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Rationale
Inefficiencies and wastages abound in both manufacturing and service systems as a result of poor machine maintenance procedures. Moreover, technical and technological inability to monitor equipment conditions, and prescribe the corresponding maintenance procedures aggravates the problem situation. This seminar is presented to provide ideas on the needs of maintenance systems for a comprehensive and integrated methodology in machine troubleshooting.
Objectives
At the end of the seminar, the participant is expected: To be introduced to the concepts of predictive maintenance and condition monitoring, particularly vibration analysis. To become familiar with the VA techniques which enhance the efficiency, reliability and safety of equipment.
What is vibration?
Vibration is a "back and forth" movement of a structure. It can also be referred to as a "cyclical" movement
Amplitude
Frequency
How often the movement occurs? Whats the defect or root cause?
Phase
In what direction is the movement?
Belt drives can be oriented in any direction and thereby require a directional convention.
Vertical machines present another opportunity to assign a directional convention since parallel to the shaft (axial) is now straight up out of the ground
Amplitude
Severity of vibration based on ISO 10816 What are its units? Displacement - measures the total distance the transducer (bearing) travels back and forth during one 'cycle' of movement (a 'cycle' is the process of moving from one extreme to the other and back again to the starting point). Velocity - measures the maximum speed the transducer achieves during a cycle.
Acceleration - measures the force(s) that are causing the back and forth movement.
Amplitude
F = 1/T
1 2 3 4
Tim e
5 0 -5 -10 -15
Acc(t ) = A. sin( .t + )
= pulsation in rad/s = phase
English or 'Imperial' Units: Mils (1 mil = 0.001") Metric Units: Microns (1 um = 0.001 mm) Conversion::1 Mil = 25.4 um
Acc(t ) =
Amplitude
dVel (t ) dt
15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15
temps
Vel (t ) =
dDisp (t ) dt
Vite sse
15 10 5 0
-5 -10 -15
15 10 5
Dplacement
0 -5 -10 -15
s
Amplitude
Frequency
English or "Imperial": Inches per Second (ips -or- in/sec) Metric: Millimeters per Second (mm/sec) Conversion::1 ips = 25.4 mm/sec
Acceleration measures how rapidly the velocity is changing. Acceleration is measure of the likelihood of APPLIED FORCE being the mode of failure. Applied force failures occur at higher frequencies - almost invariably 60,000 cycles per minute and higher. There are a limited number of high frequency generating machinery problems. Those problems include primarily rolling element bearing defects and gears. English or Metric - G's (1 g = force of gravity)
F=1 T=1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
F=50 T=20
16 18 20 ms
0.45 - 0.90 w / 1+ peaks > 0.45 11.4 - 22.8 w / 1+ peaks > 11.4 > 0.90 w / no peak > 0.90 Peak(s) > 0.90 > 22.8 w / no peak > 22.8 Peak(s) > 22.8
The successful analyst will also get to "know" the machines and their typical vibration patterns. That knowledge is possibly the analyst's strongest line of defense against unexpected failures.
Phase Convention
In order to discuss phase at the most basic level, we need a convention to use. Phase is represented by the 360 of a circle. Since a high degree of accuracy is not required in a simple, general phase analysis (what we will be discussing here), phase is most easily referred to in terms of clock face numbers: 1 o'clock through 12 o'clock. The phase "angle" is based on where the mark appears (the red key in the example shown here) on the clock face. It is shown here at 12 o'clock but could appear at any angular location. Applications requiring more precise detail (i.e. balancing or phase monitoring on a turbine) will require the use of specific angular references (0 - 359).
A trend plot offers limited analysis tools (there is no identification of specific frequencies, for instance) but can be an important indicator of developing problems.
DEF
Peak Value
RMS Value
Peak Factor
GOOD
BAD
One scale for all the rotational speed
C1 Bearing defect located at cage : l1 defect located at rolling elements B1 defect located at outer race E1 defect located at inner race Conclusion: since there is no harmonics located at 200 2000 Hz, no defect
Database Acquisition
Decisions are only as good as the facts they are based on
Database Set up
A crucial step for any monitoring program is, unfortunately, right at the beginning - database setup. This is unfortunate because it is a crucial task that is performed when the people doing it are most likely inexperienced and of limited education in the field. Once created, it is very difficult to develop new ideas or drastically change things without creating a colossal mess. A monitoring program tracks the condition of your equipment through the measurement of vibration amplitudes on a regular interval. Deviation from the norm then triggers further investigation to determine the source and correct the actual cause of the excessive vibration.
Transducers/Sensors
Accelerometer Velocity Transducer Displacement Transducer Proximity Probes
Not recommended
Snapping Method
Summary
The creation of a database, with all the associated decisions that must be made, is a job that requires a very good technical understanding of vibration analysis, machinery operational characteristics and good doses of common sense. Always question what you are doing, especially whether or not the desired goals are being achieved and, if not, what other methods might be used to achieve those goals.
