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NOTES ON UTILITY (STEAM) BY CHANDRAJIT KIRAD

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

Contact : 9270978070

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June 22, 2009

Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Steam Enthalpy Diagram and Specific volume. Steam Tables Steam Quality and its industrial use. Process Energy Balance and Steam Quantity and pressure requirement. Utility Flow Diagram (Steam, Condensate and Fuel). Steam Pipe sizing Criterion. Pressure drop Calculation. Specifying Boiler Capacity and Pressure. Boiler Types. Types of Fuel and requirement. Chimney size Calculation. Flash Steam. Pressure Reducing Station Piping Consideration

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

1.

Steam

When water is heated at constant pressure, the temperature increases and the water approaches its boiling condition, some molecules attain enough kinetic energy to reach velocities that allow them to momentarily escape from the liquid into the space above the surface, before falling back into the liquid. Further heating causes greater excitation and the number of molecules with enough energy to leave the liquid increases. As the water is heated to its boiling point, bubbles of steam form within it and rise to break through the surface. The density of steam is much less than that of water, because the steam molecules are further apart from one another. The space immediately above the water surface thus becomes filled with less dense steam molecules. When the number of molecules leaving the liquid surface is more than those re-entering, the water freely evaporates. At this point it has reached boiling point or its saturation temperature, as it is saturated with heat energy. If the pressure remains constant, adding more heat does not cause the temperature to rise any further but causes the water to form saturated steam. The temperature of the boiling water and saturated steam within the same system is the same, but the heat energy per unit mass is much greater in the steam. At atmospheric pressure the saturation temperature is 100C. However, if the pressure is increased, this will allow the addition of more heat and an increase in temperature without a change of phase. Therefore, increasing the pressure effectively increases both the enthalpy of water, and the saturation temperature.

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

2.

Enthalpy Diagram and Specific volume.

Enthalpy of evaporation or latent heat (hfg)

This is the amount of heat required to change the state of water at its boiling temperature, into steam. It involves no change in the temperature of the steam/water mixture, and all the energy is used to change the state from liquid (water) to vapour (saturated steam).

Enthalpy of saturated steam,(hg) or total heat of saturated steam

This is the total energy in saturated steam, and is simply the sum of the enthalpy of water and the enthalpy of evaporation. hg=hf + hfg Where: hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ/kg) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ/kg) The enthalpy (and other properties) of saturated steam can easily be referenced using the tabulated results of previous experiments, known as steam tables. Specific Volume of Steam It is the volume occupied by per kg of steam at constant temperature and pressure. As the steam pressure increases, the density of the steam will also increase. As the specific volume is inversely related to the density, the specific volume will decrease with increasing pressure. Figure shows the relationship of specific volume to pressure. This highlights that the greatest change in specific volume occurs at lower pressures, whereas at the higher end of the pressure scale there is much less change in specific volume. Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad Contact : 9270978070

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Greatest change in specific volume occurs at lower pressures, at higher end of the pressure scale there is much less change in specific volume. Therefore steam is usually generated in the boiler at a pressure of at least 7 bar g. The generation of steam at higher pressures enables the steam distribution pipes to be kept to a reasonable size

3.

Steam table:

Steam Table indicates the enthalpy, and volume per mass for various saturation pressure and temperature. It is to be noted that, the above parameters are for DRY SATURATED STEAM ONLY. For superheated Steam Different tables have to be referred. For Wet Steam, Calculation has to be done (given in below section).

Example : What is the 1200 Kg volume of Saturated Steam at 6 bar g pressure. Solution ; Refer Steam Table, Steam specific volume is 0.272 m3/kg. Hence Volume of Steam at 6 barg is 1200 x 0.272 m3/kg.= 326 m3.

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4.

Steam Quality and Its Industrial use.

Dry Saturated Steam : Steam with a temperature equal to the boiling point at that pressure is known as dry saturated steam. Wet Steam : However, to produce 100% dry steam in an industrial boiler designed to produce saturated steam is rarely possible, and the steam will usually contain droplets of water. In practice, because of turbulence and splashing, as bubbles of steam break through the water surface, the steam space contains a mixture of water droplets and steam. Steam produced in any shell-type boiler where the heat is supplied only to the water and where the steam remains in contact with the water surface, may typically contain around 5% water by mass. If the water content of the steam is 5% by mass, then the steam is said to be 95% dry and has a dryness fraction of 0.95. Moisture particles entrained in the steam carry no latent heat, they add to the wet wall layer and reduce heat transfer in the plant and increase the amount of condensate to be returned so the dryer the steam the better. The actual enthalpy of evaporation of wet steam is the product of the dryness fraction ( ) and the specific enthalpy (hfg) from the steam tables. Wet steam will have lower usable heat energy than dry saturated steam. Therefore: Because the specific volume of water is several orders of magnitude lower than that of steam, the droplets of water in wet steam will occupy negligible space. Therefore the specific volume of wet steam will be less than dry steam:

SUPERHEAT STEAM If the saturated steam produced in a boiler is exposed to a surface with a higher temperature, its temperature will increase above the evaporating temperature. The steam is then described as superheated by the number of temperature degrees through which it has been heated above saturation temperature. Superheat cannot be imparted to the steam whilst it is still in the presence of water, as any additional heat simply evaporates more water. The saturated steam must be passed through an additional heat exchanger. This may be a second heat exchange stage in the

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boiler, or a separate superheater unit. The primary heating medium may be either the hot flue gas from the boiler, or may be separately fired.

