MSc in International Rural Development Research Report

By

Percy Mabvuto-NGWIRA
A research report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in International Rural Development - Tourism Development

School of Agriculture The Royal Agriculture College (RAC) The University College at Cirencester GLOUCESTERSHIRE, UNITED KINGDOM

31st September, 2011

Percy Mabvuto-NGWIRA

HDP (Zambia) BA Hons. (Hong Kong) MSc. (UK)

Royal Agricultural College The University College at Cirencester.

Stroud Road GL7 6JS, Cirencester, Gloucestershire UK Telephone: +44 (0) 1285 652531 Fax: +44 (0) 1285 652531 Email: 277584@rac.ac.uk Website: www.rac.ac.uk

Supervisor: Dr. John Conway

Percy Mabvuto-NGWIRA

HDP (Zambia) BA Hons. (Hong Kong) MSc. (UK)

Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources Department of Tourism Development

South West Regional Tourism Development P.O. BOX 60563, Livingstone, ZAMBIA Telephone: +260 213 321630 Fax: +260 213 321630 Email: tngwira@gmail.com Website: www.mtenr.gov.zm

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sincere thanks to the lecturers and staff at the Royal Agricultural College for their guidance and assistance in the completion of my MSc program and this research. I am indebted to my supervisor Dr. John Conway for his commitment, professional guidance and enduring interest in my research study. I am only just beginning to appreciate how much insights I gained under his supervision. My indebtedness will forever be owed to David Campbell, Dr. Richard Baines, all the trustees of the Africa Land and Food Fellowship for their funding of my whole MSc studies. Many thanks are also due to all my colleagues under the Africa Land and Food Fellowship Nondzukiso Dolly SALIWE (South Africa) Thecla MASUKU (Zambia) Rebecca ATAI (Uganda) Tanyi Divine EBAI (Cameroun) Nyambe MATAA (Zambia) Jeffrey NGAKA (South Africa) Nomazwe SIZIBA (Zimbabwe) Kenneth KHAUKANANI (South Africa) and last but not the least Emmanuel MUPANDA (Zimbabwe). You guys made me feel at home and gave me the reason to go on even when I felt like giving up. The all International Rural Development (IRD) class was an inspiration.

I pay special tribute to my wife, Constance Mwaba-Ngwira and our boys, Percy Taonga-Ngwira and Ryan Mapalo-Ngwira for their encouragement and patience with a husband and father who often disappears at the time that you need him most, because of his studies .

Lastly, I am grateful to all the staff at the National Heritage Conservation commission and Zambia Wildlife Authority for their input during my research data collection. And special thanks go to MTENR, South West staff for their uncompromised support during my study leave. May the almighty God bless u all.

DEDICATION

To Constance, Taonga and Mapalo.

GEOTOURISM AND COMMUNITY BASED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CBNRM) OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.

Synopsis
Percy Mabvuto Ngwira, M.Sc. International Rural Development, 2010 - 11

Introduction This study is comprised of two papers; paper one here referred to as Review Paper and paper two here referred to as Research paper. Together they provide a comprehensive investigation into one type of tourism Geotourism and its opportunity to contribute to sustainable tourism development and poverty alleviation in developing countries. Problem statement Despite developing countries (e.g. Zambia, India, Zimbabwe, Maldives, Laos, Kenya, Brazil, and Mexico) possessing many natural based tourism resources and very rich cultural heritages which are pull factors for many foreign tourists that bring in the much needed foreign income, the standard, and quality of life for many people has not improved in these countries. Whereas; in other developed economies tourism has played a leading role in sustainable development. The problem is lack of in-depth understanding of the role that various forms of tourism like geotourism can play in sustainable development of a country or

community; many governments in the developing world do not explore the many opportunities that tourism offers in the overall development of a country. Unless there is a clear understanding of the direct and indirect contributions that various forms of tourism like geotourism can play in the overall development of a country, the efforts of sustainable development through tourism in developing countries are a long way from being realised.

Objectives of the Research The specific objectives of this research are as follows: 1. To identify the opportunities created by the development of geotourism in reducing poverty through positive economic contributions towards the local communities in which it is developed. 2. To determine the features of Victoria Falls and see if they fit in the geotourism concept. 3. To determine the extent to which communities get involved in the management of community based natural tourism resources.

Significance of the study The proposed study is in sharp contrast to the majority studies that have been done so far, which are often general on the subject of geotourism and sustainable development in so far as poverty alleviation is concerned. By recognising the role that geotourism can play in sustainable development and poverty alleviation in developing countries, this study provides insights and in-

depth understanding of the subject matter. This particular approach to contemporary tourism planning, and sustainable development highlights the significant contributions that geotourism can make to reduce poverty. To fully assess the potentialities of geotourism contribution to sustainable development and poverty reduction in developing countries, it is necessary to go beyond the general economic benefit and social-cultural impacts of the industry in destination countries, and rather focus on investigating how tourism can trickle down to sustain the livelihood of the people, how the economic benefits derived from various types of tourism like geotourism development and investment can be distributed equally and how poverty alleviation can be embedded in the overall tourism sustainable developmental plans. The proposed study will contribute significantly to such focus strategy. Furthermore, if geotourism and the advocated sustainable development has to be a reality in developing countries there is need to bring on board everyone concerned especially communities living within the natural based tourism resources like the Victoria Falls.

Research Methodology This research study adopted a descriptive research design using qualitative case study approach as documented by (e.g. Veal, 1997; Hussy & Hussey, 1997; Jennings 2001). Considering the current general status of studies on the subject matter, the characteristics, and functions of qualitative approach were

appropriate to be employed in the collection and analysis of data for this study. The study specifically used document review, direct observation and various face-face interview techniques. Face Face interviews included 20 tourists, His Royal Highness Chief Mukuni, Livingstone Tourism Association members 10 tour operators operating within the World Heritage site, National Heritage Conservation Commission, Zambia Wildlife Authority, 15 local people working in different tourism businesses within and around the Victoria Falls and curio sellers who sell their products just by the entrance to the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site Zambian side. Data analysis In this study, general strategies for analysing case study and as outlined by Yin (2003:111) were utilised. Data was analysed and interpreted based on the methodological tools (i.e. document reviews, face-face interviews and direct observation) used. Further, data was disassembled and reassembled to draw out uniqueness in pattern or behaviour. Then coded it wherever possible in order to trace such data back to the interview (via transcript), document, or observation for purposes of a conformability audit to verify the process and research method. The analysis and synthesis followed a development process continually evolving and emerging through constant comparison of newly, acquired data with previously acquired material.

Review Paper The review paper provides a general introduction to the topic, by drawing upon current literature. Sections in this paper are dedicated to defining the concept of geotourism; explaining tourism with some of its problems in relation to economic development, Sustainable tourism what sustainable mean in this context, geotourism concept looking at history its confusion over geographical or geological and how geotourism implies learning and education not just wow what a pretty landscape. After that is how geoparks specifically link sustainable development to geotourism i.e. its not just sustainable tourism, it is how geotourism supports community development. Then current literature explaining sustainable tourism, poverty alleviation and community development is also explored. Reviewing the literature included looking into books, journals, periodical publications, technical materials, electronics/internet search, professionals meetings, seminars and discussions, conference presentation papers, articles and any material related to the subject matter.

Key findings from the reviewed literature have shown that, the concepts and of Geotourism and Geoparks are relatively new. But since they are both opportunities for rural community development they present essential

credentials for poverty alleviation and sustainable development in developing countries. The other key finding is that the reviewed literature shows that

geotourism is a new phenomenon with limited data and further research is needed to improve its understanding capabilities.

Research Paper The second paper here referred to as research paper uses reasonable evidence to investigate further the concept of geotourism and community involvement in the management of tourism natural based resources. Victoria Falls a World Heritage site and the 7th Natural wonder of the world in Livingstone Zambia is used as a case study. The case study has been investigated in a wider context from sustainability management to policy formulation to its potentiality as a geotourism development. The research paper followed the above described methodology and data analysis. Key findings show that Victoria Falls the case study fits well in the concept of geotourism and has the potential to be developed into a geopark. Further, findings indicate that communities around the Victoria Falls are not fully involved in the management of this precious natural resource and their involvement in tourism business is very low. This situation has not improved the live-hood of the local people living within and around the Victoria Falls. On the contrary findings strongly suggest that if developed into a Geopark and managed within the geotourism principles Victoria Falls World Heritage Site has site to contributing to poverty alleviation and community

the potential to contribute to sustainable tourism development and poverty alleviation for the communities.

The paper concludes by recommending active participation by all stakeholders in the development of geotourism for them to benefit from its perceived potential to contribute to poverty alleviation and sustainable tourism development. Limitations to the research included the fact that it only investigated Victoria Falls on the Zambia side and left Zimbabwean side. Geotourism been a new concept there was limited previous studies done on the subject especially in relation to poverty alleviation in developing countries. Further research is needed since geotourism and geoparks are new concepts this will help to further understand their potentialities to contribute to poverty alleviation. Further investigation that includes the Zimbabwean side on the Victoria Falls is inevitable to make comparisons since the World Heritage site is managed by both Zambia and Zimbabwe.

DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE
I Percy Mabvuto-NGWIRA do hereby declare that this research work is my own work and effort and that it has not been submitted anywhere for any award. Where other sources of information have been used, they have been acknowledged in accordance with the college referencing system.

Signature: .

Date: .

Review Paper
GEOTOURISM & GEOPARKS OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A REVIEW

ABSTRACT Geotourism, or tourism related to geological sites and features, including geomorphological sites and landscapes, can be seen as a relatively new phenomenon, and also a subset of geology and tourism. This paper explores current literature on geotourism and geoparks, in relation to sustainable development. Furthermore it explores current literature on the direct and indirect sustainable development impacts from geotourism and geopark concepts and their implications on social, environmental and economic development on communities in developing countries; with tourism being a fast growing economic sector in developing countries, one would want to know exactly the role different types of tourism play in sustainable development for many poor people in the developing world. Reviewed literature has shown that, the concepts of geotourism and geoparks are relatively new, but presents essential credentials for poverty alleviation and sustainable development in developing countries Key words: Geotourism, Sustainable tourism development, Geoparks, Poverty Alleviation.

Introduction In recent time, the concept of geotourism has become one of the most popular concepts in some tourism circles and has presented an opportunity for intensive investigations on what it is and what role it can play in tourism, in the tourism industry.

