The Nervous System

B. Pimentel, M. D.
University of Makati – College of Nursing
 The Nervous System

Function
2. Communication
3. Sensory Input
4. Integration
5. Mental Activity
6. Control of Muscles and Glands
 The Nervous System

• Ganglia – a collection of neuron cell bodies outside

the CNS.

• Nerve – a bundle of axons and their sheaths that

connect the CNS to sensory receptors, muscles, and
glands.
 Organization

I. Central nervous system (CNS)

II. Peripheral nervous system

I. CNS
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
 Organization

II. PNS
A. Afferent sensory nervous system
B. Efferent motor nervous system
i. Somatic motor
ii. Autonomic Motor
1. Sympathetic
2. Parasympathetic
 CNS

• Structural & functional center of the entire nervous

system.

• Integrates sensory information:

– Eyes
– Ears
– Smell
– Taste
– Touch

• Evaluates information and initiates a response

 PNS

• Periphery or outer region of body

• Nerves originate from the brain

• Afferent nerves deal with all incoming sensory info.

• Efferent nerves are all outgoing motor function

PNS
 PNS

• Somatic nervous system carries info. to the Skeletal

muscle.

• Autonomic nervous system visceral motor (Smooth

muscles, cardiac muscles, Glands, digestive,
circulatory, reproductive, Urinary)

– Sympathetic - prepares body to deal with immediate threats

to self "Fight or Flight".

– Parasympathetic - coordinates the body's normal resting

state. "Rest and Repair".
 Anatomy

Structure
• Brain Average weight 1600grams (3.5 lbs.)
• Spinal cord

Divisions
1. Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
2. Diencephalon
A. Thalamus
B. Hypothalamus
C. Pineal Body (epithalamus)
 Anatomy

3. Brain Stem
A. Mid brain
B. Pons
C. Medulla Oblongota

4. Cerebellum
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)

Cerebral Hemispheres
• Most superior part of brain.

• 83% of brain mass

• Form the largest part of the brain, occupying the

anterior and middle cranial fossae in the skull and
extending backwards over the tentorium cerebelli.
– They are made up of the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia,
tracts of synaptic connections, and the ventricles containing
CSF.
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)

• Separated from each other by median longitudinal

fissure, and from cerebellum by transverse fissure;
have gyri and sulci on surface

• Divided into five lobes, frontal, parietal, temporal,

occipital, and insula lobes.

• Central sulcus delineates precentral gyrus and

postcentral gyrus.
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)

Supplied by three main arteries:

• Anterior Cerebral Artery, Middle Cerebral Artery,
Posterior Cerebral Artery
 Anatomy
(Cerebrum)
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)

Regions of Cerebral Hemispheres

1. Outer cortex (Gray Matter)
2. Internal (White Matter)
3. Basal Nuclei
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)

Function of Cerebral Hemispheres (CONSCIOUS)

– PERCEIVE
– COMMUNICATE
– REMEMBER
– UNDERSTAND
– APPRECIATE
– INITIATE VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)
The Gray Matter
GRAY MATTER
• Consists of neurons, cell bodies, dendrites,
unmyelinated axons, associated glial cells, & blood
vessels.
– Gyri - Elevated ridges
– Sulcus - Shallow grooves
– Fissure - Deeper grooves, separate larger regions of the
brain.
• Gyri and Sulci increase surface area of gray matter three folds.
– Lobes - Deeper sulci divide each hemisphere into lobes,
named after the cranial bone that overlies it.
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
The Gray Matter
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)
The Gray Matter
Function of Gray Matter
– Motor
– Sensory
– Association areas

• Each hemisphere is concerned with sensory and

motor functions of the contralateral side of the body.
• Symmetrical in structure, but not equal in function.
• No functional area of the cortex acts alone, and
conscious behavior involves the entire cortex.
 Cerebrum (Motor functions)

4 motor functional areas of the cerebrum

1. Conscious control of skeletal muscle

2. Learned motor skills

– Musical instruments, Typing , Writing etc.

3. Motor speech area

– Broca's Area - muscles of the tongue, throat, & lips.