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Page 8 of 33 Industrial use of Steam :

June 22, 2009

Dry Saturated Steam is used for heat transfer unit, as it transfer latent heat of Evaporation. Latent heat of vaporization per unit mass is much more than the Specific heat of water and superheated steam. It is always preferable to use dry saturated steam, but because of boiler operation problems, steam always contains some amount of moisture in it. Can superheated steam be used in process heat exchangers and other heating processes? Although not the ideal medium for transferring heat, superheated steam is sometimes used for process heating in many steam plants around the world, especially in the HPIs (Hydrocarbon Processing Industries) which produce oils and petrochemicals. This is more likely to be because superheated steam is already available on site for power generation, being the preferred energy source for turbines, rather than because it has any advantage over saturated steam for heating purposes. To be clear on this point, in most cases, saturated steam should be used for heat transfer processes, even if it means desuperheating the steam to do so. HPIs often desuperheat steam to within about ten degrees of superheat. This small degree of superheat is removed readily in the first part of the heating surface. Greater amounts of superheat are more difficult and often uneconomic to deal with and (for heating purposes) are best avoided. There are quite a few reasons why superheated steam is not as suitable for process heating as saturated steam: Superheated steam has to cool to saturation temperature before it can condense to release its enthalpy of evaporation. The amount of heat given up by the superheated steam as it cools to saturation temperature is relatively small in comparison to its enthalpy of evaporation. If the steam has only a few degrees of superheat, this small amount of heat is quickly given up before it condenses. However, if the steam has a large degree of superheat, it may take a relatively long time to cool, during which time the steam is releasing very little energy. Unlike saturated steam, the temperature of superheated steam is not uniform. Superheated steam has to cool to give up heat, whilst saturated steam changes phase. This means that temperature gradients over the heat transfer surface may occur with superheated steam. In a heat exchanger, use of superheated steam can lead to the formation of a dry wall boiling zone, close to the tube sheet. This dry wall area can quickly become scaled or fouled, and the resulting high temperature of the tube wall may cause tube failure.

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This clearly shows that in heat transfer applications, steam with a large degree of superheat is of little use because it: Gives up little heat until it has cooled to saturation temperature. Creates temperature gradients over the heat transfer surface as it cools to saturation temperature. Provides lower rates of heat transfer whilst the steam is superheated. Requires larger heat transfer areas. So, superheated steam is not as effective as saturated steam for heat transfer applications. This may seem strange, considering that the rate of heat transfer across a heating surface is directly proportional to the temperature difference across it. If superheated steam has a higher temperature than saturated steam at the same pressure, surely superheated steam should be able to impart more heat? The answer to this is 'no'. This will now be looked at in more detail. It is true that the temperature difference will have an effect on the rate of heat transfer across the heat transfer surface, as clearly shown by Equation

Where: = Heat transferred per unit time (W) U = Overall thermal transmittance (heat transfer coefficient) (W/m2C) A = Heat transfer area (m2) T = Temperature difference between primary and secondary fluid (C)

Equation also shows that heat transfer will depend on the overall heat transfer coefficient 'U', and the heat transfer area 'A'. For any single application, the heat transfer area might be fixed. However, the same cannot be said of the 'U' value; and this is the major difference between saturated and superheated steam. The overall 'U' value for superheated steam will vary throughout the process, but will always be much lower than that for saturated steam. It is difficult to predict 'U' values for superheated steam, as these will depend upon many factors, but generally, the higher the degree of superheat, the lower the 'U' value. Typically, for a horizontal steam coil surrounded with water, 'U' values might be as low as 50 to 100 W/m2C for superheated steam but 1 200 W/m2)C for saturated steam, . For steam to oil applications, the 'U' values is as low as 20 W/m2)C for superheated

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Page 10 of 33 steam and 150 W/m2)C for saturated steam.

June 22, 2009

In a shell and tube heat exchanger, 100 W/m2)C for superheated steam and 500 W/m2)C for saturated steam can be expected. Although the temperature of superheated steam is always higher than saturated steam at the same pressure, its ability to transfer heat is therefore much lower. The overall effect is that superheated steam is much less effective at transferring heat than saturated steam at the same pressure. Clearly, as superheated steam is less effective at transferring heat than saturated steam, then any heating area using superheated steam would have to be larger than a saturated steam coil operating at the same pressure to deliver the same heat flowrate. If there is no choice but to use superheated steam, it is not possible to maintain steam in its superheated state throughout the heating coil or heat exchanger, since as it gives up some of its heat content to the secondary fluid, it cools towards saturation temperature. The amount of heat above saturation is quite small compared with the large amount available as condensation occurs. The steam should reach saturation relatively soon in the process; this allows the steam to condense to produce higher heat transfer rates and result in a higher overall 'U' value for the whole coil, To help to enable this, superheated steam used for heat transfer purposes should not hold more than about 10C of superheat.

