be implemented in academia or other settings and how this will
improve or otherwise transform these settings.
In other words, this section isn’t about stating the specific results you expect. Rather, it’s where
you state how  your findings will be valuable.

Conclusion

This is where you wrap it all up. Your conclusion section, just like your conclusion paragraph for
an essay, briefly summarizes your research proposal and reinforces your research’s stated
purpose.

Bibliography

Yes, you need to write a bibliography in addition to your literature review. Unlike your literature
review, where you explained the relevance of the sources you chose and in some cases,
challenged them, your bibliography simply lists your sources and their authors.

The way you write a citation depends on the style guide you’re using. The three most common
style guides  for  academics  are MLA, APA,  and Chicago,  and  each  has  its  own  particular
rules  and requirements. Keep   in   mind   that   each   formatting   style  has   specific
guidelines   for  citing   just about any kind of source, including photos, websites, speeches, and
YouTube videos.

Sometimes, a full bibliography is not needed. When this is the case, you can include a references
list, which is simply a scaled-down list of all the sources you cited in your work. If you’re not
sure which to write, ask your supervisor.

1.   What is research means?

2.   What is research methodology?

3.   What is scientific approach in research methodology?

4.   What are the stages of research processes?

5.   What are the components of research proposal?

. Populations and samples
Populations
In statistics the term “population” has a slightly different meaning from the one given to it
in ordinary speech. It need not refer only to people or to animate creatures – the
population of Britain, for instance or the dog population of London. Statisticians also
speak of a population of objects, or events, or procedures, or observations, including
such things as the quantity of lead in urine, visits to the doctor, or surgical operations. A
population is thus an aggregate of creatures, things, cases and so on.
Although a statistician should clearly define the population he or she is dealing with,
they may not be able to enumerate it exactly. For instance, in ordinary usage the
population of England denotes the number of people within England’s boundaries,
perhaps as enumerated at a census. But a physician might embark on a study to try to
answer the question “What is the average systolic blood pressure of Englishmen aged
40-59?” But who are the “Englishmen” referred to here? Not all Englishmen live in
England, and the social and genetic background of those that do may vary. A surgeon
may study the effects of two alternative operations for gastric ulcer. But how old are the
patients? What sex are they? How severe is their disease? Where do they live? And so
on. The reader needs precise information on such matters to draw valid inferences from
the sample that was studied to the population being considered. Statistics such as
averages and standard deviations, when taken from populations are referred to as
population parameters. They are often denoted by Greek letters: the population mean is
denoted by μ(mu) and the standard deviation denoted by ς (low case sigma)