4. Voluntary movements of the eyes Frontal eye field

 Cerebrum (Motor functions)

Motor areas: located in posterior part of frontal lobes,

control voluntary motor function.

(i) Primary motor cortex (PMC): in precentral gyrus, pyramidal cells

giving rise to long axons (corticospinal, pyramidal tracts).
- Allows conscious control of movements of skeletal muscle.

(ii) Premotor cortex (PC): anterior to precentral gyrus, frontal lobe;

controls learned motor skills of repetitive nature.
Cerebrum (Motor functions)
Cerebrum (Motor functions)
 Cerebrum (Motor functions)

(iii) Brocca's area: located in one hemisphere, special motor

speech area.

(iv) Frontal eye field: controls voluntary movements of the eyes.

Cerebrum (Motor functions)
Cerebrum (Motor functions)
 Cerebrum (Sensory Functions)

6 Sensory area
2. Spatial discrimination
3. Integrate & analyze different somatic sensory inputs
4. Vision largest of all cortical sensory areas.
5. Hearing
6. Olfaction
7. Gustatory
 Cerebrum (Sensory Functions)

Sensory areas: not confined to a single lobe; concerned

with conscious awareness of sensation.

(i) Primary somatosensory cortex (PSSC): in postcentral gyrus.

- Neurons receive information from somatic sensory receptors and
proprioreceptors to identify the body region being stimulated - spatial
discrimination.

(ii) Somatosensory association area (SSA): posterior to PSSC,

many connections with it; integrates and analyzes
somatosensory inputs into comprehensive evaluation of what is
being felt.
 Cerebrum (Sensory
Functions)
(iii) Visual areas:
- Primary visual cortex (PVC)/ visual association area
- Receives information from retina; interprets/evaluates visual input in
light of past experiences.

(iv) Auditory areas:

- Primary auditory cortex (PAC)/auditory association area
- Input from cochlear receptors of inner ear; integration/perception of
sound stimulus

(v) Olfactory cortex (OC): input from olfactory receptors.

(vi) Gustatory cortex: perception of taste stimuli.

Cerebrum (Sensory
Functions)
 Cerebrum (Association Area)

Association areas: communicate with motor cortex and

other association areas to analyze, recognize, and
act on sensory input; there are several of these other
association areas, an example is the pre-frontal
cortex.

Prefrontal cortex (PFC): intellect, cognition and personality.

 Anatomy (Cerebrum)
The White Matter
WHITE MATTER
• Deep to gray matter
• Myelinated fibers
• Communication between cortex and lower CNS
centers
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)
The White Matter
Commissures - composed of commissural fibers
connect corresponding areas of 2 hemispheres
enabling them to function as a whole.
• Corpus Collosum - largest commissure

Basal nuclei - Islands of gray matter within white

matter.
• Have extensive inputs from entire cerebral cortex,
influence motor movements.
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)

• Subcortical nuclei
– Deep within the cerebrum, diencephalons, and midbrain
– Involved in the control of motor functions.

• Receives input from entire cerebral cortex influences

muscle movements.
– Inhibits antagonistic or unnecessary movements
– Some role in cognition.
 Anatomy (Cerebrum)
The White Matter
Structures
– Caudate nucleus
– Lentiform nucleus
– Subthalamic nucleus
– Substantia nigra
 Anatomy (Diencephalon)

• Central core of forebrain

• Surrounded by CHs
• Includes:
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Epithalamus
 Diencephalon (Thalamus)

• Composed of masses of gray matter held together by

midline commissure, the intermediate mass; forms
superolateral walls of third ventricle.

– Sorting out or editing of information occurs, impulses having

to do with similar functions are relayed to appropriate area of
sensory cortex and cortical association areas.