The perceived novelty and persuasiveness of the idea of geotourism derives from the quest for sustainable tourism development with a primary focus on experiencing the earths geological features in a way that fosters environmental and cultural, understanding, appreciation and conservation and is locally beneficial (Dowling & Newsome, 2006). Geotourism is a relatively new concept in the tourism industry and is increasingly attracting interest around the world. Though; the term has been in use informally since 1997, the 2002 Geotourism study, sponsored by National Geographical Traveller magazine and conducted by Travel Industry of America (T.I.A), claims to have constituted its public debate. According to James & Hose, (2008) geotourism is a form of special interest tourism and focuses on the geology and formation of landscapes. Tongul, (2006) defines it as utilization of geological heritage resources for education-based tourism. Since coming on the scene geotourism has generated debates from stakeholders, organisations, individuals, governments and scholars coming on board to try and investigated how geotourism can be used as a tool for

sustainable development especially in developing countries. Therefore the aim of this paper is to review the current state of geotourism.

In the wake of sustainable development and globalisation many nations especially developing ones are in a hurry to formulate, redefine and implement policies that are sustainable. To reduce environmental, social and economic costs and increase benefits, many international aid agencies and donor governments have recognised the positive impact tourism can bring to a country by creating economic opportunities and contributing to the general quality of life of residents (Ashley and Mitchell, 2005).

This study therefore, seeks to explore the direct and indirect sustainable development impacts from geotourism concept and their implications on social, environmental and economic development in developing countries; With tourism being a fast growing economic sector in developing countries, one would want to know exactly the role different types of tourism play in sustainable development for many poor people in the developing world.

Tourism as an economic Sector. Tourism is an activity which cuts across conventional sectors in the economy. It requires inputs of an economic, social and cultural nature, and hopefully is also environmentally conscious. In this sense it is often described as being multifaceted. The problem in describing tourism as an industry is that it does not have the usual formal production function, nor does it have an output which can

physically be measured (Lickorish & Jenkins, 1997). Defining tourism concept has been a challenge, but the most widely accepted definition is the one developed by the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) in 1991 travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for more than twenty-four (24) hours and not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited (World Tourism Organisation, 1998) Tourism can be thought of as a whole range of individuals, businesses, organisations and places which combine in some way to deliver a travel experience. Tourism is a multidimensional, multifaceted activity, which touches many lives and many different economic activities (Cooper et al, 2008) hence it is not surprising that the term tourism has proved difficulty to define. As challenging as is the definition of tourism; so is the understanding of the different types of tourism such as Ecotourism, Cultural tourism, Medical tourism, Religious tourism and Geotourism.

Sustainable Tourism development The concept of sustainable development result from a worldview which

sees the survival, progress, and continued maintenance of the human community as dependent on the continued health and viability of the earths life support systems. Sustainable development implies processes of fundamental change in our social system institutions and individual actions. The drive of this change

relates to addressing the challenges embedded in the new global awareness that the earth is finite, and all of the planets life support systems including social

and economic systems are globally interconnected and interdependent.

The publication of the 1987 Brundtland report, widely criticised in some circles as lacking specifics, Our Common Future marked a breakpoint in thinking on environment, development, and governance. The UN-sponsored World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), led by Gro Harlem Brundtland, issued a bold call to recalibrate institutional mechanisms at global, national and local levels to promote economic development that would guarantee the security, well-being, and very survival of the planet (WCED, 1987:23). Sneddon et al, (2006) intimates that the call for sustainable development was a redirection of the enlightenment project, a pragmatic response to the problems of the times.

The Brundtland report also provided the widely acceptable definition of sustainable development which is that Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) (1998) documents that the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, popularly known as the Earth Summit held in 1992 in Brazil Rio de Janeiro further stimulated the need for sustainable

development and was expressed in agenda 21 that were adopted by the conference.

After the Rio conference many nations organisation and governments began adopting sustainability as a fundamental development policy. The UNWTO was one of the first international organisations that adopted the sustainable approach to tourism development and applies sustainable principles in all of its tourism planning and development studies. Hunt (1992:2) suggested that the concept of sustainable tourism development is "one of the healthiest insights of tourism". However, the concept is not easily understood and - as policy certainly not easily implemented (Haider and Johnston, 1992, Burr and Walsh, 1994 ;). Butler (1993) suggested that a working definition of sustainable development in the context of tourism could be taken as tourism which remains viable over an indefinite period and does not degrade or alter the environment (human and physical) in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits the successful development and well-being of other activities and processes. In line with Butlers suggestion UNWTO has defined sustainable tourism as Sustainable tourism development that meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. It is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural

integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity, and life support systems, (World Tourism Organisation 1998:21).

According to Inskeep (1991), the goals of sustainable tourism are: to develop a greater awareness and understanding of the significant contributions that tourism can make to the environment, people, and the economy; to promote equity in development; to improve the quality of life of the host community; to provide a high quality of experience for the visitor; and to maintain the quality of the environment on which the foregoing goals depend. Butler (1993) states that the element of change in tourism is a crucial factor since sustainable development "implies some measure of stability and performance, at least in the very long term view, and this does not blend with a highly dynamic and consistently changing phenomenon such as tourism. According to McIntyre et al, (1993), achieving sustainable tourism development "requires a vision which encompasses a larger time and space context than that traditionally used in community planning and decision making. The demands for sustainable tourism development to be developed irrespective of whether other, interrelated, segments are to be sustainable or is inappropriate and contradictory (Hall & Lew, 1998). Notwithstanding this apparent discrepancy, various authors have recognized different forms of sustainability in the context of tourism. Coccossis (1995) in Hall & Lew (1998) suggests that there are at least four ways in which to elucidate tourism in relation to sustainable development. He

describes these as linking to economic sustainability, ecological sustainability, long term viability of tourism and the acknowledgment of tourism as a part of the overall strategy for sustainable development.

The prominent and fast rise of investigation in sustainable tourism research is demonstrated by the creation of the Journal of Sustainable Tourism in 1993, which has been publishing articles pertaining to sustainable tourism.

Sustainable tourisms popularity is also evident in the acceptance of it as a potential dogma for saving tourism destinations or minimizing tourisms impact on future destinations. Sustainable tourisms success has given rise to many niche definitions within the tourism industry. As alluded to earlier, the success of sustainable tourism should be attributed to it being indefinable and thus has become all things to all interested parties (Butler, 1999). Since the interpretation is open to the individual, there have been many off- shoots of sustainable tourism within the last two decades. The fragmentation of

sustainable tourism has brought about development of carious concepts and initiatives for sustainable tourisms such as Ecotourism (Ceballos-Lascurin, 1996), Geotourism (Stokes, et al 2003b), and New Tourism (Squire, 1996). The following discussion will focus on Geotourism and its place within sustainable tourism development.

It must be added here that while researchers labour to investigate the better ways to develop sustainable tourism, policy makers have a big responsibility to distinguish between alternative tourism like Geotourism which must meet the high standards of social and environmental impact, and tourism in general, the negative impacts of which may be allowed to continue. In simple terms, we cannot make any form of tourism more sustainable unless we understand the ways in which it dovetails with all forms of the industry.

The Geotourism concept Geotourism could be traced as far back as the year 1956 when one pioneer of Italian geology Michele Gortani stated that; to the geologists mind, the landscape comes alive and talk. Every stone, every form of coast or mountain or valley tells its story, evoking the vicissitudes of its history and its becoming. Hose (1995) documents that the geotourism concept was developed and promoted from the early 1990s, onwards. Joyce (2006a) argues to say; geotourism is a relatively neoteric term and does not yet appear in dictionaries, it can be seen as an augmentation of tourism generally and a part of ecotourism in particular and perhaps geotourism is looking back to the eighteenth century Grand Tour, where learning, education and self-improvements where the aims. She adds saying Geotourism, or tourism related to geological sites and features, can be seen as an innovative phenomenon. National Geographical Center for Sustainable Development defines Geotourism as Tourism that

sustains or enhances the geographical characters of a place its environment, heritage, aesthetic, culture, and the well-being of its residents. In doing so, National Geographic sparks a vigorous debate on whether geo means geographical or geological. Joyce (2006) contends that definition of geotourism needs to be explored further, as a contemporary concept geotourism draws on both geology and tourism. She provides a working definition for geotourism in her paper as Geotourism could be people going to a place to look at and learn about one or more aspects of geology and geomorphology. Coenraads & Koivula (2007) view geotourism as having the objectives as ecotourism, but particularly seeks to explain the beauty and origins of the earth all landscapes, landforms, plants and animals. According to Dowling (2010), Geotourism is a form of natural area tourism that specifically focuses on geology and landscape. It promotes tourism to geosites and the conservation of Geodiversity and an understanding of earth sciences through appreciation and learning. Dowling outlines geotourism characteristics which are that while geotourism is geologically based, it can occur in either natural, rural or urban environments; it fosters geoheritage conservation through appropriate sustainability measures and it promotes sound geological understanding through interpretation and education and it generates tourist or visitor satisfaction. Like ecotourism, geotourism promotes a virtuous circle whereby tourism revenues provide a local incentive to protect what tourists are coming to see, but extends the principle beyond nature and ecology to

incorporate all characteristics that contribute to a sense of place. It incorporates sustainability principles, but in addition to the do-no-harm ethic, geotourism focuses on the place as a whole.

Geotourism has emerged as a much talked about topic that is frequently linked to the term sustainable tourism (Farsan et al, 2009). It is a developing segment of tourism based on Geodiversity. Humans have always travelled to appreciate the geological wonders of this world, but only now are many people giving it much more attention. Geotourism is creating a fresh niche in the tourism sector with fresh specificities and different contingencies that follow the general trends of tourism but also has its own trends (Rodrigues & Carvalho 2009). Dowling (2009) states that Geotourism as an emerging global phenomenon is sustainable with initial focus on experiencing the earths geological features in way that encourages environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation and is locally beneficial. It promotes tourism to geosites and the conservation of geo-diversity and an understanding of earth sciences through appreciation and learning. This is achieved through independent visits to geological features, use of geo-trails and viewpoints, guided tours, geo-activities and patronage of geo-site visitor centres.