Samples
A population commonly contains too many individuals to study conveniently, so an
investigation is often restricted to one or more samples drawn from it. A well chosen
sample will contain most of the information about a particular population parameter but
the relation between the sample and the population must be such as to allow true
inferences to be made about a population from that sample.
Consequently, the first important attribute of a sample is that every individual in the
population from which it is drawn must have a known non-zero chance of being included
in it; a natural suggestion is that these chances should be equal. We would like the
choices to be made independently; in other words, the choice of one subject will not
affect the chance of other subjects being chosen. To ensure this we make the choice by
means of a process in which chance alone operates, such as spinning a coin or, more
usually, the use of a table of random numbers. A limited table is given in the Table F
(Appendix), and more extensive ones have been published.(1-4) A sample so chosen is
called a random sample. The word “random” does not describe the sample as such but
the way in which it is selected.
To draw a satisfactory sample sometimes presents greater problems than to analyse
statistically the observations made on it. A full discussion of the topic is beyond the
scope of this book, but guidance is readily available(1)(2). In this book only an
introduction is offered.
Before drawing a sample the investigator should define the population from which it is to
come. Sometimes he or she can completely enumerate its members before beginning
analysis – for example, all the livers studied at necropsy over the previous year, all the
patients aged 20-44 admitted to hospital with perforated peptic ulcer in the previous 20
months. In retrospective studies of this kind numbers can be allotted serially from any
point in the table to each patient or specimen. Suppose we have a population of size
150, and we wish to take a sample of size five. contains a set of computer generated
random digits arranged in groups of five. Choose any row and column, say the last
column of five digits. Read only the first three digits, and go down the column starting
with the first row. Thus we have 265, 881, 722, etc. If a number appears between 001
and 150 then we include it in our sample. Thus, in order, in the sample will be subjects
numbered 24, 59, 107, 73, and 65. If necessary we can carry on down the next column
to the left until the full sample is chosen.
The use of random numbers in this way is generally preferable to taking every alternate
patient or every fifth specimen, or acting on some other such regular plan. The
regularity of the plan can occasionally coincide by chance with some unforeseen
regularity in the presentation of the material for study – for example, by hospital
appointments being made from patients from certain practices on certain days of the
week, or specimens being prepared in batches in accordance with some schedule.
As susceptibility to disease generally varies in relation to age, sex, occupation, family
history, exposure to risk, inoculation state, country lived in or visited, and many other
genetic or environmental factors, it is advisable to examine samples when drawn to see
whether they are, on average, comparable in these respects. The random process of
selection is intended to make them so, but sometimes it can by chance lead to
disparities. To guard against this possibility the sampling may be stratified.This means
that a framework is laid down initially, and the patients or objects of the study in a
random sample are then allotted to the compartments of the framework. For instance,
the framework might have a primary division into males and females and then a
secondary division of each of those categories into five age groups, the result being a
framework with ten compartments. It is then important to bear in mind that the
distributions of the categories on two samples made up on such a framework may be
truly comparable, but they will not reflect the distribution of these categories in the
population from which the sample is drawn unless the compartments in the framework
have been designed with that in mind. For instance, equal numbers might be admitted
to the male and female categories, but males and females are not equally numerous in
the general population, and their relative proportions vary with age. This is known as
stratified random sampling.For taking a sample from a long list a compromise between
strict theory and practicalities is known as a systematic random sample.In this case we
choose subjects a fixed interval apart on the list, say every tenth subject, but we choose
the starting point within the first interval at random.

Unbiasedness and precision

The terms unbiased and precision have acquired special meanings in statistics. When
we say that a measurement is unbiased we mean that the average of a large set of
unbiased measurements will be close to the true value. When we say it is precise we
mean that it is repeatable. Repeated measurements will be close to one another, but
not necessarily close to the true value. We would like a measurement that is both
accurate and precise. Some authors equate unbiasedness with accuracy,but this is not
universal and others use the term accuracy to mean a measurement that is both
unbiased and precise. Strike (5) gives a good discussion of the problem.
An estimate of a parameter taken from a random sample is known to be unbiased. As
the sample size increases, it gets more precise.

Randomisation

Another use of random number tables is to randomise the allocation of treatments to

patients in a clinical trial. This ensures that there is no bias in treatment allocation and,
in the long run, the subjects in each treatment group are comparable in both known and
unknown prognostic factors. A common method is to use blocked randomisation. This is
to ensure that at regular intervals there are equal numbers in the two groups. Usual
sizes for blocks are two, four, six, eight, and ten. Suppose we chose a block size of ten.
A simple method using Table F (Appendix) is to choose the first five unique digits in any
row. If we chose the first row, the first five unique digits are 3, 5, 6, 8, and 4. Thus we
would allocate the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and eighth subjects to one treatment and the
first, second, seventh, ninth, and tenth to the other. If the block size was less than ten
we would ignore digits bigger than the block size. To allocate further subjects to
treatment, we carry on along the same row, choosing the next five unique digits for the
first treatment. In randomised controlled trials it is advisable to change the block size
from time to time to make it more difficult to guess what the next treatment is going to
be.
It is important to realise that patients in a randomised trial are not a random sample
from the population of people with the disease in question but rather a highly selected
set of eligible and willing patients. However, randomisation ensures that in the long run
any differences in outcome in the two treatment groups are due solely to differences in
treatment.