Figure Less superheat allows the steam to condense in the major part of the coil thus increasing the overall 'U' value approaching that of saturated steam. If this is so, it is relatively easy and practical to design a heat exchanger or a coil with a heating surface area based upon saturated steam at the same pressure, by adding on a certain amount of surface area to allow for the superheat. Using this guideline, the first part of a coil will be used purely to reduce the temperature of superheated steam to its saturation point. The rest of the coil will then be able to take advantage of the higher heat transfer ability of the saturated steam. The effect is that the overall 'U' value may not be much less than if saturated steam were supplied to the coil.

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From practical experience, if the extra heating area needed for superheated steam is 1% per 2C of superheat, the coil (or heat exchanger) will be large enough. This seems to work up to 10C of superheat. It is not recommended that superheated steam above 10C of superheat be used for heating purposes due to the probable disproportionate and uneconomic size of the heating surface, the propensity for fouling by dirt, and the possibility of product spoilage by the high and uneven superheat temperatures.

5.

Process Energy Balance and Steam Quantity and pressure requirement.

Example: Find the steam requirement for the reboiler if the process temperature is 120 Deg C and Enthalpy requirement from Process Energy balance is 2559600 KJ/hr. for Distillation Column. Solution: If the process temperature is 120 Deg C, the saturated steam temp shall be 15 20 Deg C more than process temperature. Considering 20 Deg C, The steam temperature shall be 140 Deg C, the saturated steam pressure will be 3 bar g. The latent of vaporization at 3 bar g is 2133 KJ / kg. Steam required is 2559600 / 2133 = 1200 Kg/hr. As above steam requirement for all the Steam consuming equipments shall be calculated. If any equipment requires DIRECT Steam Injection, Simultaneous Mass and Energy balance shall be done to find the quantity of Steam. Steam pressure will dependent on the process pressure and temperature.

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Page 12 of 33 After Calculations, summary shall be made as follows Sr. Equipment Heating Steam press at Steam temp. No (Direct / equipment at equipment Indirect) 1 Reactor Indirect 7 bar g 170 Deg C Jacket 2 Dist Column Indirect 3 bar g 144 Deg C 1 3 Dist column Direct 2 bar g 134 Deg C 2 Total

June 22, 2009

Steam qty at equipment 6000 Kg /hr 1200 Kg/hr 1000 Kg/hr 8200 Kg/hr

Note : a)Column 3 indicates whether condensate can be recycled or goes as an effluent. b) An additional column shall be made if intermittent steam requirement has to be specified. Note that the highest steam pressure required is 7 bar g. Therefore Boiler pressure shall be more than 7 barg. One the line pressure drop is calculated Boiler outlet pressure can be finalized.

6.

Utility Flow Diagram (Steam, Condensate and Fuel).

Prepare a block diagram showing a) All steam consumers as per above table b) Steam generating equipment, c) Pressure reducing station, d) Fuel Storage system e) Condensate recycle system f) Effluent (where condensate is not recycled) g) Feed water Storage and pumping station. h) Flue gas exhaust Unit (Chimney) The complete Mass Balance shall be shown for Fuel and water in the block diagram. Fuel Storage and Feed water storage requirement shall be finalized based on fuel availability and Plant operation philosophy.

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Dist Colmn 1

Dist Colmn 2 PRS

Reactor

Boiler Chimney
Fuel Day Tank

Feed water

Cond pot

tank Makeup water

Fuel Storage tank

Fuel

7.

Steam Pipe sizing Criterion.

Equipment Steam press at equipment 7 bar g Steam qty at equipment 6000 Kg /hr 1200 Kg/hr 1000 Kg/hr Steam sp. volume 0.24 m3/kg 0.461 m3/kg 0.603 m3/kg

Sr. No 1 2 3

Reactor Jacket Dist Column 3 bar g 1 Dist column 2 bar g 2

While producing steam at the correct pressure and quantity in the boiler house is important, it is just as important that the designed steam properties are delivered efficiently at the plant maybe hundreds of metres away. While distribution pipework can not be too big, the extra capital cost would not be acceptable. If pipework is too small, then the increased steam velocity will cause noise and erosion and the excessive pressure drop may starve the equipment of steam.

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Pipe line Velocity basis: The steam velocities or speeds below are commonly recommended as acceptable for steam distribution systems: Steam System Saturated Steam - HP Saturated Steam - MP and LP Saturated Steam at peak load Steam and Water mix Superheated Steam Condensate Line - Gravity Condensate pressure Velocity(m/s) 25 - 40 30-40 < 50 < 25 35 - 100 0.5 1

Saturated steam - low pressure - is common for heating services and secondary process pipes. Saturated steam - high pressure - is common in powerhouse, boiler and main process lines. Superheated steam is common in power generation and turbine plants. Line dia = (Steam Kg/hr x Sp volume x 4 / 3600 /3.14 / Line Velocity) 0.5

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8.

Pressure drop Calculation.

