Development Southern Africa, 2015

Vol. 32, No. 3, 292 –302, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2015.1010711

Authenticity, satisfaction, and place

attachment: A conceptual framework for
cultural tourism in African island
economies
Haywantee Ramkissoon
Small islands often host distinctive resources to influence their future through tourism
development. Island economies in Africa have witnessed a growing number of tourists seeking
authentic cultural and natural heritage tourism attractions. This paper critically examines and
bridges the nexus between perceived authenticity, place attachment, place satisfaction and
cultural behavioural intentions of tourists in African island economies. Adopting a theoretical
framework from the authenticity literature, and the attitude-behaviour framework, this paper
develops and proposes a conceptual model to investigate how authenticity of a cultural tourism
attraction might influence place satisfaction, which in turn might influence levels of place
attachment and prompt cultural behavioural intentions of tourists in African island economies.
This research conceptually contributes to knowledge advocating the associations between
constructs of authenticity, place satisfaction, place attachment, and cultural behavioural
intentions of tourists in African island economies. Limitations of the study and practical
implications for sustainable tourism development are discussed.

Keywords: authenticity; place satisfaction; place attachment; cultural behavioural intentions

1. Introduction
With the modern and sophisticated tourist in search of the authentic tourism product
(Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2011), cultural tourism has gained increasing significance in
many island destinations (Ramkissoon et al., 2011). Islands host distinctive cultural
and natural resources that serve as central assets in the highly competitive
international market (Buhalis, 2000), contributing largely to island economies.
Scholars are becoming increasingly interested in evaluating tourists’ perceived
authenticity of these cultural and natural resources and how these attractions are
endowed with value (Tuan, 1980; Milligan, 1998). Tourist attractions set the context
for social and psychological interactions between tourists and the place (Dredge,
2010; Ramkissoon et al., 2012). Place attachment, originating from attachment theory
(Bowlby, 1969), has emerged as a central concept in the environmental psychology
literature reflecting the emotional and social ties binding people to specific settings
(Scannell & Gifford, 2010a, 2010b; Raymond et al., 2011).
Place satisfaction is another well-examined construct in the literature. Given that satisfying
experiences predict future intention (Lee et al., 2012), an understanding of how
tourist satisfaction may enhance place attachment in cultural and natural settings

Research Fellow, Behaviour Works Australia, Monash Sustainability Institute, Australia &
International Tourism Research Unit, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Wellington Road,
Clayton VIC 3800, Australia, and Curtin University, Bentley, Perth, Australia. Correspondence:
Haywantee.Ramkissoon@monash.edu

# 2015 Government Technical Advisory Centre (GTAC)

 Authenticity, satisfaction, and place attachment 293

(Halpenny, 2006) may contribute to the success of island destinations (Taplin, 2013). Place
satisfaction is defined as a multidimensional summary judgement of the perceived quality of
a setting, meeting an individual’s needs for the physical characteristics of a place, its
services, and social dimensions (Stedman, 2002). Perceived as a key to the success of
tourist attractions in today’s competitive market (Tonge et al., 2011; Ramkissoon et al.,
2013b), the concept has been extensively used by destination site managers to understand
visitors’ levels of place satisfaction (e.g. Hwang et al., 2005; Tonge & Moore, 2007;
Ramkissoon et al., 2013a, 2013b). Researchers have demonstrated some evidence that
place satisfaction predict place attachment (e.g. Lee et al., 2012; Ramkissoon et al., 2014).
Maintaining satisfactory tourist experiences and fostering high levels of place attachment to
cultural and natural attributes is important for site managers. While constructs of
authenticity, place satisfaction, place attachment, and cultural behavioural intentions
have been well documented, studies investigating the association between these
constructs are scarce in the literature. The premise of this study is to develop and
propose a model of cultural tourism consumption for African island economies. Drawing
from existing theories from the consumer behaviour and environmental psychology
literature, this paper develops a conceptual model integrating constructs of authenticity,
place satisfaction, and place attachment (place identity, place dependence, place affect,
place social bonding) in one single integrative model to explain tourists’ cultural
consumption in African island destinations. The theoretical framework is underpinned
by an attitudinal approach to the study of tourists’ intentions to consume natural and
cultural assets based on attitude-behaviour models. Future studies could draw from the
propositions which emanate from the proposed framework. Not only will the empirical
testing of the propositions bring important insights to island destination marketers and
managers, it will contribute further to the existing body of knowledge on authenticity,
place satisfaction, place attachment, and cultural tourism consumption in island economies.