Variation between samples

Even if we ensure that every member of a population has a known, and usually an
equal, chance of being included in a sample, it does not follow that a series of samples
drawn from one population and fulfilling this criterion will be identical. They will show
chance variations from one to another, and the variation may be slight or considerable.
For example, a series of samples of the body temperature of healthy people would
show very little variation from one to another, but the variation between samples of the
systolic blood pressure would be considerable. Thus the variation between samples
depends partly on the amount of variation in the population from which they are drawn.
Furthermore, it is a matter of common observation that a small sample is a much less
certain guide to the population from which it was drawn than a large sample. In other
words, the more members of a population that are included in a sample the more
chance will that sample have of accurately representing the population, provided a
random process is used to construct the sample. A consequence of this is that, if two or
more samples are drawn from a population, the larger they are the more likely they are
to resemble each other – again provided that the random technique is followed. Thus
the variation between samples depends partly also on the size of the sample. Usually,
however, we are not in a position to take a random sample; our sample is simply those
subjects available for study. This is a “convenience” sample. For valid generalisations to
be made we would like to assert that our sample is in some way representative of the
population as a whole and for this reason the first stage in a report is to describe the
sample, say by age, sex, and disease status, so that other readers can decide if it is
representative of the type of patients they encounter.

Standard error of the mean

If we draw a series of samples and calculate the mean of the observations in each, we
have a series of means. These means generally conform to a Normal distribution, and
they often do so even if the observations from which they were obtained do not (see
Exercise 3.3). This can be proven mathematically and is known as the “Central Limit
Theorem”. The series of means, like the series of observations in each sample, has a
standard deviation. The standard error of the mean of one sample is an estimate of the
standard deviation that would be obtained from the means of a large number of samples
drawn from that population.
As noted above, if random samples are drawn from a population their means will vary
from one to another. The variation depends on the variation of the population and the
size of the sample. We do not know the variation in the population so we use the
variation in the sample as an estimate of it. This is expressed in the standard deviation.
If we now divide the standard deviation by the square root of the number of

observations in the sample we have an estimate of the standard error of the mean, 

. It is important to realise that we do not have to take repeated samples in order to

estimate the standard error, there is sufficient information within a single sample.
However, the conception is that ifwe were to take repeated random samples from the
population, this is how we would expect the mean to vary, purely by chance.
A general practitioner in Yorkshire has a practice which includes part of a town with a
large printing works and some of the adjacent sheep farming country. With her patients’
informed consent she has been investigating whether the diastolic blood pressure of
men aged 20-44 differs between the printers and the farm workers. For this purpose she
has obtained a random sample of 72 printers and 48 farm workers and calculated the
mean and standard deviations, as shown in Table 3.1.
To calculate the standard errors of the two mean blood pressures the standard
deviation of each sample is divided by the square root of the number of the
observations in the sample.
These standard errors may be used to study the significance of the difference between
the two means, as described in successive chapters
Table 3.1

Standard error of a proportion or a percentage

Just as we can calculate a standard error associated with a mean so we can also
calculate a standard error associated with a percentage or a proportion. Here the size of
the sample will affect the size of the standard error but the amount of variation is
determined by the value of the percentage or proportion in the population itself, and so
we do not need an estimate of the standard deviation. For example, a senior surgical
registrar in a large hospital is investigating acute appendicitis in people aged 65 and
over. As a preliminary study he examines the hospital case notes over the previous 10
years and finds that of 120 patients in this age group with a diagnosis confirmed at
operation 73 (60.8%) were women and 47 (39.2%) were men.
If p represents one percentage, 100 p represents the other. Then the standard error of
each of these percentages is obtained by (1) multiplying them together, (2) dividing the
product by the number in the sample, and (3) taking the square root:

which for the appendicitis data given above is as follows:

Problems with non-random samples

In general we do not have the luxury of a random sample; we have to make do with
what is available, a “convenience sample“. In order to be able to make generalisations
we should investigate whether biases could have crept in, which mean that the patients
available are not typical. Common biases are:
  hospital patients are not the same as ones seen in the community;
 volunteers are not typical of non-volunteers;
 patients who return questionnaires are different from those who do not.

In order to persuade the reader that the patients included are typical it is important to
give as much detail as possible at the beginning of a report of the selection process and
some demographic data such as age, sex, social class and response rate.