– Virtually all impulses ascending to cerebral cortex funneled

through thalamus; thus thalamus is gateway to cortex.
Diencephalon
(Thalamus)
Diencephalon (Thalamus)
 Diencephalon (Thalamus)

• Afferent impulses from all senses and all parts of the

body converge here and the information is sorted and
sent to the proper area of the brain.
– Regulation of emotion
– Mediating sensation
– Motor activities
– Cortical arousal
– Learning & Memory
Diencephalon (Thalamus)
 Diencephalon (Hypothalamus)

• Main visceral control center of the body

• Important to overall body homeostasis

• Located below thalamus, constitutes inferolateral

walls of third ventricle; extends from optic chiasm to
posterior margin of mammary bodies.
Diencephalon (Hypothalamus)
Diencephalon (Hypothalamus)
 Diencephalon
(Hypothalamus)
• Main visceral control center of body, has several
homeostatic roles:
– Center for emotional response/behavior
– Body temperature regulation
– Regulation of food intake
– Regulation of water balance and thirst
– Regulation of sleep/wake cycles
– Control of endocrine system functioning
 Diencephalon (Epithalamus)

• Most dorsal part of diencephalon, helps form roof of

the third ventricle.

• Most noticeable landmark is pineal gland --

sleep/wake cycles
Diencephalon (Epithalamus)
 Brain Stem

A. Midbrain
B. Pons
C. Medulla Oblongota

• All are gray matter surrounding white tracts.

• Produce the rigidly programmed, autonomic behavoirs
necessary for our survival.
• 10 of the 12 cranial nerves are heavily involved in innervation of
the head.
 Brain Stem (Midbrain)

• Located between diencephalon superiorly and pons

inferiorly.
– Cerebral peduncles containing pyramidal tracts; also
superior cerebellar peduncles, fiber tracts connecting
midbrain to cerebellum dorsally.
– Cerebral aqueduct in midbrain connects third and fourth
ventricles.
Brain Stem (Midbrain)
 Brain Stem (Midbrain)

• Visual reflex that coordinates head & eye movements

• Auditory relay is the reflexive responses to sound as
in the "Startle Reflex" causes you to turn your head in
the direction of an unexpected sound.

– Substantia Nigra - Increases melatonin production for

precursor of dopamine production.
 Brain Stem (Pons)

• Bulging stem region wedged between the midbrain

and medulla oblongata; dorsally forms part of the
walls of the fourth ventricle; composed mostly of
conduction tracts.

• Conduction tracts between higher brain centers &

spinal cord

• Features:
– projection fibers, middle cerebellar peduncles; several
cranial nerves originate from pons nuclei (trigemminal nerve
V, facial nerve VII)
Brain Stem (Pons)
 Brain Stem (Medulla
Oblongata)
• Most inferior portion of the brainstem
• Features:
– pyramids (large ridges) on ventral surface; inferior cerebellar
peduncles; olives; number of cranial nerves associated with
medulla, hypoglossal nerve (XII), glossopharyngeal (IX),
vagus (X), accessory (XI), vestibulocochlear (VIII).

– plays crucial role as autonomic reflex center, contains

following important visceral motor nuclei:
Brain Stem (Medulla
Oblongata)
 Brain Stem (Medulla Oblongata)

• Cardiovascular center controls force and rate of heart

contraction.

• Vasomotor regulates blood pressure by controlling

size of vessel walls.

• Respiratory center controls rate and depth of

breathing.
 Brain Stem (Medulla Oblongata)

Other controls
• Vomiting
• Hiccuping
• Swallowing
• Coughing
• Sneezing
 Cerebellum

• Located dorsally to pons/medulla and to intervening

fourth ventricle
• Processes input received from cerebral motor cortex,
various brain stem nuclei, and sensory receptors to
provide the precise timing and appropriate patterns of
skeletal muscle contraction required for smooth,
coordinated functioning.
• Landmarks:
– two cerebellar hemispheres separated by vermis medially,
convoluted surface, exhibits folia.
Cerebellum
Cerebellum
 Cerebellum

Function
• Process inputs received from the cerebral cortex,
various brain centers and sensory receptors to
provide the precise timing and appropriate patterns of
skeletal muscle contraction needed for smooth
coordinated movements.