It is always recommended to transport steam at higher pressure and reduce the pressure at the utility point. Depending upon the layout, the location of the PRDS or PRS shall be finalized. Boilers available in the market are with fixed pressure. The pressure rated by Boiler vendors are the steam pressure for the lifting of the safety valve. Steam out from the boiler will always be less than the Safety valve set pressure. Hence if a boiler is rated at 10.54 bar g pressure, it means the safety valve will blow up when the boiler pressure reaches to 10.54 bar g. The boiler will be operated at pressure less than the Safety valve set pressure. The pipe size between the Boiler and the PRDS shall be calculated based on the available pressure drop. The pressure drop calculation for steam is very complex and hence diagrams are used for finding the pressure drop.

The diagram is made for steam with pressure 7 bar. For other pressures use correction factors:
Pressure (bar) Factor 0 6.9 1 3.67 2 2.51 4 1.55 5 1.31 6 1.13 7 1 8.5 0.85 10 0.74 12 0.63 14 0.55 20 0.39

Adding the line pressure drop to the required pressure at process will give the Boiler operating pressure or pressure at the outlet of the Pressure reducing station.

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9.

Specifying Boiler Capacity and Pressure.

The boiler specs are defined as a) Steam mass flow rate at outlet of Boiler b) Stem quality required c) Steam pressure required at outlet of main steam stop valve. Boiler Suppliers specifies the boiler capacity in terms of heat addition by the boiler.Boilers are design fro fixed heat output and pressure. Therefore the boiler output (Mass or pressure) will vary . if the heat input (Feed water mass flow and temperature) changes. Therefore in order to size a boiler, Feed water temperature has to be specified. Boilers capacities are defined as following :

Rating in terms of Enthalpy of Evaporation. (From and At 100 Deg C) kW rating

Rating in terms of Enthalpy of Evaporation. (From and At 100 Deg C) : The 'from and at' rating is widely used as a datum by shell boiler manufacturers means the amount of steam in kg/h which the boiler can create 'from and at 100C', at atmospheric pressure. Each Kg of steam will receive 540 kcal of heat from the boiler. Shell boilers are often operated with feedwater temperatures lower than 100C. Consequently the boiler is required to supply enthalpy to bring the water up to boiling point. Most boilers operate at pressures higher than atmospheric, because steam at an elevated pressure carries more heat energy than does steam at 100C. This calls for additional enthalpy of saturation of water. As the boiler pressure rises, the saturation temperature is increased, needing even more enthalpy before the feed water is brought up to boiling temperature. Both these effects reduce the actual steam output of the boiler, for the same consumption of fuel. The graph in Figure 3.5.1 shows feed water temperatures plotted against the percentage of the 'from and at' figure for operation at pressures of 0, 5, 10 and 15 bar g.

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Where: A = Specific enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric pressure. B = Specific enthalpy of steam at operating pressure. C = Specific enthalpy of water at feedwater temperature. Note: These values are all from steam tables.

Evaporation factors are used to calculate the boiler capacity (at From and A), if the process steam requirement is known. The process steam requirement is divided to arrive at Boiler capacity. Example :A boiler has a 'from and at' rating of 2 000 kg/h and operates at 15 bar g. The feedwater temperature is 68C. Using the graph: The percentage 'from and at' rating 90% Therefore actual output = 2 000 kg/h x 90% = 1 800 kg/h Using Equation, the evaporation factor can be calculated: Therefore: boiler evaporation rate = 2 000 kg/h x 0.9 = 1 800 kg/h

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Page 18 of 33 Boiler Quantity based on Steam Demand :

June 22, 2009

The boiler quantity shall be decided on the Steam requirement of the Process If the process steam requirement is part. Then two boilers can be purchased instead of one, because at turndown, boiler efficiency reduces. Example : Steam demand Steam Demand 8 TPH 4 TPH 2 TPH Boiler Usage at 100 % 50 % 25 %

Time 6 hrs 6 hrs 12 hrs Efficiency of 4 TPH 84 % 84 % 83 %

Efficiency of 8TPH 84 % 83 % 81 %

Note: a) The boiler capacities are specified at F& A at 100 Deg C. b) Steam latent heat of evaporation at 100 Deg = 540 Kcal /. Kg Solution Fuel Consumption = 8000 540 / ( 540 x Boiler Eff) Steam Demand 8 TPH 8TPH Boiler capacity 8 TPH x1 for 6 hrs with 84 % eff 4 TPH x 1 @ 50 % turndown with 83 % eff Fuel consumption 3025 Tons 4TPH Boiler capacity 4 TPH x 2 for 6 hrs with 84 % eff 4 TPH x 1 @ 50 % turndown with 83 % eff 2 TPH x 1 @ 25 % turndown with 81 % eff Fuel consumption 3025 Tons

4 TPH

1531 Tons

1512 Tons

2 TPH

2 TPH x 1 @ 25 1568 Tons % turndown with 81 % eff 6124 TPD

1531 Tons

Total Steam consumption

6068 TPD

If Fuel cost is 15 Rs / Kg. Annual savings shall be calculated for 340 days of working

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June 22, 2009

10.