Sample Database
Lubrication ISO 10816 Vibration Defect Factor Unbalance/misalign Looseness Soft foot Kurtosis Belt Frequencies
Data Processing
II Analyser : further expertise 1 or 2 channels Structure analysis transfer function and coherence Journal bearing Orbit display III Balancing: In situ correction of unbalance 1 to 4 plans 1 or 2 channels
Data Processing
IV Order analysis Machine analysis during startup or shutdown Determination of resonance, critical speed, instability IV DAT Long time acquisition for expertise using post-processing (vib-Graph) For Collector and Analyser modes
Integrated sensors :
Data Processing
Pyrometer with laser-sighting for contact-less measurement (up to 30 cm) for temperature from 0 to 200C Tachometer with laser-sighting (0 to 60 000 tr/mn up to 2m) e-Tag : contact-less automatic identification of measurement point using electronic tags. Learning mode to avoid manual input of codes. Other inputs : Compatible with standard and tri-axial accelerometers Compatible with proximity probes Voltage input +/- 10V and +/- 24V
Vibration velocity 10-1000 Hz according to ISO 2954, ISO 10816 2Hz-300 Hz for reciprocating machines (VDI2063) Detection RMS, peak, peak/peak true and equivalent Display : bar graph, engineering unit and dB Tools for rolling element bearings : Defect Factor (speed 600 to 6000 rpm and Kurtosis for low speed machines)
12 9 6 3
Data Processing
Data Processing
Frequency range : 0 to 40 kHz Number of lines : 100 to 12800 Zoom : 2 to 128 Envelop : adjustment of band with and central frequency Overlapping : 0, 50, 75 % Averaging : 1 to 4096 with linear, exponential or peak hold Weighting window : Rectangular, Hanning, Flat-top Single or double integration for measurement of vibration velocity or displacement.
Data Processing
Synchronous analysis :triggering on analysed signal or trigger input. Post or pre-trigger delay on + or - slope Display of instantaneous spectrum or averaging Cursors : single, harmonic and side band Display : Lin / Log, automatic scaling, engineering unit / dB, Hz / RPM Analysis on all type of signal : vibration, force, pressure, current,.
Sampling frequency : 1,28 Hz to 102,4 kHz Single or double integration for measurement of vibration velocity or displacement. Averaging : 1 to 4096 with linear, exponential or peak hold Synchronous analysis :triggering on analysed signal or trigger input. Post or pre-trigger delay on + or - slope Demodulation of band pass filtered signal (envelop) Analysis on all type of signal : vibration, force, pressure, current,.
Time wave : instantaneous, averaged, envelop Orbit Auto-spectrum : power / RMS, instantaneous / averaged, zoom, envelop Cross-spectrum instantaneous / averaged Amplitude, phase, real part and imaginary part Shock acquisition : shock weighting window, averaging acceptance Transfer function Transmissibility Coherence
Data Processing
Fault Diagnosis
Frequencies are the key to the analysis
What is FFT?
FFT Fast Fourier Transformation Whereas a Trend is amplitude values versus time, a "Spectrum" Plot is amplitude versus frequency. A spectrum, a.k.a. an "FFT", allows you to assess severity (with the amplitude) and helps identify the source (with the frequency). This is the most commonly used analysis tool and is usually sufficient protection for general speed machinery.
FFT Tools
Moveable Cursor - A "base" cursor that can be moved to any frequency and identifies the amplitude at that frequency. Harmonic Cursors - Activating this tool creates additional cursors (as many as are required) that appear at integer multiples of the base cursor. If the base cursor is located at 1x rpm, harmonics will appear at 2x, 3x, 4x, etc. This is the most important analysis tool available. All harmonic cursors are at higher frequencies than the base cursor. Sideband Cursors - Activating this tool creates additional cursors at frequencies to either side of the base cursor. If the 1st (closest) sideband cursors are located 50 cpm to either side of the base cursor, additional sideband cursors (as many as required) will each be located an additional 50 cpm away. For instance, the 2nd sideband cursors will be 100 cpm away from the base cursor, the 3rd will be 150 cpm away, etc.
FFT Terminology
Commonly used terms include: Fundamental Frequency - 1x rpm. Remember that a belt drive, for instance, has three fundamental frequencies. Dominant Frequency - Frequency at which the highest amplitude occurs. Synchronous Vibration - Vibration harmonically related to a fundamental frequency. Non-synchronous Vibration - Vibration not harmonically related to a fundamental frequency. Sub-synchronous Vibration - Vibration occurring at a frequency below the fundamental frequency.