2. Literature review
2.1 Tourism in island economies
Island economies face serious difficulties in developing and expanding their economies
due to their small size. Until recently, reliance on tourism for the growth of small island
economies was viewed with scepticism by many researchers (e.g. Fagence, 1999; Rao,
2002) due to their size constraints. Croes (2006) argued that, despite what the critics
say, tourism development is now a common strategy used by several islands to
achieve greater economic performance. Islands with their physical and climatic
characteristics have been popular tourist destinations for a long time (Sharpley, 2001;
Apostolopoulous & Gayle, 2002; Croes, 2006). Tourism has served as an important
tool to overcome size constraints and economically sustain small island developing
states (Croes, 2006), often outperforming larger economies (Armstrong & Read, 2000,
2002; Easterly & Kraay, 2000; Lanza & Pigliaru, 2000; Apostolopoulos & Gayle,
2002). Evidence in the literature shows the increasing importance of the tourism
industry in the Caribbean, Pacific, and African island economies (e.g. Tsartas, 1992;
Mc Elroy & de Albuquerque, 1998; Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2010, 2011) attracting
more foreign exchange earnings to finance imports (Shareef & Hoti, 2005; Hoti et al.,
2007). Tourism as a means of economic development accounts for 20 to 50% of gross
national product (Hampton & Christensen, 2007) across several small island economies.
Tourism has also played a significant role in the development of peripheral, remote, and
insular regions by facilitating the transition from agriculture-based economies to the
294 H Ramkissoon

service industry (King, 1993). Countries specialising in services perform well since the
latter maximise economic performance (Oyewole, 2001). A similar view is shared by
Latimer (1985) and Modeste (1995), who argue that economic development in small
island economies is positively affected by tourism. Tourism in island states, including
small island developing states, also helps in reducing the wide gap between developed
and developing countries (Jenkins, 1982; Croes 2006), assisting with poverty
reduction by providing employment opportunities to the host communities. As such,
the tourism sector in small island economies is regarded as an easy and high-profit
option for economic growth (OECD, 1967; Seetanah, 2011) and social improvement
(Cooper & Buhalis, 1992). It helps to foster a good relationship between the host and
the guest and facilitates tourism spending into the local economy. While recent
research (e.g. Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2011; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2011, 2012, 2013)
recognise that tourism contributes to the economic and social foundation of small
island economies, new tourism strategies are required to retain their competitiveness
on the global tourism market.
As with the Caribbean and Pacific island destinations, tourism in African islands such as
Mauritius, Madagascar, and the Seychelles has resulted in several economic and social
benefits (e.g. Ramkissoon et al., 2011; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2013). These African
island states serve as gateways for their distinctive cultural and natural assets, which
are important components of destination marketing. The study sets out to make some
important theoretical contributions to the literature and seeks to provide important
practical implications to destination managers and marketers of African islands.
Researchers working on island states (e.g. Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2010, 2011) have
urged other scholars to develop and empirically test new conceptual frameworks that
can encompass distinctive constructs in cultural tourism consumption in such
economies. Considering constructs of authenticity, place satisfaction, and place
attachment dimensions (identity, dependence, affect, social bonding) in one integrative
model is likely to provide a better theoretical and statistical understanding of their
relationship with cultural behavioural intentions in African island economies.