Geotourism complements scenic beauty with revelation of how these geological features were formed (Robinson & Roots, 2008). It has become a unique market segment in tourism centered on sustaining and enhancing the geographical character of place (Stokes et al., 2003). Dowling (2009) views Geotourism as having a number of interrelated components all of which should be present for authentic geotourism to occur. geotourism is geologically-based There are five fundamental principles: (that is, based on the earths

geoheritage), it is sustainable (i.e.: economically viable, community enhancing and fosters geoconservation), educative (achieved through geo-

interpretation), locally beneficial, and generates tourist satisfaction. The first three characteristics are considered to be essential for a product to be considered geotourism while the last two characteristics are viewed as being desirable for all forms of tourism.

Geotourism and Sustainability In relation to the concept of geotourism; sustainable (tourism) development is the main reason for the stimulation of geotourism. Mitchell, (1989) documents that from a geographical point of view sustainable development can be traced to the time of Marsh when geographers started influencing the course of natural resource management in several ways. Hall & Lew (1998) supports Mitchell stating that Geographers have been interested in the appropriate use of the physical environment by humankind since the middle nineteenth century and

have also served to chart the history of environmental attitudes in Western and other societies. Mitchell and Murphy (1991) identified some major contributions of geographers to the study of tourism with respect to environmental, regional, spatial and evolutionally deliberation. Indisputably, these four areas are of considerable importance to geographers and geologists. Uncertainties of the relationship between tourism and the physical and social environment, particularly with respect to such notions as carrying capacity, have been at the forefront of much geographical and geological study, (Mathieson & Wall 1992; Pearce 1989). As Johnston (1991:1) recognised, academic life is not a closed system but rather is open to the influences and commands of the wider society which encompasses it; therefore the attention of geographers and geologists to the issues of sustainable tourism development through geotourism should come as no surprise. Geotourism is a holistic approach to sustainable tourism focusing on all definable points that create an authentic travel experience (Stokes et al., 2003). Pforr and Megerle, (2006) have cited work by Buckley, 2003 and Lang, 2003 that defines geotourism as the intersection of nature-based tourism focusing on geo-objects and sustainable development. They see geotourism in the context not only of a new market segment but also as a normative direction contributing to geo-conservation and sustainable development. Megerle & Megerle, (2002) suggests that geotourism should be viewed as part of a holistic management approach to the broad field of geological and landscape history

including its interconnectedness with flora and fauna, the cultivated landscape, and present land use. They view sustainability and environmental education as integral parts.

Boley, (2009) states that; Geotourisms mission is to preserve the geographical character of the destination which differentiates it from other forms of sustainable tourism. Instead of focusing on one specific dimension of the travel experience such as the environment, community or culture, geotourism encompasses various types of travel experiences into one distinctness that focuses on sustaining the geographical character of the destination. It is

beneficial for both the tourist and the visited because it provides tourists with an authentic experience while the destinations unique virtues are preserved. By accentuating the unique features of the travel destination, geotourism ideally should provide a tourism industry that protects the regions identity while providing an authentic travel experience.

It is best to view geotourism as a holistic form of sustainable tourism that incorporates themes from various types of sustainable tourism segments such as integrated rural tourism, cultural and heritage tourism, community-based tourism, pro-poor tourism and ecotourism. The desire to experience pristine natural areas without negatively impacting them is borrowed from ecotourism. The desire to experience unique cultural heritage is adapted from culture (Boley, 2009). Robison (2009) points out that geotourism is ecologically

sustainable tourism that explains the scenery in terms of how geological processes formed the patterns that can be observed in landforms in a plethora of landscapes such as mountains, deserts and islands, and in the rock outcrops that can be observed in coastal cliffs, creeks, road cuttings, lookouts, quarries, mine sites, and through walks in national parks. Most of these are erosional sites; none need to be ecologically challenged. It should be added here that the potential impact of increasing world tourism is immense, and this should preclude, or at least severely restrict, its involvement with wilderness areas.

Global tourism must be ecologically sustainable, and shifting the emphasis from other forms of sustainable tourism like ecotourism to geotourism represents a positive step towards more sustainable global tourism. National Geographical Center for Sustainable Destinations documents that Geotourism is sustainable tourism energised. It sustains, but it can also enhance by means of restorative and constructive forms of tourism that fit the nature of the destination. Tourist revenue can help to restore historic districts, for instance, and support local craftspeople. It can help to preserve and develop local cuisines, based on distinctively local ingredients supplied by local farmers. It can help to retain traditional cultural celebrations and performing arts that would otherwise disappear. It can help to beautify ugly places and enrich poor places. It does those things best when focused on the distinctiveness of a place, avoiding the destructive pitfalls of undifferentiated global mass tourism.

Geotourism development at the local and regional levels must be developed within the context of sustainable local, national and international tourism development. At the local, regional and national levels, development policies, plans and programs, laws and regulations, and marketing, all influence sustainable tourism development. The three main principles of sustainable development which can also be applied to regional geotourism development planning are its concentration on ecological, social and economic issues, (Dowling 2009). Dowling goes on to stress that geotourism will only be sustainable where there are benefits for the host community, and these may be social and/or cultural, and environmental and will not necessarily be confined to economic benefits.

The Geotourism Charter The National Geographical society has also developed a Geotourism Charter based on 13 principles: Integrity of place: Enhance International codes: Adhere to the embodied in the World

geographical character by developing principles

and improving it in ways distinctive to Tourism Organizations Global Code of the locale, reflective of its natural Ethics for Tourism and the Principles of and cultural heritage, so as to the Cultural Tourism Charter

encourage market differentiation and established by the International Council cultural pride. on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS).

Market selectivity: Encourage growth Tourist

satisfaction:

Ensure

that

in tourism market segments most satisfied, excited geotourists bring new likely to appreciate, respect, and vacation stories home and send friends disseminate information about the off to experience the same thing, thus distinctive assets of the locale. providing continuing demand for the destination.

Community involvement: Base tourism Community benefit: Encourage microon community resources to the extent to medium-size enterprises and tourism possible, encouraging local small business strategies that emphasize

businesses and civic groups to build economic and social benefits to involved partnerships to promote and provide a communities, especially poverty

distinctive, honest visitor experience alleviation, with clear communication of and market their locales effectively. the destination stewardship policies Help businesses develop approaches required to maintain those benefits. to tourism that build on the areas nature, history and culture, including food and drink, artisanry,

performance arts, etc.

Protection destination

and

enhancement

of Land

use:

Anticipate and apply

development techniques to

appeal:

Encourage pressures

businesses to sustain natural habitats, prevent undesired overdevelopment and heritage sites, aesthetic appeal, and degradation. local culture. Prevent degradation by vacation-home Contain sprawl, resort especially and on

keeping volumes of tourists within coasts and islands, so as to retain a maximum acceptable limits. Seek diversity of natural and and scenic

business models that can operate environments profitably within those limits. Use resident persuasion, incentives, and

ensure to

continued

access

waterfronts.

legal Encourage major self-contained tourism attractions, such as large-scale theme parks and convention centres unrelated to character of place, to be sited in needier locations with no significant ecological, scenic, or cultural assets.

enforcement as needed.

Planning:

Recognize

and

respect Interactive

interpretation:

Engage

immediate economic needs without both visitors and hosts in learning sacrificing long-term character and about the place. Encourage residents to the geotourism potential of the show off the natural and cultural

destination. Where tourism attracts heritage of their communities, so that

in-migration of workers, develop new tourists gain a richer experience and communities that themselves residents develop pride in their locales.

constitute a destination enhancement. Strive to diversify the economy and limit population influx to sustainable levels. Adopt public strategies for mitigating incompatible damaging to practices with the that are and the

geotourism image of

destination.

Evaluation: Establish an evaluation process to be conducted on a regular basis by an independent all publicize panel

representing interests, results. and

stakeholder evaluation

Source: National Geographic, (2010)

Geoparks concept and Sustainable Development Allied to the development of geotourism is the evolution of geoparks. A geopark is an area with a geological heritage of significance, with a coherent and strong management structure and where a sustainable economic development strategy

is in place (UNESCO, 2006). In her article with the Geological Society of London Jones (2008) states that; the philosophy behind the geoparks concept was first introduced at the Digne Convention in 1991 as a means to protect and promote geological heritage and sustainable local development through a global network of territories containing geology of outstanding value. In 1997, in direct response to the Declaration of the Rights of the Memory of the Earth', the Division of Earth Sciences of UNESCO introduced the concept of a UNESCO Geoparks Programme to support national and international endeavours in Earth heritage conservation, defining a Geopark as: A territory encompassing one or more sites of scientific importance, not only for geological reasons but also by virtue of its archaeological, ecological or cultural value.

In 2000, representatives from four European territories met together to address regional economic development through the protection of geological heritage and the promotion of geotourism. The result of this meeting was the signing of a convention declaring the creation of the European Geoparks Network (EGN). The next significant step for the EGN was the signing of an official agreement of collaboration with UNESCO in 2001, placing the Network under the auspices of the UNESCO. In 2004 at the first international conference on geoparks was held in Beijing China, the 17 existing European Geoparks joined with eight new Chinese national geoparks to form a Global

Network of National Geoparks under the auspices of UNESCO. Today the idea of geoparks is spreading like wild fire around the world in all the continents (see fig 1 note a North American geopark has been defined since this map was produced) with Africa launching its Geopark Network (AGN) in November 2011. Progress has not always been easy, however, and finding funding to develop the initiative and secure the future of individual Geoparks remains a significant challenge.

Figure 1: The world map showing the distribution of geoparks as of 2009

Source: Quick.com (2011) The geoparks initiative adds a new dimension to the 1972 Convention relating to the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage by highlighting the potential for interaction between social-economic, cultural development and conservation of the natural environment (Zouros & McKeever 2009). A geopark must have a management plan to foster sustainable socio-economic development predominantly based on geotourism. It must also demonstrate methods for

preservation and promotion of geological heritage and provide opportunities for studying of geology and other natural sciences. In order to be established as a geopark it shall be initiated together by local authorities and communities and private entities. It has the potential to be part of a global network which demonstrates and shares good practices for preservation of Earths heritage and its involvement in strategies for sustainable development, (Geopark IskarPanega, 2010). Geoparks address the strong need for the effective management of important geological sites and for the sustainable economic development of rural areas through the development of geotourism thus enhancing the value of their earth heritage, landscapes and geological formations.