Fundamental/Dominant Frequency
Synchronous Vibration
Harmonics
Non-synchronous Vibration
Non-synchronous
Sub-synchronous Vibration
Sub-synchronous
FFT Resolutions
It determines the accuracy of the frequency data you are analyzing Frequency is how we identify the source of the vibration.
Time Domain
Time domain analysis is a powerful but intimidating tool
Slow Speed Equipment (< 300 rpm) Sleeve Bearings (particularly if readings reflect true shaft movement) Gear Applications
Enveloping
Processing of Enveloping
Filters are used to help process the signal and focus on any impacts that may be occurring. The filters come in two classes: Envelope filter - this type of filter sets a frequency 'envelope' that includes a high frequency (Fmax) and a low frequency (Fmin). Any vibration occurring outside that range is filtered out. Hi-Pass filter - this type of filter eliminates the Fmax but still sets an Fmin filter below which all vibration influences are filtered out. Each manufacturer sets up its own signal processing and filters. Therefore, although they each provide similar information, they are not directly comparable in the amplitude realm.
Words of Warning
The enveloping spectrum is extremely sensitive. It will pick up impact energy that is not necessarily a problem or is a very early stage problem. For instance, it can detect bearing defects before they have migrated to the surface of the bearing. Pulling the bearing at that point will not reveal a defect and may cost you something more valuable than money credibility. Enveloping spectra should be used in conjunction with other analysis tools (velocity and acceleration spectra, thermography, time domain, your experience, etc.) before performing any corrective actions. It is a powerful tool but must be used with care. Like other aspects of vibration analysis, experience will help greatly as it is acquired.
Spectral Analysis
FREQUENCY
FFT SPECTRUM
AMPLITUDE
FREQUENCY
Unbalance
Dominant peak
Causes of Unbalance
Deposit & built-up of dirt Corrosion & wear Eccentricity
Misalignment
Symptoms of misalignment
Wearing of coupling inserts Broken coupling bolts Damage foundation Excessive vibration
Pulley Misalignment
Symptoms
Premature wearing of belts Belts went out from sheave Broken motor shaft
Looseness
Looseness from bolts and nuts Bearing casing or shafting Foundations
Belt Problems
Worn-out, mismatch belts, loose belt or over tension belts
Oil Whirl
High Radial Vibration at 0.42 - 0.48 x RPM.
Cocked Bearing / Shaft Bent Through Bearing Creates similar or even identical vibration symptoms (with the exception of phase) to misalignment - primarily angular misalignment (axial vibration). Must be diagnosed with axial phase analysis or inspected for.
Lubrication Problems
Acceleration Overall value is trended: Causes:
Over lubrication Insufficient lubrication Contamination High oil level Wrong application of lubricant
Resonance
It is important to note that resonance does not cause vibration it amplifies it.
Cavitation
Cavitation symptoms: High frequency, random vibration. Sounds like the pump is pumping gravel. Although amplitudes may or may not be high enough to affect bearing life significantly, cavitation causes excessive wear on the impeller and other internal components. May come and go from one collection to the next as load varies. First step should be to assess operational parameters - flow rates and pressure - that can also influence this vibration. Actual flow & pressure should be compared to the pump curve and design point of the pump. Insufficient flows and/or pressures lead to cavitation. Second step should be an inspection of the internal components for excessive wear with particular attention paid to the impeller vanes.
Recommended Actions:
Gears
Normal Gear Drive Symptoms: Amplitude peaks at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF. Low amplitude and few sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of gear with problem
Recommended Actions:
Recommended Actions:
Recommended Actions:
Gear Load
Gear Load Symptoms: Higher amplitudes at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF. Recommended Actions: None unless there is an increase in sideband activity or the appearance of possible gear resonant frequencies
Gear Misalignment
Gear Misalignment Symptoms: Highest amplitudes at 2x GMF. Amplitude peaks at other GMF harmonics - 1x, 3x, etc. High amplitude sidebands particularly around 2x GMF at 1x or even 2x rpm. Shaft running speed harmonics - 2x and even 3x rpm. Inspect gears for wear patterns misalignment causes uneven wear. Check for external problems - shaft alignment, soft foot, etc.
Recommended Actions:
Recommended Actions:
Good
Good
Good
Periodic Monitoring
Cost effective monitoring means higher profits, recognition, and a better quality of life.
Alignment Tolerance
Alignment Rotational Acceptable Tolerance Alignment Rotational Acceptable Tolerance Condition Speed mils mm Condition Speed mils mm Parallel 0 - 1000 5 0.13 Angular 0 - 1000 4 0.1 Offset 1 - 2000 4 0.1 Error 1 - 2000 3.5 0.08 2 - 3000 3 0.07 2 - 3000 2.5 0.07 3 - 4000 2 0.04 3 - 4000 2 0.06 4 - 5000 1.5 0.03 4 - 5000 1.5 0.05 5 - 6000 < 1.5 < 0.03 5 - 6000 1.5 0.04