2.2 Perceived authenticity

While tourism development in African island economies has been well studied (Nunkoo
& Ramkissoon, 2011, 2013; Prayag & Ryan, 2012), research on the perceived
authenticity of cultural and natural assets in these destinations remains scarce in the
tourism literature. Yet, with the growing trends of destination competitiveness, these
resources are important assets to developing island economies (Buhalis, 2000; Croes,
2006). The concept of authenticity defined as the interpretation of the genuineness and
increased appreciation of the tourism object (Chambers, 2009) plays a significant role
in destination competitiveness (Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2010, 2011). However, much of
the prior work on perceived authenticity has concentrated on the developed economies
(e.g. Richards, 2007). African island destinations are traditionally represented by the
sand, sun, and sea (Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2010). In addition to the climatic
characteristics, the rich culture, cultural sites and monuments, and distinctive natural
environments make them attractive destinations for seekers of authenticity. From a
marketing perspective, the distinctive cultural and natural characteristics these islands
host add value to the 3S core product (Crang, 1996) and may increase tourist
satisfaction with the destination. Some prior studies have evidenced that authenticity
has an impact on customer satisfaction (e.g. Song et al., 2013).
 Authenticity, satisfaction, and place attachment 295

Researchers further explore tourist perceived authenticity as an important driver, value,

motive, or interest (e.g. Grayson & Martinec, 2004; Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2010;
Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2014) in cultural tourism consumption. Ramkissoon & Uysal
(2010) reported a positive influence of tourists’ perceived authenticity on their cultural
behavioural intentions on the island of Mauritius. Other studies have shown a positive
effect of authenticity on repurchase intentions (loyalty) (e.g. Kolar & Zabkar, 2010;
Zhou et al., 2013). However, others argue that the role and importance of perceived
authenticity to explain behaviour demands more investigation (e.g. Song et al., 2014).
Researchers have yet to consider how perceived authenticity of cultural and natural
attractions can influence tourist satisfaction in African island destinations.
From a cultural tourism consumption perspective, this study proposes to investigate the
association between tourists’ perceived authenticity and their levels of satisfaction with
the cultural and natural attributes in African island destinations. It further proposes to
explore the direct relationship between perceived authenticity and cultural behavioural
intentions. Moreover, understanding perceived authenticity as an antecedent of tourist
satisfaction will allow destination marketers to plan, develop, and further concentrate
on the notions of authenticity when promoting the destination:
. Proposition 1: Perceived authenticity positively influences place satisfaction.

2.3 Place attachment

Place attachment highlights the positive emotional bonds emerging from the interactions
of people with the settings of a place (Ramkissoon et al., 2012; Lee & Shen, 2013).
Commonly conceptualised as place dependence and place identity (Williams et al.,
1992), place attachment has attracted significant interest from scholars and researchers
investigating people’s interactions with natural and cultural landscapes (e.g. Chung
et al., 2011; Ramkissoon et al., 2013b). While Williams et al.’s (1992) proposed
two-dimensional scale of place attachment (place dependence, place identity) has long
been considered as a robust measure to capture the intensity of the human – place bond
in such settings, other researchers have suggested additional dimensions of place
attachment such as place affect (Kals et al., 1999; Halpenny, 2010) and place social
bonding (Hammitt et al., 2009; Ramkissoon et al., 2013a, 2013b).

2.3.1 Place identity

Several authors postulate that when an individual feels strongly bound to a place,
this refers to the connection between the place and one’s personal identity
(Devine-Wright & Clayton, 2010; Qingjiu & Maliki, 2013). This bond conceptualised
as place identity (Prohansky et al., 1983) contains both cognitive and affective
elements, and is an important part of one’s whole sense of identity (Zenker & Rutter,
2014). Places, with their cultural significance, offer individuals an opportunity to
identify themselves with distinctive environments (Ramkissoon et al., 2013a) and
express their sense of identity (Budruk et al., 2009; Mosquera & Sanchez, 2013).