BOILER TYPES.

Two types of Boilers are used in Industries viz Water Tube and Fire tube Boiler. What is a Firetube Boiler? The name firetube is very descriptive. The fire, or hot flue gases from the burner, is channeled through tubes that are surrounded by the fluid to be heated. The body of the boiler is the pressure vessel and contains the fluid. In most cases this fluid is water that will be circulated for heating purposes or converted to steam for process use. Every set of tubes that the flue gas travels through, before it makes a turn, is considered a "pass". So a three-pass boiler will have three sets of tubes with the stack outlet located on the rear of the boiler. A 4-pass will have four sets and the stack outlet at the front. Firetube Boilers are: Relatively inexpensive Easy to clean Compact in size Available in sizes from 600,000 btu/hr to 50,000,000 btu/hr Easy to replace tubes Well suited for space heating and industrial process applications

Disadvantages of Firetube Boilers include: Not suitable for high pressure applications 250 psig and above Limitation for high capacity steam generation

What is a Watertube? A Watertube design is the exact opposite of a fire tube. Here the water flows through the tubes and are incased in a furnace in which the burner fires into. These tubes are connected to a steam drum and a mud drum. The water is heated and steam is produced in the upper drum. Large steam users are better suited for the Water tube design. The industrial watertube boiler typically produces steam or hot water primarily for industrial process applications, and is used less frequently for heating applications. Watertube Boilers are: Available in sizes that are far greater than the firetube design. Up to several million pounds per hour of steam. Able to handle higher pressures up to 5,000 psig Recover faster than their firetube cousin

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Page 20 of 33 Have the ability to reach very high temperatures

June 22, 2009

Disadvantages of the Watertube design include: High initial capital cost Cleaning is more difficult due to the design No commonality between tubes Physical size may be an issue

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11.

June 22, 2009

Types of Fuel and requirement. Fuel requirement = Heat out put of the Boiler / (Fuel GCV x Burner eff) The three most common types of fuel used in steam boilers, are coal, oil, and gas. However, industrial or commercial waste is also used in certain boilers, along with electricity for electrode boilers. Coal Coal is the generic term given to a family of solid fuels with a high carbon content. There are several types of coal within this family, each relating to the stages of coal formation and the amount of carbon content. These stages are:

Peat. Lignite or brown coals. Bituminous. Semi bituminous. Anthracite.

The bituminous and anthracite types tend to be used as boiler fuel. Nowaday the use of lump coal to fire shell boilers is in decline. There are a number of reasons for this including:
o o o o

Availability and cost Speed of response to changing loads - With lump coal, there is a substantial time lag between: Demand for heat occurring. Stoking of coal into the boiler. Ignition of the coal. Steam being generated to satisfy the demand.

To overcome this delay, boilers designed for coal firing need to contain more water at saturation temperature to provide the reserve of energy to cover this time lag. This, in turn, means that the boilers are bigger, and hence more expensive in purchase cost, and occupy more valuable product manufacturing space. Ash - Ash is produced when coal is burned. The ash may be awkward to remove, usually involving manual intervention and a reduction in the amount of steam available whilst deashing takes place. The ash must then be disposed of, which in itself may be costly. Stoking equipment - A number of different arrangements exist including stepper stokers, sprinklers and chain-grate stokers. The common theme is that they all need substantial maintenance.

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June 22, 2009

Emissions - Coal contains an average of 1.5% sulphur (S) by weight, but this level may be as high as 3% depending upon where the coal was mined. During the combustion process:

Sulphur will combine with oxygen (O2) from the air to form SO2 or SO3. Hydrogen (H) from the fuel will combine with oxygen (O2) from the air to form water (H2O). After the combustion process is completed, the SO3 will combine with the water (H2O) to produce sulphuric acid (H2SO4), which can condense in the flue causing corrosion if the correct flue temperatures are not maintained. Alternatively, it is carried over into the atmosphere with the flue gases. This sulphuric acid is brought back to earth with rain, causing:

Damage to the fabric of buildings. Distress and damage to plants and vegetation. The ash produced by coal is light, and a proportion will inevitably be carried over with the exhaust gases, into the stack and expelled as particulate matter to the environment. Coal, however, is still used to fire many of the very large water-tube boilers found in power stations. Because of the large scale of these operations, it becomes economic to develop solutions to the problems mentioned above, and there may also be governmental pressure to use domestically produced fuels, for national security of electrical supply. The coal used in power stations is milled to a very fine powder, generally referred to as 'pulverised fuel', and usually abbreviated to 'pf'.

The small particle size of pf means that its surface area-to-volume ratio is greatly increased, making combustion very rapid, and overcoming the rate of response problem encountered when using lump coal. The small particle size also means that pf flows very easily, almost like a liquid, and is introduced into the boiler furnace through burners, eliminating the stokers used with lump coal. To further enhance the flexibility and turndown of the boiler, there may be 30+ pf burners around the walls and roof of the boiler, each of which may be controlled independently to increase or decrease the heat in a particular area of the furnace. For example, to control the temperature of the steam leaving the superheater. With regard to the quality of the gases released into the atmosphere:

The boiler gases will be directed through an electrostatic precipitator where electrically charged plates attract ash and other particles, removing them from the gas stream. The sulphurous material will be removed in a gas scrubber. The final emission to the environment is of a high quality.