– The cerebellum continuously compares higher brains

intention with the body’s performance and sends out
messages to initiate the appropriate corrective measures.
 Ventricles

• Fluid (CSF) filled cavities within the brain

• Lined with ependymal cells
– Lateral ventricle – in each cerebral hemisphere, separated
by the septa pellucida.
– Third ventricle – a midline cavity located in the center of the
diencephalons between the two halves of the thalamus.
• Communicates with lateral ventricles via interventricular
foramen.
 Ventricles
– Fourth ventricle – supeior region of the medulla oblongata at
the base of the cerebellum. Continuous with the central
canal of the spinal cord.
Three openings, lateral apertures (2), and median aperture,
connect it to subarachnoid space.
Ventricles
 Anatomy (Spinal Cord)

• Two way conduction pathway

• Major reflex center
• Begins as it leaves the Foramen Magnum ends at L1
• It is protected by meninges, the spinal dural sheath,
arachnoid mater and pia mater
• Thirty one pairs of spinal nerves
 Anatomy (Spinal Cord)

– Conus Medullaris – Cone shaped terminal end

– Filum Terminale – Fibrous extensions of the pia

mater extends inferiorly to the coccyx for
anchoring.

– Cauda Equinus – Collection of spinal nerves L2 to

S4, resembles a horses tail.
 Cross Sectional Anatomy (Spinal
Cord)
• Gray Matter
• White Matter
• Two major grooves
– Anterior median fissure
– Posterior median sulcus.
 Cross Sectional Anatomy of the
SC
(Gray matter)
Gray matter/spinal roots
• Appearance of an "H",
– connected by gray commissure.

• The two anterior projections

– anterior (ventral) horns

• Lateral projections
– lateral horns, and the

• Posterior gray matter

– Posterior (dorsal) horns.
 Cross Sectional Anatomy
(Gray matter)
• Anterior (ventral) horns: contain nerve cell bodies of
somatic motor neurons, send their axons via ventral
roots of SC to skeletal muscles.

• Lateral horns: contain nerve cell bodies of autonomic

(sympathetic division) motor neurons that serve
visceral organs, their axons leave SC via ventral
roots along with those of somatic motor neurons
 Cross Sectional Anatomy of the
SC
(Gray matter)
• Afferent fibers carrying impulses from peripheral
sensory receptors form the dorsal roots of SC

• Dorsal and ventral roots fuse laterally to form spinal

nerves.
 Cross Sectional Anatomy of the
SC
(Gray matter)
Spinal Roots
• Composed of Ventral and Dorsal roots
– Ventral Roots
• Somatic motor neurons
• Largest at limb innervating cervical & lumbar regions.
– Dorsal Roots
• Afferent sensory fibers from peripheral nervous system
 Cross Sectional Anatomy of the
SC
(White matter)
• Composed of myelinated/unmyelinated nerve fibers,
run in ascending and descending directions

• White matter on each side of cord can be divided into

three white columns.
– posterior, anterior and lateral funiculi; each funiculus
contains several fiber tracts, each tract made up of axons
with similar destinations and functions.

• All spinal tracts are part of multineuron pathways that

connect brain to periphery
 Anatomy (Spinal Cord)

Meninges
• Compoased of 3 connective tissue layers that lie just
external to the CNS.
– Cover and protect
– Protect blood vessels and venous sinus
– Contains CSF
– Forms partitions within skull
– From external to internal
 Anatomy (Meninges)

EXTERNAL INTERNAL
Dura Mater Arachnoid Pia Mater

1. Dura Mater (Tough mother)

– Strongest outermost meningeal layer
– Double layered – Periosteal and meningeal
• Periosteal layer – inelastic attached to inner surface of
skull
• Meningeal layer – Forms the true external covering of the
CNS, and continues caudally in the vertebral canal.
 Anatomy (Meninges)

Dural Septa – The meningeal layer that extends inward

to form flat septa that anchor the brain to the skull.
• Falx cerebri
• Falx cerebelli
• Tentorium cerebelli
 Anatomy (Meninges)

2. Arachnoid mater (spider mother)

– Loose brain covering, never dipping into sulci.
• Subdural space - Separated from the dura mater by a narrow
serous cavity.
• Subarachnoid space – Beneath the arachnoid, web-like
structures span this space and secure the arachnoid to the
underlying pia mater. This space is filled with Cerebral Spinal
Fluid (CSF). Also contains the largest blood vessels serving
the brain.
 Anatomy (Spinal Cord)

Epidural Space

• Located between the Dura mater and the arachnoid.