A geopark must contain geologically or geomorphologically important locations of interest to a wider community. These locations can be important by their scientific value, rarity, aesthetic or educational importance. Geoparks do not only benefit from geologically interesting locations, but also from various ecological, archaeological, historical and cultural notability. Geoparks are run by local communities which can recognise and wish to confirm their geological, historical and cultural heritage, mostly through the idea of geotourism. All Geoparks must not only be active by local means, but also by the means of the geopark community, and thus cooperate on mutual projects and exchange of ideas for the improvement (Geo Papuk Park, 2011). According to Lochaber Geopark (2011), geoparks are not just about rocks - they are also about people,

and helping communities to understand their Earth heritage, and to benefit from it. The significant aspect of geoparks is that they are driven by local communities that want to celebrate their Earth heritage and thereby achieve sustainable development of their area through 'geotourism'.

Geoparks have been established to create enhanced employment opportunities for the people who live there and foster economic benefits for them, usually through the development of sustainable tourism. These earth heritage sites are part of an integrated concept of protection, education and sustainable development.

Sustainable tourism, poverty alleviation and community development Traditionally the impact of tourism has been measured in terms of its contribution to Gross National Product (GNP) and employment created. Every so often tourisms overall impact on the economy is estimated by looking at the effect of tourism expenditures through direct, indirect and induced spending using a multiplier effect approach. Tourism growth is most often measured

through increases in international arrivals, length of stay, bed occupancy, tourism expenditures and the value of tourism spending. However, none of

these measures provide any means of determining the scale of the impact on the poor or even the trends which result from overall growth or decline on the poor. While in the literature there are references to the importance of tourism in the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), developing countries, rural and

marginalized areas there is very little consideration of the impact of tourism on the poor (Walter et al, 2004). The reasoning behind tourism development as a means of alleviating poverty in developing countries has been contended in general terms with a focus on economic modernization and economic growth. The supposition has been that any tourism development will eventually benefit the poor through the trickle down effect. There can be no doubt that tourism development does employ those who are economically disadvantaged but there is a growing body of evidence Walter et al, (2004) state that tourism development enriches international companies, expatriate workers and the local elites, while generating low paying and low status employment for the poor local communities. Additionally, poorly planned and managed tourism can destroy ecological systems, raise the cost of living for local people and damage social and cultural traditions and lifestyles.

Those engaged in tourism development have generally not sought to demonstrate the impacts of tourism on poverty reduction the focus has been on macro-economic impact and its potential to bring economic growth to poor and marginalized individuals and communities rather than on measuring and demonstrating specific impacts on poverty.

Ashley and Mitchell, (2005) document that recent analysis suggests tourism has got reasonable pro-poor credentials. Tourism is labour-intensive compared to

other non-agricultural sectors; has high female employment ratios and is not necessarily import intensive. The sector has low barriers to entry, encompassing a range of enterprises from the micro to the multi-national and providing opportunities for downstream economic linkages in the local economy. Those who suffer from competition for water, land, and coast are likely to be the poor, but the poor also gain from opportunities for un-skilled and semi-skilled employment and infrastructure development. But this good news does not justify complacency. There is increasing evidence (see Ashley and Mitchel, 2005) that actions at the level of the corporate and government can sharpen the pro-poor benets from tourism. A growing body of microeconomic evidence suggests that companies themselves can boost their local impact by doing business differently. They can develop stronger economic linkages, either by adapting their supply chain, or by stimulating local tourism service-providers and cultural products. There is a range of partnership models for local people to engage with tourism businesses, often utilising their land or resource rights.

Garraway, (2007) argued that there are a number of issues that must be considered in addressing poverty alleviation through tourism. Key amongst these are: partnerships development between government, non-government, private and international bodies; empowering the poor and creating access to opportunities in the industry; reducing leakages and improving linkages with other sectors and monitoring the economic impact of the industry.

Geotourism has emerged as opportunity for poverty alleviation through tourism. It has immense potential to help the global fight against poverty. Studies done so far on geotourism and the geopark concepts concluded that there is great opportunity for geotourism to contribute to poverty alleviation (See, Dowling, 2009, Farsan, et al 2009 and Piranha, et al 2009.). Farsani et al (2010), states that one of the main strategic objectives of a geopark is to stimulate economic activity and sustainable development. A geopark seeking UNESCOs assistance serves to foster socio-economic development that is culturally and

environmentally sustainable. This has a direct impact on the area involved by improving human living conditions and the rural environment. Geotourism development also represents a partnership among the government, local people and private sectors, local businesses, outdoor companies, tour agencies, restaurants, accommodations among others. This partnership is welcomed because it makes good economic sense and can benet all partners Dowling, (2009).

Dowling, (2009), Give an example, of the first Australian geopark, the Kanawinka
(meaning the land of tomorrow) Geopark by the local Buandik people. Through

the creation of this geopark a number of local enterprise and small business have been established as well as training programmes and new jobs by generating new sources of revenue while also protecting the geo-resources. The geopark has also fostered an education regime which includes a number of tools

and activities which communicate geoscientific knowledge and environmental concepts to the public and the local community.

Mc Keever et al. (2010) described the creation of the Lesvos Petried Forest European Geopark as transforming western Lesvos, attracting 90 000 visitors annually and employing 35 locals directly and with hundreds of new jobs having been created indirectly. The geopark is now the islands main visitor attraction and is an excellent example of how the holistic approach to conservation used in geoparks can be successful from the perspective of the local community. Since geoparks and geotourism are opportunities for rural development, they reduce the rate of unemployment and migration through engaging local communities in geopark activities. Regarding this, geopark authorities have adopted some positive policies toward stimulating locals participation for local economic prosperity and preservation of natural resources; Farsani (2010).

Debatably, whilst there is a growing amount of research and understanding on the supply side of geotourism and geoparks, there is relatively little known about the demand for these products.

Conclusion The reviewed literature has shown that, the concepts of geotourism and geoparks are relatively new, but presents essential credentials for poverty alleviation and sustainable development in developing countries. However, without in-depth understanding of role that each type of tourism like

Geotourism can play in poverty alleviation and sustainable tourism development; the efforts of developing pro-poor tourism in developing countries will be fruitless. Therefore, there is need for further research and investigation of the role of geotourism in sustainable development in developing countries. Since geotourism and geoparks are opportunities for rural development, they offer prospects for reducing the rate of poverty through engaging local communities in geopark activities. In line with this, geotourism practioners and geopark authorities have to adopt some positive policies toward stimulating locals participation for local economic prosperity, poverty alleviation and sustainable development. This new vision of geotourism and geoparks has presented an opportunity for developing nations especially in Africa to create new products (geo-products, geo-menus in restaurants, etc.), new jobs (geotours, geo-restaurants, geo-bakeries and rural hotels) and new recreational activities (geo-sports, geo-monuments, geopark museums, etc.) for local communities. It is worth mentioning that these recreational activities that are related to topography and geology, in some ways, are educational too.

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Research Paper
GEOTOURISM (Geoparks) AND COMMUNITY BASED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CBNRM) OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ANDPOVERTY ALLEVIATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF VICTORIA FALLS - ZAMBIA

ABSTRACT

This research explores communities participation, involvement and benefits from the management of geotourism-based natural resources with particular focus on local participation. Specifically the study uses Victoria Falls World Heritage Site and 7th Natural wonder of the world as a case study focusing on communities participation and involvement in both management of the Victoria Falls and their involvement in tourism business around the World Heritage Site. Specifically, it first assesses whether Victoria Falls fits within the geotourism concept and if it has the potential to contribute to sustainable development and poverty alleviation to the local communities. The study further explores whether their legal provisions for community participation in tourism development as documented in the Zambian tourism policy of 1999 taking into account various factors which enhances the effectiveness of local participation in sustainable tourism development. The study revealed that Victoria Falls World Heritage Site fits within the geotourism concepts; also that geotourism

and geopark concepts are opportunities for rural development and they offer prospects for reducing the rate of poverty in developing countries through engaging local communities in geotourism activities

Key words: Geotourism, Communities, Participation, Victoria Falls, Poverty Alleviation.

Introduction In the wake of sustainable development and globalisation many nations especially developing ones are in a hurry to formulate, redefine and implement policies that are sustainable. To reduce environmental, social and economic costs and increase benefits, many international aid agencies and donor governments have recognised the positive impact tourism can bring to a country by creating economic opportunities and contributing to the general quality of life of residents (Ashley and Mitchell, 2005). The concept of geotourism has become one of the most popular concepts in some tourism circles and has presented an opportunity for intensive investigations on what it is and what role it can play in tourism. The perceived novelty and persuasiveness of the idea of geotourism derives from the quest for sustainable tourism development with a primary focus on experiencing the earths geological features in a way that fosters environmental and cultural, understanding, appreciation and conservation and is locally beneficial (Dowling & Newsome, 2009). Geotourism is a relatively new concept in the tourism industry and is increasingly attracting interest around the world. Though; the term has been in use informally since 1997, the 2002 Geotourism study, sponsored by National Geographical Traveller magazine and conducted by Travel Industry of America (T.I.A), claims to have constituted its public debate. According to James & Hose (2008) geotourism is a form of special interest tourism and focuses on the geology and formation of landscapes. Tongul (2006) defines it as

utilization of geological heritage resources for education-based tourism. Since coming on the scene geotourism has generated debates from stakeholders, organisations, individuals, governments and scholars coming on board to try and investigated how geotourism can be used as a tool for sustainable development especially in developing countries. Therefore the aim of this paper is to review the current state of geotourism.

Promoters of geotourism credit it because it involves the community. Local businesses and civic groups join to provide a distinctive, authentic visitor experience. It benefits residents economically. Travel businesses hire local workers, and use local services, products, and supplies. When community members understand the benefits of geotourism, they take responsibility for destination stewardship. It supports integrity of place. Destination-savvy travellers seek out businesses that emphasize the character of the locale. In return, local stakeholders who receive economic benefits appreciate and protect the value of those assets.

It respects local culture and tradition. Foreign visitors learn local etiquette, including at least a few courtesy words in the local language. Residents learn how to deal with foreign expectations that may differ from their own. It aims for quality, not quantity. Destinations measure tourism success not just by numbers of visitors, but by length of stay, how they spend their money, and the quality of their experience. Sustainable tourism protects its product-the

destination. It avoids the loved to death syndrome by anticipating development pressures and applying limits and management techniques that preserve natural habitats, heritage sites, scenic appeal, and local culture. It conserves resources. Environmentally aware travellers patronize businesses that reduce pollution, waste, energy consumption, water usage, landscaping chemicals, and excessive night-time lighting.