Approximately 8 kg of steam can be produced from burning 1 kg of coal.

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June 22, 2009

Oil Oil for boiler fuel is created from the residue produced from crude petroleum after it has been distilled to produce lighter oils like gasoline, paraffin, kerosene, diesel or gas oil. Various grades are available, each being suitable for different boiler ratings; the grades are as follows:

Class D - Diesel or gas oil. Class E - Light fuel oil. Class F - Medium fuel oil. Class G - Heavy fuel oil.

The advantages of oil over coal include:

A shorter response time between demand and the required amount of steam being generated. This meant that less energy had to be stored in the boiler water. The boiler could therefore be smaller, radiating less heat to the environment, with a consequent improvement in efficiency. The smaller size also meant that the boiler occupied less production space. Mechanical stokers were eliminated, reducing maintenance workload. Oil contains only traces of ash, virtually eliminating the problem of ash handling and disposal. The difficulties encountered with receiving, storing and handling coal were eliminated.

Approximately 15 kg of steam can be produced from 1 kg of oil, or 14 kg of steam from 1 litre of oil. Gas Gas is a form of boiler fuel that is easy to burn, with very little excess air. Fuel gases are available in two different forms:

Natural gas - This is gas that has been produced (naturally) underground. It is used in its natural state, (except for the removal of impurities), and contains a high proportion of methane. Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) - These are gases that are produced from petroleum refining and are then stored under pressure in a liquid state until used. The most common forms of LPG are propane and butane.

In the late 1960s the availability of natural gas (such as from the North Sea) led to further developments in boilers. The advantages of gas firing over oil firing include:

Storage of fuel is not an issue; gas is piped right into the boiler house. Only a trace of sulphur is present in natural gas, meaning that the amount of sulphuric acid in the flue gas is virtually zero. Contact : 9270978070

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June 22, 2009

Approximately 42 kg of steam can be produced from 1 Therm of gas (equivalent to 105.5 MJ) for a 10 bar g boiler, with an overall operating efficiency of 80%. A gas pretreatment equipments may be required to filter, heat and pressure reduction of the gas. Normally the gas is supplied at higher pressure the gas suppliers. Waste as the primary fuel There are two aspects to this:

Waste material - Here, waste is burned to produce heat, which is used to generate steam. The motives may include the safe and proper disposal of hazardous material. A hospital would be a good example: In these circumstances, it may be that proper and complete combustion of the waste material is difficult, requiring sophisticated burners, control of air ratios and monitoring of emissions, especially particulate matter. The cost of this disposal may be high, and only some of the cost is recovered by using the heat generated to produce steam. However, the overall economics of the scheme, taking into consideration the cost of disposing of the waste by other means, may be attractive. Using waste as a fuel may involve the economic utilisation of the combustible waste from a process. Examples include the bark stripped from wood in paper plants, stalks (bagasse) in sugar cane plants and sometimes even litter from a chicken farm.

The combustion process will again be fairly sophisticated, but the overall economics of the cost of waste disposal and generation of steam for other applications on site, can make such schemes attractive. Waste heat - here, hot gases from a process, such as a smelting furnace, may be directed through a boiler with the objective of improving plant efficiency. Systems of this type vary in their level of sophistication depending upon the demand for steam within the plant. If there is no process demand for steam, the steam may be superheated and then used for electrical generation. This type of technology is becoming popular in Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants:
o o

A gas turbine drives an alternator to produce electricity. The hot (typically 500C) turbine exhaust gases are directed to a boiler, which produces saturated steam for use on the plant.

Very high efficiencies are available with this type of plant. Other benefits may include either security of electrical supply on site, or the ability to sell the electricity at a premium to the national electricity supplier. Which fuel to use? The choice of fuel(s) is obviously very important, as it will have a significant impact on the costs and flexibility of the boiler plant. Factors that need consideration include: Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad Contact : 9270978070

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June 22, 2009

Cost of fuel -. Cost of firing equipment - The cost of the burner(s) and associated equipment to suit the fuel(s) selected, and the emission standards which must be observed.

Security of supply Gas, may be available at advantageous rates, provided an interruptible supply can be accepted. (when supplier are having surplus. However, should demand for fuel approach the limits of supply, perhaps due to seasonal variation, then supply may be reduced As an alternative, boiler users may elect to specify dual fuel burners which may be fired on gas when it is available at the lower tariff, but have the facility to switch to oil firing when gas is not available. The dual fuel facility is obviously a more expensive capital option, and the likelihood of gas not being available may be small. However, the cost of plant downtime due to the non-availability of steam is usually significantly greater than the additional cost. Fuel shortage This is not an issue when using a mains gas supply, except where a dual fuel system is used. However it becomes progressively more of an issue if bottled gas, light oils, heavy oils and solid fuels are used. The issues include:

How much is to be stored, and where. How to safely store highly combustible materials. How much it costs to maintain the temperature of heavy oils so that they are at a suitable viscosity for the equipment. How to measure the fuel usage rate accurately. Allowance for storage losses. Dyke wall Building. A dyke wall shall be build areound the bulk storage tanks to contain the whole volume of tank if there is any leakage in the tank. The conatined area shll also have a unloading pump with flameproof motor.The minimum wall height shall be 600 mm.