It is a fat filled cavity, excellent for fat soluble
injections of anesthetics, and corticosteroids.
 Anatomy (Meninges)

3. Pia Mater (Gentle Mother)

– Delicate tissue, richly invested with tiny blood vessels.
– Clings tightly to the brain.
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

• Fluid lining between the meninges and ventricles

which surrounds the brain and spinal cord

• forms liquid cushion; helps nourish brain.

 Cranial Nerves

1. Olfactory – smell, from the nasal mucosa to the

olfactory bulbs

2. Optic – sensory nerve of vision

3. Occulomotor – motor to eye muscles

4. Trochlear – motor to one eye muscle

Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves
 Cranial Nerves

5. Trigeminal – Divided into 3 branches

• Opthalmic – sensory from scalp, forehead, nose, upper
eyelid, and cornea.
• Maxillary – sensory from palate, upper jaw, upper teeth
and gums, nasopharynx, nasal cavity, skin and mucous
membranes of the cheeks, lower eyelid, and upper lip
• Mandibular – sensory from lower jaw, lower teeth and
gums, anterior tongue, mucous membrane of cheek,
lower lip, skin of cheek and chin, auricle, and temporal
region.
– Motor to muscles of mastication, soft palate, throat, and
middle ear.
Cranial Nerves
 Cranial Nerves

6. Abducens – motor to eye muscle.

7. Facial – sense of taste, motor to muscles of

facial expression, throat and middle ear.
Parasympathetic to submandibular, and sublingual
salivary glands, lacrimal glands, and glands of the
nasal cavity and palate.

8. Vestibulocochlear – hearing and balance.

Cranial Nerves
 Cranial Nerves

9. Glossopharyngeal – Sensory taste, pharynx,

palatine tonsils, tongue, middle ear, carotid sinus,
and carotid body.
• Motor to pharyngeal muscles.
• Parasympathetic to parotid salivary glands and glands of
the tongue.
10. Vagus – sensory from inferior pharynx, larynx,
thoracic and abdominal organs.
• Motor to soft palate, pharynx, laryngeal muscles, and
tongue muscles.
• Parasympathetic to abdominal and thoracic viscera.
 Cranial Nerves

11. Accessory – motor to soft palate, pharynx,

sternocleidomastoid, and trapezius.

12. Hypoglossal – motor to tongue muscles, and

throat muscles.
Cranial Nerves
 PNS

• The PNS provides the link to the outside world -- both

in terms of reception of stimuli and response

• Includes all neural structures outside the brain and

spinal cord:
– sensory receptors, peripheral nerves, their associated
ganglia, and efferent motor endings.
 Functional Anatomy (PNS)

Nerve
• Parallel bundles of peripheral axons (myelinated and
unmyelinated) enclosed by successive wrappings of
connective tissue.
– Endoneurium: a delicate layer of loose connective tissue
surrounding each axon, its myelin sheath and neurilemma.
– Perineurium: coarse connective tissue layer wrapping
bundles of axons into fascicles.
– Epineurium - a tough fibrous sheath enclosing bundles of
fascicles and blood vessels.
 Functional Anatomy (PNS)

• PNS has sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)

divisions
– nerves containing both sensory and motor fibers and
transmitting impulses both to and from the CNS are called
mixed nerves.

• Nerves with only sensory fibers are sensory nerves,

with only motor fibers are motor nerves
– peripheral nerves are classified as either cranial or spinal
nerves.
 Functional Anatomy (PNS)

Ganglia:
• Collections of neuron cell bodies associated with
nerves of PNS
– Ganglia associated with afferent nerve fibers contain cell
bodies of sensory neurons
– Ganglia associated with efferent nerve fibers contain cell
bodies of autonomic motor neurons.

Motor endings
• PNS elements that activate effectors by releasing
neurotransmitters.
 Anatomy (Neurons)

• Made up of a cell body and Axon(s) and one or more

dendrites.

• Excitable cells that conduct impulses that make

possible all nervous system functions.