On the other hand an attempt to find new solutions for the failure of top-down approaches to conservation, Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) rests on the recognition that local communities must have direct control over the utilisation and benefits of natural resources, in order to value them in a sustainable manner. CBNRM is both a conservation and rural development strategy, involving community mobilisation and organisation, institutional development, comprehensive training, enterprise development, and monitoring of the natural resource base. Rotha et al. (2005) defines CBNRM as a concept related to a variety of terms, including participatory, community, community-based, collaborative, joint and popular natural resource management. These concepts are often used interchangeably, but may also be used with the intention to emphasise specific characteristics of related approaches. Thus, the concept of CBNRM tends to be associated with approaches where the focal unit for joint natural resource management is the local community. Sometimes, it has

also been applied to designate approaches where local communities play a central but not exclusive role in natural resource management.

Borrini-Feyerabend et al. (2004:69) prefer using the term co-management, which they define as follows:

Co-Management (CM) of natural resources is used to describe a partnership by which two or more relevant social actors collectively negotiate, agree upon, guarantee and implement a fair share of management functions, benefits and responsibilities for a particular territory, area or set of natural resources.

Danida (2007) supports Borrini-Feyerabend et al saying the advantage of this definition is that it covers different ways in which the planning and

implementing authority over natural resources can be shared among various types of social actors, thus refraining from any a priori indication of which model is the most appropriate.

Therefore; the purpose of this study was to explore whether Victoria Falls in Livingstone Zambia fits within the concept of geotourism and if it has the potential to contribute to poverty alleviation. Further, to explore if Victoria Falls is managed in a way that contributes to a sustainable development process that fully involves the local community participation in conservation and small scale tourism business. It was assumed, firstly, that through participation in the management of Victoria Falls and sharing earnings from it, local people will come

to have a more positive orientation to the World Heritage Site and the resources contained within the boundaries. As a result, they will likely take care of the resources. Secondly, that poverty forces local people not to take care of the natural resources sustainably. Thirdly, communities in Zambia tended to be inactive participants in tourism management, conservation and tourism business, partly because the government retains high degree of control. In order to find out about the assumptions as envisaged in this study three specific objectives were drawn:

1. To identify the opportunities created by the development of geotourism in reducing poverty through positive economic contributions towards the local communities in which it is developed. 2. To determine the features of Victoria Falls and see if they fit in the geotourism concept. 3. To determine the extent to which communities get involved in the management of community based natural tourism resources.

Methodology This research study adopted a descriptive research design using qualitative case study approach as documented by (e.g. Veal, 1997; Hussy & Hussey, 1997; Jennings 2001). Data was collected between the 1st and 29th December, 2010. The study specifically used document review, direct observation and various face-face interview techniques. Various documents both print and electronic

relating to tourism development in general and specifically tourism development in Zambia, poverty alleviation in Zambia, management of the Victoria Falls and other documents about the falls, documents on community participation in tourism management and other documents relating to geotourism were reviewed. Such documents as; The Fifth National Development Plan, The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, the Zambian Tourism Policy, Zambia Tourism and Hospitality Act, the National Heritage Conservation Commission Act, The Zambia Wildlife Authority reports on the CBNRM project carried out in South Luangwa, Books on Victoria Falls such as the 1975 Victoria Falls handbook published by Longman Group and the 1997 Victoria Falls Musi-Oa- Tunya by the African Publishing Company, Zambia and UNESCO Annual Report 2009 and the 2007 Joint Management Plan for the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site. Direct observations were done at Victoria Falls site and surrounding areas to find out which unique features makes Victoria Falls fit within the geotourism concept; community participation in tourism activities and businesses. One to One formal and informal interviews were carried out with the locals residents who sell curios right at the entrance of the Victoria Falls Zambian side; a formal interview was done with one of the traditional leaders to get his views on the management of Victoria Falls and his subjects (Local Community) involvement in tourism activities. Formal interview with the Livingstone Tourism Association, Livingstone City Council, Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources staff at the South West Regional Tourism Development office based

in Livingstone, National Heritage Conservation Commission South West Regional Office who directly manage the day to day operations of the Victoria Falls, Zambia Wildlife Authority Livingstone Office in charge of the Musi-Oa-tunya National Park which is within the World Heritage Site. Further, informal interviews were done with 15 local workers working in various tourism businesses within and around the Victoria Falls, some NGOs and churches. Lastly but not least formal interviews were done with 10 tourism businesses operating their business within and around the Victoria Falls.

In this study not only geotourism was investigated but the whole process of sustainable tourism planning and development. The case study approach which has been used widely in qualitative research where investigators seek to answer questions of what, how, who and why was therefore, appropriate for this study.

The choice of the study area was done by finding out and examining:

1. How the selected study area (Victoria Falls) can apply to other developing countries.

2. If the Zambian governments tourism developmental plans and policies are developed and implemented, in relation to poverty alleviation, as provided by the World Tourism Organisation millennium development goals.

3. If Victoria Falls would fit in the concept of Geotourism?

4. The current status of tourism planning and development in Zambia.

5. How the Ministry of Tourism works in Zambia in relation to tourism planning and development.

General strategies for analysing case study as outlined by Yin (2003:111) were utilised. Data was analysed and interpreted based on the methodological tools (i.e. document reviews, face-face interviews and direct observation) used. Further, data was disassembled and reassembled to draw out uniqueness in pattern or behaviour; then coded it wherever possible in order to trace such data back to the interview (via transcript), document, or observation for purposes of a conformability audit to verify the process and research method. The analysis and synthesis followed a development process continually evolving and emerging through constant comparison of newly, acquired data with previously acquired material.

Study Area Overview The study site is located in the town of Livingstone Southern Province of Zambia. Livingstone is a historic colonial city and present provincial capital of the Southern Province and the tourist capital of Zambia. The city is located at 17.8422 (latitude in decimal degrees), 25.8634 (longitude in decimal degrees) in meters. The average elevation of Livingstone, Zambia is 922 meters. It lies 10 km (6.2 mi) north of the Zambezi River, and a border town with road and rail connections to Zimbabwe on the other side of the Falls. Its population as per 2010 national census was approximately 140,000 with a growth rate of 2.1% (CSO 2010). Figure: 1 Map showing the location of the study area in Zambia.

Source: goway.com (2011)

Economic Development Economically, Zambia in general like any other developing country is still struggling, nevertheless, the past few years have shown fractional progress in GDP annual growth (e.g. 2005: GDP 5.2%, 2006: GDP 5.8%, 2007: GDP 6.3%, 2008: GDP 5.8%, 2009: GDP 6.3%, 2010: GDP 7.1%). For Livingstone the main economic activity has always been tourism supplemented by agriculture, 90% of all economic activities in Livingstone are tourism related. The sluggish growth of the economy in Livingstone and Zambia has been blamed mainly on her involvement in the fight for colonial liberalisation for other countries in Southern Africa, after attaining her independence from Britain in 1964, Zambia spent huge sums of money assisting other countries (e.g. South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Angola) to fight colonialism. But scholars such as Rakner et al., (1999) and Zimba, (2006) argue that apart from rendering assistance to fight colonialism, Zambias poor economic performance could be attributed to a lack of coherent strategy for economic growth, political elite that had no properly outlined long-term policies and governments over-reliance on, and unconditional acceptance of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (WB) imposed economic decisions. The other factor is that the countrys economy for a long time has relied on copper and other minerals which are always affected by fluctuation of prices at the international markets.

Poverty Trends Poverty generally in Zambia is a serious problem a disease, like cancer that has eaten into the cultural, political and economic fabric of society, and destroyed the functioning of vital organs. In other words poverty in Zambia and Livingstone in particular is one of the greatest challenges of the contemporary world. On the contrary the Zambian Central Statistical Office Living Conditions Monitoring Surveys conducted from 1991 to 2006 have shown that the incidence of poverty has reduced over the years. The results show that the incidence of poverty declined from 70 percent in 1991 to 64 percent in 2006. The gains of this reduction can be noticed in rural areas, where the incidence of poverty reduced from 88 percent in 1991 to 78 percent in 2006. In contrast, the incidence of poverty in urban areas increased from 49 percent in 1991 to 53 percent in 2006. Table 1: Zambias National trends incidences of poverty (1991-2006).

Source: CSO: (2011)

The above table shows the declining of poverty levels in Zambia between 1991 and 2006. From the percentage figures it can be seen that Zambia generally still has high poverty levels. In terms of main occupation (formal and informal) agriculture accounts for 85% industry 6% services 9% (CSO, 2004). It should be noted here that jobs in the tourism sector are shared with industry and service sectors of the above data. Zambia Central Statistical Office data for 2006 indicates that the mean monthly income for a Zambian household in 2004 was K 511, 377. The modal income group for the country ranged from K150, 001 - K300, 000, representing 26 percent of the population. Only about one in every three households (35 percent) had mean monthly incomes that exceeded K 300, 000; implying that the majority of Zambian households, or approximately 65 percent, had incomes below the basic needs basket (CSO, 2011).

Tourism Development Zambia is endowed with abundance natural, cultural and heritage tourism resources which have not been fully exploited. Livingstone is the tourist capital of Zambia but still lacks behind in terms of infrastructure development to bring it to tourist city standards. Tourism development in Zambia is all about Livingstone because this is the only town where tourism development has concentrated for a long time. If Zambias tourism industry can be given the required support and developed to its perceived potential, its contribution to poverty alleviation could be immersing. It is interesting to note that tourism

development in Zambia started a long time actually immediately after independence. Scholars such as Teye (1988) states that tourism was not recognised as a sector worthy of development until 1965 after Zambia gained her independence. Arthur (1968) affirms that in 1965 Zambia developed the first National Development Plan; in that plan it projected 155,000 foreign visitors and US$6 million receipts by 1970, basing its estimation on tourist arrivals and revenue during the early 1960s. Accordingly Zambia Central Statistical Office 1967 records show that in 1965 Zambia received 117,800 foreign visitors, a far greater number than 81,400 visitors the same year for Kenya which had and still has a well-developed tourism industry (United Nations, 1969), 85% of all these visitors visited Livingstone. Actually the United National Independence Party (UNIP) national policy of 1974 to 1980 emphasised

tourism as one of the vehicles for economic diversification (UNIP, 1974:35).. Despites all these efforts by the Kaunda government it was only after 1996 when the government in power realised the important contribution that tourism can make to the economy and started developing the first national tourism policy in 1997. Tourism Policy in Zambia In 1997, a medium term tourism strategy was developed after a consultative process undertaken by the Ministry of Tourism. The following year a review of the medium term tourism strategy was done, with the intention of refining and developing a policy document that would be accessible to all stakeholders. Finally

in 1999 a tourism policy document was developed and implemented. According to this policy the government plays a leading role through formulation of tourism related policies, enactment of tourism legislations, streamlining and eliminating any overlaps or conflicts and creating appropriate administrative structures necessary for the planning and development of tourism. The role of stakeholders is to organise themselves and participate effectively in the development of tourism and to provide value for money tourism products and services and bear the opportunities and risks of investment and the responsibility of satisfying tourists (Ministry of Tourism, 1999). Livingstone Tourism Trends Though tourism development in Livingstone has witnessed a steady growth especially in the past decade, the development level has been at a snails pace compared to other tourism towns in the same region such as South Africa and Botswana. Arguably some indicators from the government shows that the sector has been improving especially with tourist arrivals and contribution to the well been well-being of its people in terms of employment creation, rural and

infrastructure development, community development, increased foreign earnings and entrepreneur development (see: Tables 2 - 5 below).