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

12.

CHIMNEY SIZE CALCULATION.

Chimney design is based on the SO, SOx emiisions permitted by the local authot\rity, and on the boiler capacity In India, Minimum Stack height is found from following table fro Steam Generators or formula (which ever is maximum) Sr No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Steam Genertors Capacity Coal consumption per Tons /hr day MT Less than 2 Less than 8.5 2 -5 8.5 -21 5- 10 21-42 10 -15 42-64 15- 20 64-104 20-25 104-105 25-30 105-126 More than 30 More than 126 Or Using the formula H = 14 (Q) 0.3 Q = Emission rate of SO2 in Kg/hr For Boiler Sox emissions are given as = 19.98 (SD)_ _ _ _ as g/lit of fuel burnt Or = 19.98 (S) _ _ _ _ as g/Kg of fuel burnt Where S- Sulphur content in fuel oil in wt % D Density of fuel oil in Kg/lit Example : Calculate the Chimney Height, if the fuel contains 4.5 % (by weight) Sulphur. The fuel consumption is 630 Kg/hr. The flue gas temperature is 250oC Solution : A boiler generates 13.5 Nm3 of flue gas per kg of fuel burnt. Which at 250 Deg C equals to 25.86 m3/kg of fuel. Fuel burnt is 630 Kg/hr, Sox emission is 19.98 x 4.5 = 89.91 g/Kg o fuel burnt SOX emissions will be 89.91 x 630 = 56643 g/ hr = 56.64 Kg/hr. Height of Chimney = 14 (56.64) 0.3 = 47 m. Considering the velocity at tip as 9m/s and at bottom as 7 m/s, The chimney diameters are 1200 mm and 800 mm Note : Wind speed and mechanical design shall be considered for Chimney design Height in m 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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Page 27 of 33

June 22, 2009

13.

FLASH STEAM.

The term 'flash steam' describes steam issuing from condensate receiver vents and open-ended condensate discharge lines from steam traps. How can steam be formed from water without adding heat? Flash steam occurs whenever water at high pressure (and a temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the low-pressure liquid) is allowed to drop to a lower pressure. Conversely, if the temperature of the high-pressure water is lower than the saturation temperature at the lower pressure, flash steam cannot be formed. In the case of condensate passing through a steam trap, it is usually the case that the upstream temperature is high enough to form flash steam.

Flash steam formed because T1 > T2 Consider a kg of condensate at 5 bar g and a saturation temperature of 159C passing through a steam trap to a lower pressure of 0 bar g. The amount of energy in one kilogram of condensate at saturation temperature at 5 bar g is 671 kJ. In accordance with the first law of thermodynamics, the amount of energy contained in the fluid on the lowpressure side of the steam trap must equal that on the HP side, and constitutes the principle of conservation of energy. Consequently, the heat contained in one kg of low-pressure fluid is also 671 kJ. However, water at 0 bar g is only able to contain 419 kJ of heat, subsequently there appears to be an imbalance of heat on the low-pressure side of 671 - 419 = 252 kJ, which, in terms of the water, could be considered as excess heat. This excess heat boils some of the condensate into what is known as flash steam and the boiling process is called flashing. Therefore, the one kilogram of condensate which existed as one kilogram of liquid water on the high pressure side of the steam trap now partly exists as both water and steam on the LP side. The amount of flash steam produced at the final pressure (P2) can be determined

P1 = Initial pressure P2 = Final pressure hf = Liquid enthalpy (kJ/kg) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg)

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

Example The case where the high pressure condensate temperature is higher than the low pressure saturation temperature. Consider a quantity of water at a pressure of 5 bar g, containing 671 kJ/kg of heat energy at its saturation temperature of 159C. If the pressure was then reduced down to atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), the water could only exist at 100C and contain 419 kJ/kg of heat energy. This difference of 671 - 419 = 252 kJ/kg of heat energy, would then produce flash steam at atmospheric pressure.

The proportion of flash steam produced can be thought of as the ratio of the excess energy to the enthalpy of evaporation at the final pressure. Example The case where the high pressure condensate temperature is lower than the low pressure saturation temperature. Consider the same conditions as in PREVIOUS Example , with the exception that the high-pressure condensate temperature is at 90C, that is, sub-cooled below the atmospheric saturation temperature of 100C. Note: It is not usually practical for such a large drop in condensate temperature from its saturation temperature (in this case 159C to 90C); it is simply being used to illustrate the point about flash steam not being produced under such circumstances. In this case, the sub-saturated water table will show that the liquid enthalpy of one kilogram of condensate at 5 bar g and 90C is 377 kJ. As this enthalpy is less than the enthalpy of one kilogram of saturated water at atmospheric pressure (419 kJ), there is no excess heat available to produce flash steam. The condensate simply passes through the trap and remains in a liquid state at the same temperature but lower pressure, atmospheric pressure in this case.