• Cell body - is largest part of cell resides in CNS

Anatomy (Neurons)
 Anatomy (Neurons)

Dendrites - Branch extensively from cell body. Distal

ends are receptors. Conduct impulses to the cell
body.

Axon – Single process, extends from a tapered hillock

of the cell body. Conducts impulses away from cell
body
– Side branches called Axon Collaterals
– Distal tips from branches are called Telodendria that
terminate into a Synaptic Knob Contains mitochondria and
numerous vesicles for neurotransmitters.
 Classification of Neurons

• Multipolar - many dendrites and a single axon, most are

found within CNS and motor neurons.

• Bipolar - 2 processes a dendrite and an axon, located in

some sensory organs
– i.e. retina of eye, and nasal cavity.

• Unipolar - single process extending from the cell body,

this process divides into two branches a short distance
from the cell body.
– One branches to the CNS, and the other to the periphery
and has dendrite like sensory receptors the two branches
function as a single axon.
 Neuroglia Cells

Neuroglia cells more numerous than neurons in CNS.

• Major supporting cells for the CNS.

• Formation of a permeability barrier the blood and the
neurons
• Phagocytize foreign substances.
• Produce CSF
• Form myelin sheaths around neurons
 Neuroglia Cells

1. Astrocytes

2. Ependymal cells

3. Microglia

4. Oligodendrocytes
 Neuroglia Cells (Astrocytes)

• Star shaped cytoplasmic extensions that spread out

to form process which cover blood vessels, neurons,
and pia mater.

• Extensive cytoskeleton of microfilaments that enables

them to form a supporting network for blood vessels
and neurons.

• Regulates the extracellular composition of brain fluid.

 Neuroglia Cells (Astrocytes)

• Promotes the formation of tight junctions, together

with the endothelial cells of the blood vessels forms a
Blood Brain Barrier-, which determines which
substances can pass from the blood into the nervous
system.

• Control the composition of the interstitial fluid by

regulating the concentration of ions and gases and by
recycling neurotransmitters.
 Neuroglia Cells (Ependymal Cells)

• Line the ventricles of the brain and the central

canal of the spinal cord.

• Choroid Plexuses – formed by specialized

ependymal cells and blood vessels, these are
located in certain regions of the ventricles,
secretes CSF that circulates through the
ventricles.

• Ciliated free surface assists in the movement

CSF through the cavities of the brain.
 Neuroglia Cells (Microglia)

Specialized macrophages, that becomes mobile and

phagocytic in response to inflammation.

Phagocytize necrotic tissue, microorganisms, and

foreign substances that invade the CNS.
 Neuroglia Cells
(Oligodendrocytes)
• Cytoplasmic extensions that surround axons wrap
around many times and form a myelin sheath.
 Myelin

• Phospholipid that insulates axons electrically.

• Action potentials propagate quicker along myelinated

axons versus unmyelinated axons.

• The membrane is tightly coiled around the axon with

interruptions every 0.3 to 1.5mm these are called
NODES OF RANVIER
 Plasma Membrane

• High concentration extracellularly

– Sodium
– Chloride

• High concentration intracellularly

– Potassium
– Negatively charged particles
• Proteins
• Molecules containing phosphorous
 Concentration Differences

1. Sodium-Potassium pump

• Active transport against the concentration gradient.

Approximately 3 sodium ions and two potassium ions are
transported per ATP molecule.
 Concentration Differences

2. Permeability characteristics of the plasma membrane

• Nongated ion channels – are always open and responsible for

the resting membrane permeability.

• Gated ion channels – open and close due to a stimulus.

– Ligand gated ion channels – molecule that binds to a receptor.
Open and close in response to a ligand binding to a receptor.

– Voltage gated ion channels – open and close in response to small

voltage differences across the membrane.
 Resting Membrane Potential

The potential difference across the plasma membrane

in a resting state is -70 to -90 millivolts.
 Resting Membrane Potential

• The number of charged molecules and ions inside

and outside the cell is nearly equal.

• The concentration of potassium is higher inside than

outside the cell, and the concentration of sodium is
higher outside than inside the cell.