Table 2: International Tourist Arrivals by Origin (Livingstone Town) Origin South Africa East Africa North Africa West Africa Central Africa Europe America Asia & Ocean Total 2006 54,701 40,644 568 1,028 34,251 65,087 20,682 27,956 244,917 2007 60,192 42,937 606 1,508 45,428 70,595 26,638 30,097 278,001 2008 79,120 45,735 652 1,608 51,271 69,757 29,250 32,710 310103 2009 66,021 48,533 598 705 58,913 55,919 21,413 35,323 287,425 2010 88,933 51,331 844 1,608 65,500 134,081 43,801 57,936 444,034

Source: MTENR (2010) Table 2: Above shows a five year period increase in tourist arrivals and their origin between 2006 and 2010 in Livingstone. Table 3: Yearly Direct Revenue
Sector 2006 (US$) 2007 (US$) 60,571,624.10 2008 (US$) 62,150,653.73 2009 (US$) 2010 (US$)

Accommodation 561,321,00.20 Travel Tours Car Hire Other Total 44,174,611.40

66,638,473.99 70,900,017.60 52,442,874.66 55,796,606.88 32,781,231.86 18,601,255.25 9,920,888.40 188,000,000

47,668,409.86 48,911,068.16

25,953,158.50 28,005,810.45 14,726,759.70 15,891,508.62 7,854,445.20 148,841,075 8,475,658.30 160,613,011

28,735,888.36 30,810,870.59 16,305,781.20 8,696,608.55 164,800,000 17,483,201.08 9,324,579.68 176,700,000

Source: MTENR (2010) Table 3: shows a five year period increase in revenue generation from tourism subsectors between the years 2006 and 2010.

Table 4: Employment Status 2006 Employment 16,500 2007 18,100 2008 19,652 2009 21,204 2010 22,756

Source: MTENR (2010) Table 4 shows a five period of the number of jobs or employment created by the tourism sector between the years 2006 and 2010. Table 5: Tourist visitors to the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site YEAR 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 GRAND TOTALS LOCAL TOURISTS 138, 778 68, 734 110, 790 78, 580 82, 224 79, 162 558, 268 FOREIGN TOURISTS 41, 038 40, 690 44, 267 58, 234 51, 980 58, 986 295, 195 TOTAL 179,786 109,424 156,612 136,904 134, 204 138 148 855, 078

Source NHCC (2010) Table 5 above shows tourist visitors to the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site for the period of 2005 to 2010

Study Site - Victoria Falls World Heritage Site (VFWHS) Introduction The Victoria Falls is significant worldwide for its unique geological and geomorphological features and active land formation process which are of outstanding universal values. The active land formation process portrays an ongoing geological process. Addition the site has outstanding beauty attributed to its spray of water, mist and rainbow; above all the falls has the largest curtain of falling water in the world Figure: 1 Victoria Falls from a helicopter view on the Zambia Side

Source: traveldudes.org (2011)

Geographical Location and Size

According to the World Conservation Monitoring Center the Victoria Falls are located on the Zambezi River in town of Livingstone Southern part of Zambia and on the Northern part of Zimbabwe in the town of Victoria Falls. On the Zambian side Mosi-ao-tunya National Park follows the left bank between Sinde River and the Songwe Gorge, bounded on the north by Dambwa Forest Reserve and the town of Livingstone. On the Zimbabwean side on the right bank Victoria National Park is bounded by the Zambezi River from 6km above to 12km below the falls and by the town of Victoria Falls on the west; A riverine strip of Zambezi National Park extending 9km west along the right bank of the Zambezi.

Figure 2: Map showing the location of the study site Victoria Falls.

Source: Hillmanwonders (2011)

The Victoria Falls covers an area of 6,860ha. Musi-ao-tunya National, Park 3,779ha. Victoria Falls National Park, 2,340ha; a riverine strip of Zambezi National Park, 741ha and the remaining area of these protected areas is considered as the buffer zone ( Joint Management Plan, 2007).

Values for Conservation of the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site (VFWHS) Both Zambian and Zimbabwe have realised and accepted that the Victoria Falls should be conserved because of geological values, Water / Catchment values, world heritage values, employment values, tourism values cultural and historical values authentic values, educational values and economic values (Joint Management Plan, 2007). Geology and Geomorphology Martin D., (1999) documents that Like a vast snake, the seven gorges below the Victoria Falls scythe their way across the flat landscape as if escaping the restrictive embrace of the narrow, precipitous and cauldron immediately below. Actually that is not what it always appeared. The geological features of the Victoria Falls are as a result of upheaval of volcanically action that characterised much of Southern Africa about 250million years ago during the Jurassic period when the supercontinent Gondwanaland split giving birth to todays Africa, Asia, Australia, Antarctica, New Zealand and South America). The lava flows produced during this period formed the basalt plate underlying the rocks. These basalts are subsequently overlain by a thin layer of arid and or

marine sandstones and the red Kalahari sands. Chalcedony and surface limestone are also found as isolated rocks or constituent minerals. Over millions of years the focal point of Victoria Falls as it is known today have varied with one fall abandoned as the pressure of water created a new one. Hence those gorges further downstream were once, in retreating order, what is today called the Victoria Falls. The second gorge and the Boiling Pot show clearly how this evolution process worked. This gorge still bears the scars, moulded by water action, of where the falls once fell and the Boiling Pot marks the point where the lip of the second gorge plunged when the weight of water finally overcame it. All of this means that todays Victoria Falls are only a temporary point of passage in the constant (albeit very gradual), process of the aging of the Zambezi River. Already there are signs of the river changing course yet again. In human terms the process is very slow but the probability is that the next main falls will develop on the Zimbabwean bank at the Devils Cataract while the Zambian side increasingly dries up. At the deepest point the Victoria Falls are 108 metres high and 1, 708 metres in width.

The site and land surrounding the Victoria Falls is often referred to as African Plateau. The north-western part of the park has third order forms slightly dissected further away from the river. The south-west portion, close to the Victoria Falls, is an undulating plateau interrupted in various places by hills, ridges and minor escarpment. Zambezi river, the Falls and the gorges

downstream dominates the relief of whole this region. To a certain extent these features are the basis for UNESCO declaration of this area as a World Heritage site. The Victoria Falls and its seven gorges are the most important natural features of the site and are of an exceptional significance internationally.

Climate Victoria Falls has been subjected to consequential temperature swings. Once the Zambezi was filled by glacier; the Falls themselves and the connecting of the Upper and Middle Zambezi River systems occurred because of what is believed to be global warming. Today the climate is classified as sub-tropical hot and arid, and the swings in temperature and related climatic activity are in a short term less extreme and more predictable. The site enjoys three diverse seasons: Wet /Warm from November to April, Cool/Dry from May to August 1627Cand Hot/Dry from September to October 26-32C. The rainfall over the whole Zambezi basin is influenced by the Inter-Tropical Convergences Zone (ITCZ). Normally the wet season has an annual mean rain of 750mm with the highest rainfall being from January to March. October is the driest and hottest month, whereas June is the coldest with temperatures averaging 33.9C and 6.4C respectively. The months of April/May constitute the post rainy season, whereas the cool dry season is from May to August.

Hydrology There are only two rivers that supply water to the study area the Zambezi and the Maramba. With its source at the Kelene Hills in the North Western part of Zambia, Zambezi River is Africas fourth largest river and gives birth to the 7th Natural Wonder of the world the Victoria Falls. In terms of hydrology the Victoria Falls are at their lowest level of water flow with a mean flow of less than 20,000 cubic meters per minute (November December). At peak season (March April) water levels rise rapidly and the flow at the Falls is estimated to be thirty times its dry season volume, averaging 550,000 cubic metres per minute. An historic flow of 700,000 cubic metres per minute was recorded in 1958. Soils The soils at the Victoria Falls include; shallow gravel soils, underlain with basalt rock close to the Zambezi river channel and along all its tributaries. The upper valley slopes are covered by alkaline sandy clay soils, whereas the higher altitudes on north-western section of the falls are mantled by the Kalahari sands. Together with lithosols, a soil type which lies above weathering rock and gravel and not exceeding 25cm in depth, the Kalahari sands form the regosols, which are one of the major soil groups in the area.

Flora, Fauna and Palaeontology The predominant natural habitat in the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site is Woodland comprising of Riparian Forest, Kalahari woodland, Mopani, Mixed scrub vegetation, Mukusi woodland and Miombo woodlands. In terms of fauna the World Heritage site is home to various mammals, fish, amphibians and reptiles. There is evidence that the ecology at the falls has evolved through time and space through the fossil faunas which have been excavated from the area. Fossils of the form of an early elephant were found during the construction of the first phase of the Zambia Electricity substation. Cultural and Historical Values of the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site (VFWHS) Historically Victoria Falls World Heritage Site was first occupied by the Bushmen (Kwengo) a hunting and gathering group who occupied the area during the later Stone Age about 10,000 AD to 2000BP. After the Bushmen where driven away into the Okavango Delta in Botswana the site has since been occupied by the Leya people under Chief Mukuni and Chief Sekute, the Toka under Musokotwane whilst other minor groups include the Subiya and Liswani and Totela from the 15th Century. Within the World Heritage site there are historical National Monuments and Engineering Structures namely the boat club monument, the Sekute Crossing Point, the Old Drift, the Victoria Falls Bridge and the War Memorial Cenotaph.