2.3.2 Place dependence

Another well-researched and reliable dimension of place attachment is place
dependence. Defined as the functional attachment to a place (Stokols & Shumacker,
1981), place dependence is thought to be important for the fulfilment of specific goals.
In addition to its functional purpose, it is used to compare how well the place’s
296 H Ramkissoon

settings compare with other available settings hosting the same attributes (Williams
et al., 1992). Cultural attributes offer individuals the opportunity to reflect on the
importance of such resources necessary to carry out desired activities, and evaluate
how they compare with other alternatives.

2.3.3 Place affect

Place affect is an under-researched dimension of place attachment reflecting the
emotional ties an individual shares with a place (Halpenny, 2010; Ramkissoon et al.,
2012). Stronger affective links are often noticed among people with greater
experience with natural environments than those with lesser experience (Hinds &
Sparks, 2008; Ramkissoon et al., 2013a, 2013b). Natural settings generate a sense of
psychological well-being for visitors (Korpela et al., 2009; Ramkissoon et al., 2012).
These affective links are strengthened when individuals develop their sentiments and
give meanings to these natural (Tuan, 1977; Rolero & De Picolli, 2010) and cultural
spaces.

2.3.4 Place social bonding

Scholars have shown that place belongingness, familiarity, and community attachment
are associated with place social bonds (e.g. Kyle & Chick, 2007). Attachment is often
associated in places with meanings that significant others share (Lee et al., 2012) and,
as Hidalgo & Hernandez (2001) argued, these social bonds can be stronger than
attachment to houses and neighbourhoods. Place social bonding focuses on the social
context that binds individuals with the physical and cultural landscape (Kyle et al.,
2004; Buta et al., 2014). Cultural settings do provide a context for people to socialise
(Kyle & Chick, 2007; Lee et al., 2012). Social bonds, in fact, can be the primary
source of meaning in some contexts (Kyle et al., 2005; Ramkissoon et al., 2013a), and
demands more investigation.

2.4 Place satisfaction and place attachment

The association between visitor satisfaction and place attachment is attracting significant
interest in the literature (e.g. Ramkissoon et al., 2013a, 2013b; Veasna et al., 2013).
While some evidence suggests that visitor satisfaction is an antecedent of place
attachment (Yuksel et al., 2010; Ramkissoon et al., 2013a, 2013b), recent studies
suggest that satisfaction is a predictor of place attachment (Lee et al., 2012;
Ramkissoon et al., 2014). Further, little empirical work – with the exception of a few
(e.g. Ramkissoon et al., 2014) – has investigated the effect of visitor satisfaction on
the respective dimensions of place attachment (dependence, identity, affect, social
bonding). This suggests the need for more constructive research on the association
between these two constructs in tourism settings (Hou et al., 2005; O’Neill et al.,
2010). The following propositions emanate from the study:
. Proposition 2: Place satisfaction positively influences place identity.
. Proposition 3: Place satisfaction positively influences place dependence.
. Proposition 4: Place satisfaction positively influences place affect.
. Proposition 5: Place satisfaction positively influences place social bonding.
 Authenticity, satisfaction, and place attachment 297