• The plasma membrane is 5o to 100 times more

permeable to potassium than to other positively
charged ions such as sodium.
 Resting Membrane Potential

• The plasma membrane is impermeable to large

intracellular negatively charged molecules such as
proteins.

• Potassium ions tend to diffuse across the plasma

membrane from inside to the outside of the cell.

• Because negatively charged molecules cannot follow

the positively charged potassium ion, a small
negative charge develops just inside the plasma
membrane.
 Resting Membrane Potential

• The negative charge inside the cell attracts positively

charged potassium.
– When the negative charge inside the cell is great enough to
prevent additional potassium ions from diffusing out of the
cell through the plasma membrane, an equilibrium is
established.
 Resting Membrane Potential

• The charge difference across the plasma membrane

at equilibrium is reflected as a difference in potential,
which is measured in millivolts.

• The resting membrane potential is proportional for

potassium to diffuse out of the cell but not to the
actual rate of flow for potassium.
 Resting Membrane Potential

• At equilibrium there is very little movement of

potassium or other ions across the plasma
membrane.
Action Potential
Action Potential
Action Potential
Action Potential
Action Potential
 Synapse

A junction between two cells where an action potential

in one cell can cause the production of action
potentials in another cell.

• Presynaptic cell - carries the action potential towards

a synapse.

• Postsynaptic cell - carries the action potential away

from the synapse.
Synapse
Synapse
Synapse
 Postsynaptic Potentials

• Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) -

depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane occurs
due to neurotransmitters and their receptors. This is
a local depolarization, that may reach threshold and
produce an action potential and a response from the
cell.
 Postsynaptic Potentials

• Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) - occurs

when the combination of neurotransmitter and its
receptor results in a hyperpolarization of the
postsynaptic membrane, the response is inhibitory.
– IPSP decrease the likelihood of producing action potentials
by moving the membrane potential farther from the
threshold.
 Neurotransmitters

The means by which each neuron communicates with

others to process information and send messages.

1. Chemical synapses – Specialized structures at

terminal ends of axons and dendrites to release and
receive chemical neurotransmitters.
 Neurotransmitters

1. Synaptic Vesicles – pre and postsynaptic membranes

contain these tiny sacs, which contain many different
neurotransmitters in the pre synaptic axon, and the
postsynaptic dendrite contains many different
receptor sites for the different neurotransmitters.

3. Synaptic cleft – separates postsynaptic and pre

synaptic neurons, fluid filled space approx. 30 to
50nm. Unidirectional communication between axons.
 Neurotransmitters

1. Acetylcholine
– First to be identified
– Used in neuromuscular junctions and the CNS
– Degraded by acetylcholinesterase.
– Prolonged exposure of acetylcholine will result in neural
frying.
• Nerve gas
• Insecticides
• Snake venom
 Neurotransmitters

2. Dopamine
– CNS Autonomic system
– Involved in emotions/moods and regulation of motor control.
– Parkinson’s is a degeneration of dopamine axons.
– Schizophrenia may be an increase in dopamine release and
axons.
 Neurotransmitters

3. Norepinephrine
– Several areas of the CNS and the sympathetic division of
the autonomic nervous system.
– Regulates sympathetic effectors; in the brain, involved in
emotional responses. Arousal, dreaming.
– Release enhanced by amphetamines (speed), removal from
postsynaptic cleft by cocaine.
 Neurotransmitters

4. Serotonin
– CNS
– Induction of sleep, sensory perception, temperature
regulation, and control of mood.
– Drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin relieve anxiety
and depression. May be responsible
 Neurotransmitters

5. Histamine
– Brain
– Involved in emotions, and regulation of body temperature,
and water balance.
– Also released by white Blood Cells causing edema (swelling)
and smooth muscle constriction
 Neurotransmitters

6. Substance P
– PNS
– Pain transmitter

7. Enkephalins
– CNS, retina, and intestinal tract.
– Acts like opiates to block pain.

8. Endorphins
– CNS, retina, and intestinal tract
– Memory, learning, sexual activity, temperature control.
– Decreased amount leads to depression.
The End