Management of the Vitoria Falls World Heritage Site Zambian Side The boundary and management regimes of the Victoria Falls World Heritage site on the Zambian side have passed through its own timeline from as far back as 1934 to date. At the time of this study National Heritage Conservation Commission (NHCC) and the Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) collaborative manage the world heritage site. Interesting to note in the time line is the period between 1996 and 2007. In 1996 a joint management committee of National Heritage Conservation Commission staff, Zambia Wildlife Authority and the Livingstone City Council was appointed to administer the World Heritage Site. In the year 2000 the Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources realised the failure of the joint management committee as they were all just interested in collecting revenue and never ploughed back in the conservation and management of the site. In 2001 there was a separation of legal protection and the National Heritage Conservation Commission was given a full legal mandate to manage the World Heritage Site area which includes the Victoria Falls. In 2002 a national stakeholders workshops was held followed by a bi-national stakeholders meetings with Zimbabwe to find a sustainable way of how to manage the World Heritage Site. In 2006 UNESCO raised serious concerns over the failure to implement the protocol on the management of the site and urged the two states to urgently resolve any outstanding issues. In 2007 the two states responded with a joint Management Plan which comes up for review in 2012.

This study discovered that though NHCC has been mandate to manage the World Heritage Site on the Zambian side; there are actually serious institutional mechanisms overlaps. The study revealed that there are seven institutions that have some form of mandate in the management of the World Heritage Site (NHCC, ZAWA, Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation,

Livingstone City Council, Zambia Revenue Authority, Customs and Immigration and the Local Community). Though this is the case there is no formal institutional arrangement among these institutions and hence minimal

collaboration. NHCC and ZAWA however are the only ones that have signed a memorandum of understanding to collaborate in the management of the site. This has brought a lot of confusion many times in the appropriate management of the World Heritage site according to NHCC there is need to harmonise and put in place an institutional mechanism that is collaborative across all other institutions.

Findings of the study Victoria Falls World Heritage Site and the concept of Geotourism Direct observation of the study revealed that the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site with all its physical and biological features fits very well in the concept of geotourism and provides an opportunity for sustainable development and poverty alleviation (see photos in appendix). The Zambian government has also recognised this opportunity and plans to introduce more geotourism related activities The Ministry of Tourism, through the national conservation commission and the Zambia Tourism Board, will introduce a new product to cater to adventure seekers at the Victoria Falls. Tourism minister Catherine Namugala, in a statement released by the ministrys public relations unit, stated that tourism needed to be diversified in order for it to be sustainable. (Post News Paper Zambia, 2010). Currently all the tourism activities (i.e. Bungi jumping, abseiling, high wiring, Gorge swing, Rap jumping, Victoria Falls viewing, Boat Cruise, Jet Boating helicopter flights, abseiling, kayaking, river boarding, Micro lighting over the Victoria Falls, Livingstone Island picnics near the Devils Pool.) that take place at the Victoria Falls and around the World Heritage site do so as a result of the geological formation of the Victoria Falls, this makes it qualify as a geotourism tourism destination and should be operated as one.

Community participation in the Management of Victoria Falls World Heritage Site. Despite the rhetoric on decentralization and local community involvement and participation in tourism development in Zambia and specifically the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site, the NHCC Act and Tourism policy stand out for their lack of significant provisions to accommodate key community participation principles. Further, since no policy has been developed and adopted for National Heritage Conservation Commission that emphasises community participation in the management of heritage resources like the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site. Sustainable tourism development related to heritage resources are likely to remain a matter for pilot testing for a long time to come. The analyses of policy documents related to tourism has shown that the NHCC Act and the Tourism policies have failed to address or have, in some cases, inadequately addressed essential issues that would effectively translate discourse into practice. The powers to decide and control that are essential for communitys meaningful participation in management of heritage resources are not being transferred or significantly shared. Therefore, as far as NHCC Act is concerned, communities will continue to play an insignificant role in the decision-making process while the government unilaterally determines the conditions and terms under which communities will intervene and benefit. In their current wording, what the policies are proposing is a situation of participation without powers a half-

hearted attempt of decentralization still requiring a significant commitment from the part of government to its principles. Local communities participation and Stakeholders involved tourism development in Zambia. Document reviews indicated that the current Zambia Tourism Policy of 1999 has three key elements one of which is to create an enabling environment for private sector participation; provide adequate infrastructure and legislation for the growth of the sector and encourage balanced community involvement aimed at poverty alleviation (Government of Zambia PRSP, 2002:70). This has not been translated into reality because within the existing tourism policy there is very little mention or commitment by government to tourism and poverty alleviation. The only institution under the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources and mentioned within the current tourism policy that has a component of tourism and community participation is the Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA). For instance, through Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) Act number 12 of 1998, the government has provided community involved and benefit, within the broader framework of managing the countrys wildlife and other resources in national parks and Game Management Areas (GMAs). The Wildlife Act envisages improving the quality of life in the communities living in GMAs through Community Resource Boards that are registered with ZAWA and permitted to access the revenues from licenses issued and hunting concessions granted by ZAWA. Apart from the revenues that are ploughed back, the

communities also derive benefits from employment as scouts and also working in safaris (Government of Zambia PRSP, 2002:70). Apart from the above ZAWA program there is no any other tangible program that is aimed at making the communities participate in tourism development. This gap was also recognised through the formal interviews with NHCC, Livingstone Tourism Association and the Livingstone City Council .In other countries like Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa and Botswana the governments have developed and implemented tourism programs with the full participation of the communities. In the case of Zambia, therefore, it is important that as the government moves towards reviewing of the tourism policy and emphasis be placed on the need for communities to participate in sustainable tourism development.

Poverty and opportunities for Victoria Falls World Heritage Site if developed as a Geopark. According to the findings from direct observations and formal interviews with the local communities, tourists, the traditional leader and local authority everyone agreed that there is wide spread poverty in Livingstone and this has forced many young girls to be involved in prostitution after leaving high school because their parents cant afford to pay college fees and there are no jobs for them to do. One tourist noted with sadness the high number of young girls found in Livingstone bars during the night looking for men to have sex with them

and then be given money. The interview with local workers in tourism businesses and the Local chief revealed that the average monthly income of the households for communities around Victoria Falls was ZMK 500,000 (i.e., USD 90) per month. Formal discussions with the Department of Tourism staff and the Livingstone local authority revealed that Livingstone makes a lot of money from tourism activities but the whole 100% of these monies are returned to the Central Government which makes it difficult for the city to share the earnings and reduce poverty in the city. Many local people from communities have been offered very low paying jobs in tourism enterprise operating around and within the Victoria Falls world Heritage Site, All senior management and high paying jobs have been given either to foreign workers or few affluent Zambian workers from the urban parts of the country. The local people have ended up been cleaners, receptionists, barmen, waiters or gardeners, and been paid salaries that barely see them throughout the month and poverty levels have continued soaring despite having such international tourism operators as Sun International Hotels.

However, there is hope if Victoria Falls World Heritage site can be developed into a geopark. Promoters of geotourism and geoparks credit these two types of tourism because they fully involve the community and they are locally beneficial. Currently majority of visitors to the falls on the Zambia side are not guided by local tour guides. It is one of the requirements by the Global geopark network

that all tours to the geopark should be guided by the locals. Therefore, in the case of Victoria Falls if developed into a geoparks this will result in the creation of employment for the local people as tour guides and in turn increase their income for example using the total number of 58 986 (see figures in Table 5: Tourist visitors to the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site) foreign tourist that visited victoria falls in 2010 and multiply it with US$5 as pay to a local tour guide this results into US$ 294, 930 earning by the local people in a year. Further the development of victoria falls as a geopark will increase the overnight stay of tourists from the current 3 nights with an average overnight expenditure of US$ 300 to 5 nights resulting in average overnight expenditure of US$ 500 thereby increasing average annual spending per tourists to US$180,000 and the day trip tourists which currently is 1 day visit to the falls with a day tripper average expenditure of US$ 100 will be increased to 2 resulting in to average expenditure of US$ 200 per day trip there by increasing average annual day trippers expenditure to US$72, 000 per each day tripper tourists. This increase in spending by tourists will contribute to uplifting the standard of living among the local people.

Further, through the creation of Victoria Falls as a geopark more local enterprise and small business will be established as well as training programmes and more than 5,000 new direct and indirect jobs that will generate new sources of income while also protecting the geo-resources. The geopark status

will also foster an education regime which includes a number of tools and activities which communicate geoscientific knowledge and environmental concepts to the public and the local community.

Victoria Falls World Heritage Site Communities perception of the tourism development and its role in poverty alleviation Informal discussions with curio sellers at the Victoria Falls further revealed how communities perceive tourism development and its role to poverty alleviation in Livingstone. The findings indicate a strong support for the idea that local people should be consulted and included in any issues of tourism development in their area. Many local people formerly and informally interviewed strongly preferred tourism development and local community participation that was empowering. They wanted to be involved from the beginning to the end and not only to be informed. However, some Churches and NGOs talked to informally preferred communities, tourism operators, Ministry of tourism and other government agencies to work as a team rather than independent bodies. In their view, this kind of collaborative approach to tourism development were parties involved enter into a partnership and treat each other as co-partners rather than underdogs is the only way to gain shared mutual benefit. What appears to be difficult in this case study for NHCC in particular is developing a shared vision, shared objectives, and a negotiated relationship with the local people over the management of the World Heritage Resources?

NHCC, ZAWA or any other government agency prefers to make decisions on their own as they fear to lose control over natural resources if they form partnership and involve local communities. On the other hand some community members, government officials and indeed NHCC officials and tourism operators anonymously agreed that the Zambian tourism policy is too narrow on community participation and poverty in tourism development. The Tourism and Hospitality Act and the NHCC Act are too restrictive and take time to change. On the other hand, some foreign tour operators believe that time is not ripe for Livingstone and Zambian local communities to engage in tourism activities due to high levels of poverty among them. They were also not willing to form business partnerships with local people because they were not sure that they could eject in enough capital and have enough education to run the tourism businesses. It is thought that communities with lower levels of education needed more time to assimilate, adopt and/or adapt to new policies and business ethics. The above assertion shows that foreign operators neither supported nor favoured community participation in tourism development in Livingstone. The resentment and mistrust that both the private sector and local communities felt for each other were a result of lack of appropriate attitudes and approaches with regard to understanding each others needs, priorities and aspirations.