2.5 Place attachment and cultural behavioural intentions

Place attachment has also been proposed as an antecedent of behavioural intentions.
Building an integrative concept of place attachment and an investigation of its
relationship with future behavioural intentions are attracting significant interest from
researchers and destination marketers (e.g. Prayag & Ryan, 2012; Ramkissoon et al.,
2013b; Veasna et al., 2013). Conceptualised as place dependence and place identity,
place attachment was a significant predictor of loyalty mediated by visitor satisfaction
(Yuksel et al., 2010; Prayag & Ryan, 2012). Similarly, other studies (e.g. Alexandris
et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2007; Yuksel et al., 2010) reported the positive influence of
place identity and place dependence on loyalty (revisit intentions). In a recent study
by Ramkissoon et al. (2013a), place affect and place social bonding were antecedents
of park visitors’ pro-environmental behavioural intentions. Therefore, it can be argued
that place identity, place dependence, place affect, and place social bonding may be
predictors of tourists’ cultural intentions:
. Proposition 6: Place identity positively influences cultural behavioural intentions.
. Proposition 7: Place dependence positively influences cultural behavioural intentions.
. Proposition 8: Place affect positively influences cultural behavioural intentions.
. Proposition 9: Place social bonding positively influences cultural behavioural
intentions.

3. The theoretical model

The theoretical model shown in Figure 1 describes a logical flow between the constructs
related to cultural tourism consumption in island economies. As evidenced by the
literature (e.g. Cateran & Roederer, 2013), authenticity is a central concept in cultural

Figure 1: Theoretical framework of the study

298 H Ramkissoon

tourism consumption. The model proposes that tourists’ perceived authenticity positively
influences their place satisfaction. Drawing from the human attachment theory (Bowlby,
1969) and on empirical evidence from the place attachment literature (e.g. Lee et al., 2012;
Ramkissoon & Mavondo, 2014), the model proposes that tourist place satisfaction
influences each of the place attachment dimensions (place identity, place dependence,
place affect, place social bonding), prompting cultural tourism consumption at these
destinations. Place dependence, place identity, place affect, and place social bonding
each exerts a positive and direct influence on tourists’ cultural intentions.

4. Conclusion
This paper contributes to the existing body of knowledge on island economies by
developing a conceptual framework proposing theoretical links between authenticity,
place satisfaction, the four dimensions of place attachment (place identity, place
dependence, place affect, place social bonding), and cultural behavioural intentions
for African island states hosting distinctive cultural and natural assets. Borrowing
from existing theories in the consumer behaviour and environmental psychology
literature, this study offers researchers a framework that is grounded in theory and
past research and has the potential to deliver valuable theoretical and practical
implications for promoting cultural tourism for islands of the African continent.
With tourists’ quest for distinctive natural and cultural heritage assets (Ramkissoon &
Uysal, 2011), determining how to get them strongly attached to African islands’
attributes is of great relevance to African island destination planners and marketers.
Tourists can develop affective links, a sense of identity and belongingness,
dependence, and social bonding to the cultural and natural elements often unique to
such island destinations. Destination marketers and policy-makers of African islands
could develop and adopt tourism practices to further market the tourism product with
an increased focus on authenticity of the cultural and natural tourist attractions. One
recommendation is to liaise with the respective site managers and conduct further
research into the different elements of authenticity. This will be valuable in
developing and formulating effective strategies, ensuring that tourists develop a strong
sense of attachment to the islands’ natural and cultural assets while ascertaining that
these elements are congruent with tourists’ perceptions of authenticity, hence
promoting cultural tourism consumption.
This study contributes to the comparative lack of studies on authenticity, place
satisfaction, place attachment, and tourist cultural tourism consumption in island
destinations. The limitation of this study is the lack of empirical evidence.
Researchers are encouraged to use structural equation modelling to empirically test
the model. This will help managers of African island cultural and natural sites focus
on authenticity of the attractions to increase place satisfaction. It would further
provide site managers with an understanding of how to foster place attachment. It can
help site managers identify the elements of place attachment that are most important
in influencing tourists’ cultural behavioural intentions in African island destinations.
For instance, site managers could foster place attachment by building on the needs
and services of tourists to develop high levels of place dependence. Researchers can
also consider extending the framework to include other potential predictors of place
satisfaction, place attachment, and cultural behavioural intentions. Inclusion of other
 Authenticity, satisfaction, and place attachment 299

determinants may enhance the predictive power of the framework and provide further
insights to guide theory and practice.

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