Selected key interviewees (local people, Livingstone Tourism Association, private sector and the church and NGOs) were asked to evaluate the issue of tourism development and poverty alleviation, and to reflect on what they would or would not like to see happen around the Victoria Falls over the next five to ten years. Only two respondents from Mukuni Village said they would like

tourism development around the Victoria Falls to be foreign driven and remain as it is, while 20 interviewees were of the view that tourism development should be controlled by local communities if it has to contribute to poverty alleviation. A further 15 were willing to consider minimal, controlled foreign participation in tourism development. When the views of both respondents who were willing to allow minimal, controlled development and those who preferred foreign investors to run the tourism sector are compared, it is striking to find such a wide split with local people perceptions. This may be interpreted that local people preferred to drive their own development. A member of the Livingstone Tourism Association observed that: development is demonstrated by the ability one has towards ones span of life. In this context, tourism development becomes the ability to feed, clothe and shelter oneself resulting from more income earned from ones occupation and from the provision of infrastructural facilities like roads, water, electricity, telecommunications and improvements in factors of production. The questions to ask about tourism development around the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site are therefore: what has been happening to poverty levels as a result of tourism? What has been happening to

unemployment due to tourism industry? What has been happening to social and economic inequality around the World Heritage Site? Therefore, whether the industry is foreign or locally driven do these concerns decline?

Discussions This study used Victoria Falls World Heritage Site in Zambia was used as a case study, to explore the direct and indirect sustainable development impacts from geotourism concept and their implications on social and economic development in developing countries. Specifically the study used qualitative research

methodological tools for both primary and secondary data collection and this included; document reviews, formal and informal interviews and direct observations. This study investigated in-depth; whether Victoria Falls would fit in the geotourism concept?, whether local communities participate in the management of the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site?, The extent of poverty among local communities around Victoria Falls World Heritage Site, the general local communities around Victoria Falls perception of the tourism development and its role in poverty alleviation and the evaluation the tourism policies to see if there is any provisions for the development of geotourism and community participation in the management of tourism resources. The reviewed literature showed that, the concept and of Geotourism and Geoparks is relatively new, but presents essential credentials for poverty alleviation and sustainable development in developing countries. However,

without in-depth understanding of role that each type of tourism like Geotourism can play in poverty alleviation and sustainable tourism development; the efforts of developing pro-poor tourism in developing countries will be fruitless. Therefore, there is need for further research and investigation of the role of Geotourism in sustainable development in developing countries.

Since geotourism and geoparks are opportunities for rural development, they offer prospects for reducing the rate of poverty through engaging local communities in geopark activities. Regarding this, geotourism practioners and geopark authorities have to adopt some positive policies toward stimulating locals participation for local economic prosperity, poverty alleviation and sustainable development. This new vision of geotourism and geoparks has presented an opportunity for developing nations especially in Africa to create new products (geo-products, geo-menus in restaurants, etc.), new jobs (geotours, geo-restaurants, geo-bakeries and geo-hotels) and new recreational activities (geo-sports, geo-monuments, geopark museums, etc.) for local communities. It is worth mentioning that these recreational activities that are related to topography and geology, in some ways, are also educational.

It was assumed, firstly, that if the features of the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site fits within the concept of geotourism then it should be developed into a Geopark so that it can be beneficial to the local community. Secondly that through community participation in the management of the Victoria Falls, local

people will come to have a more positive orientation to the World Heritage and the resources contained within the boundaries. As a result, they will likely protect the resource. Thirdly, that poverty forces local people to use natural resources beyond sustainable levels and fourthly that communities in Zambia tended to be passive participants in tourism development and businesses, partly because the government retains high degree of control. In order to find out about the assumptions as envisaged in this study three specific objectives: firstly to determine the features of Victoria Falls and see if they fit in the geotourism concept. Secondly To identify the opportunities created by the development of geotourism in reducing poverty through positive economic contributions towards the local communities in which it is developed and thirdly to determine the extent to which tourism policies contribute in constraining or improving sustainable development and poverty alleviation measures in

developing countries were drawn to meet the stated overall aim of the study.

The study found that Victoria Falls World Heritage Site which is also a seventh natural wonder of the world under UNESCO classifications fits very well within the concept of Geotourism due to its geographical and geomorphological characteristics. All the current tourism activities and business fall within the geotourism concept. But the government has not fully realised this opportunity only now that is when they want to start developing the site as a geotourism site and hopefully developed into a geopark. Further the study revealed that despite

the rhetoric on decentralization and community involvement, in tourism development especially in natural resources the tourism policy, the Tourism and Hospitality Act and specifically NHCC Act still, stands out for its lack of significant provisions to accommodate community participation principles. The study also found, that communities in the study area live in abject poverty despite Victoria Falls been a must see tourist attraction for any tourist visiting Zambia or Southern part of Africa. It was also sad to know that the local community in the study area do not have the power to participate in the planning and management of the World Heritage Site. Government through NHCC still retains control and unilaterally makes decisions without the involvement of local communities. The implication of the above findings is that communities in the study area still do not see tourism development and Victoria Falls World Heritage Site as their own property as they are not involved in decision-making and tourism businesses. The policy in its current wording, simply proposes participation without powers.

It was found also that local communitys perspective on community participation in tourism development or management of the Victoria Falls World Heritage is a right, in which the main aim is to initiate mobilization for local and collective action, empowerment and institution building. But NHCC does not see local participation as a right. Many local people and tourists talked to argued that NHCC lacked a broad unending, inclusive, reflective and open dialogue between

itself, local communities and other stakeholders. They do not realise that the participation and fully involvement of the local communities will contribute to poverty alleviation. But as Pretty (1995) has argued local participation is supposed to be both a goal in itself and be seen as a means to reach other goals, such as poverty alleviation and sustainable development. However, NHCC seem to lack abilities and are not willing to understand local participation as a both policy measure and part of a process for social change and empowerment. NHCC has not yet developed a mechanism to understand, the mutual benefit of community participation in the management of the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site. However, neither understanding participation is an end, nor focusing on local demands were guarantees for sustainable development processes when local reality is somehow complex and not readily understood. Involvement of local groups in early planning stages of tourism development would prove to be important measure to assure local ownership over tourism natural resources and a continuation of conservation.

In the study area which is also a tourist capital of Zambia, tourism development has neither provided adequate employment for local communities nor provided full benefits to individual households. Tourism development in the area has lacked a broad based community input. As indicated in the findings local communities are not in charge of tourism activities and their participation in tourism business is very minimal, this way sustainable tourism has failed to

provide an intergenerational equity.

Communities reported that equitable

distribution of costs and benefits of tourism development in their area did not flow to local households because government has not put in place policies and legislations that target to benefits local communities.

Furthermore, even if sustainable tourism embraced a community-oriented approach, which encourages community involvement and participation, local communities and individuals including tourists argued that nearly all the lodges, hotels and tour companies are run by foreign investors. The private sectors, in particular foreign investors, are mainly interested in profits from their business. While government is interested in tourism revenues accruing to them from these businesses; politicians too also exert their influence for their own purposes. This situation catches the local communities in an intricate web of struggle over tourism resources that are supposed to improve their livelihoods and reduce poverty. This produces contested relationships and views over tourism development between the community and the various actors.

Limitations of the study and need for further research. Marshall and Rossman (1998: 42) suggests that, there is no such thing as a perfectly designed study. This study did not only use Victoria Falls as a case study to provide depth and breadth in understanding geotourism and sustainable tourism development. However, this study also sought rich detail and was context specific; one limitation is that it did not presume to be generalizable to

other water falls or geotourism sites. In other words, interpretations made in this study may not apply to other geotourism sites. Nevertheless, the findings may be transferable or useful in similar settings facing similar issues. A second limitation was the nature of the data collected. The narratives and the study findings were from the perspectives of the participants around the Victoria Falls and hence it was subjective. However, the perspectives presented herein are only part of one layer in the dynamics of geotourism, geoparks and sustainable tourism development. The third limitation was that the study only looked at the Zambian side without looking at the Zimbabwean side as the Victoria Falls is jointly owned and managed by Zambia and Zimbabwe. The fourth limitation was the fact that this was the first geotourism research to be done not only on the Victoria Falls but Zambia as a whole. The study has revealed that Geotourism is a new concept and its prospects in contributing to tourism sustainable development and poverty alleviation needs to be investigated further. There is need for more research on the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site and community participation in the management of the site on both countries (i.e. Zambia and Zimbabwe) to make a healthier comparison on participation and benefits. Also, it would be useful to combine the Geotourism paradigm as discussed in this study with other approaches in sustainable tourism development in order to develop a research based policy for sustainable tourism development in Zambia. Further, there is need to conduct research on relationships between views and impacts at both a local and regional level to

better understand the factors encouraging and limiting or preventing community participation in tourism activities. It would be interesting to include local people in the analysis. This would help to understand the extent to which differences in practice (i.e. participation in Geotourism and sustainable tourism

development) can be understood as differences in views. In addition, research should be undertaken to determine how best the written and oral systems of law and regulations coexisting in developing countries particularly those in Africa can be used to promote community economic empowerment and poverty alleviation.

Conclusion On the whole, basing on the findings, it can be concluded that Geotourism and Geopark concepts are opportunities for rural development and they offer prospects for reducing poverty through engaging local communities in Geotourism activities. Also that the legal framework on tourism development in Zambia lacks specifics on community involved in tourism development. Further, the management of Victoria Falls World Heritage Site is not being managed sustainably in line with the principles of sustainable tourism development because of three issues: first, NHCC management does not allow many of the local people living around the World Heritage Site to actively participate in siteuse policy and management decisions; second, it does not give local people

ownership over the Heritage Site and finally, it does not give local people the

expected economic benefits arising from tourism development in the area. Due to these shortcomings the conflicts over natural resources will remain intense because tourism which is supposed to be changing the livelihoods of the people is only benefiting a few people. Therefore, as long as peoples livelihood options are not increased through employment or other better alternatives, poverty will continue to force local people with fewer alternatives to continue living in perpetual poverty and continue with a negative attitude towards any tourism development. However, the solution lies in exploring prospects presented by Geotourism and ensure that in all tourism policies and regulations; the local communities are fully involved and make them own, plan, manage and make decisions over the tourism natural resources development themselves.

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