Fig. No flash steam formed because T 1 < T 2 The vapour pressure of water at 90C is 0.7 bar absolute. Should the lower condensate pressure have been less than this, flash steam would have been produced. The principles of conservation of energy and mass between two process states The principles of the conservation of energy and mass allow the flash steam phenomenon to be thought of from a different direction.

Consider the conditions in Example

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

1 kg of condensate at 5 bar g and 159C produces 0.112 kg of flash steam at atmospheric pressure. This can be illustrated schematically in Figure . The total mass of flash and condensate remains at 1 kg.

Fig. The principle of energy conservation between two process states The principle of energy conservation states that the total energy in the lower-pressure state must equal the total energy in the higher-pressure state. Therefore, the amount of heat in the flash steam and condensate must equal that in the initial condensate of 671 kJ. Steam tables give the following information: Total enthalpy of saturated water at atmospheric pressure (hf) = 419 kJ/kg Total enthalpy in saturated steam at atmospheric pressure (hg) = 2 675 kJ/kg Therefore, at the lower pressure state of 0 bar g, Total enthalpy in the water = 0.888 kg x 419 kJ / kg = 372 kJ (A) Total enthalpy in the steam = 0.112 kg x 2 675 kJ / kg = 299 kJ (B) Total enthalpy in condensate and steam at the lower pressure = A + B = 671 kJ

Therefore, according to the steam tables, the enthalpy expected in the lower-pressure state is the same as that in the higher-pressure state, thus proving the principle of conservation of energy.

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

14.

PRESSURE REDUCING STATION.

The effects of reducing steam pressure Superheat can also be imparted to steam by allowing it to expand to a lower pressure as it passes through the orifice of a pressure reducing valve. This is termed a throttling process with the lower pressure steam having the same enthalpy (apart from a small amount lost to friction in passing through the valve) as the upstream high pressure steam. However, the temperature of the throttled steam will always be lower than that of the supply steam. The state of the throttled steam will depend upon: The pressure of the supply steam. The state of the supply steam. The pressure drop across the valve orifice. For supply steam below 30 bar g in the dry saturated state, any drop in pressure will produce superheated steam after throttling. The degree of superheat will depend on the amount of pressure reduction. For supply steam above 30 bar g in the dry saturated state, the throttled steam might be superheated, dry saturated, or even wet, depending on the amount of pressure drop. For example, dry saturated steam at 60 bar g would have to be reduced to approximately 10.5 bar g to produce dry saturated steam. Any less of a pressure drop will produce wet steam, while any greater pressure drop would produce superheated steam. Equally, the state of the supply steam at any pressure will influence the state of the throttled steam. For example, wet steam at a pressure of 10 bar g and 0.95 dryness fraction would need to be reduced to 0.135 bar g to produce dry saturated steam. Any less of a pressure drop would produce wet steam while any greater pressure drop would superheat the throttled steam. Example Increasing the dryness of wet steam with a control valve Steam with a dryness fraction ( ) of 0.95 is reduced from 6 bar g to 1 bar g, using a pressure reducing valve.Determine the steam conditions after the PRV

valve.

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

This quantity of heat energy is retained by the steam as the pressure is reduced to 1 bar g.

As the actual enthalpy of the steam at 1 bar g is less than the enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 1 bar g, then the steam is not superheated and still retains a proportion of moisture in its content.

Since the total enthalpy after the pressure reducing valve is less than the total enthalpy of steam at 1 bar g, the steam is still wet. Example 2.3.5 Superheat created by a control valve Steam with a dryness fraction of 0.98 is reduced from 10 bar g down to 1 bar g using a pressure reducing valve (as shown in Figure 2.3.4).

Determine the degree of superheat after the valve. As in the previous eg, the sp enthalpy of dry sat steam (hg) at 1 bar g is 2 706.7 kJ/kg. The actual total enthalpy of the steam is greater than the total enthalpy (hg) of dry saturated steam at 1 bar g. The steam is therefore not only 100% dry, but also has some degree of superheat. The excess energy = 2 741.7 - 2 706.7 = 35 kJ/kg, and this is used to raise the temperature of the steam from the saturation temperature of 120C to 136C.

Fig. The creation of superheat by pressure reduction The degree of superheat can be determined by using superheated steam tables,

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

15.

PIPING CONSIDERATIONS.

Removing air from steam lines Air in steam lines lowers the temperature for the given pressure, and calculated rate of heatings may not be met. The most economic means of removing air from steam lines is automatically thru temperature-sensitive traps or traps fitted with temperature sensitive air venting devices placed at points remote from the steam supply. When full line temperature is attained the vent valves will close automatically. Why Place vents at remote points. On start-up, cold lines will be filled with air. Steam issuing from the source will mix with some of this air, but will also act as piston pushing air at remote end of each line. Why remove Condensate Steam as it flows through the pipe, condenses due to heat loss. The steam piping layout should be such that the condensate formed is removed promptly. If the condensate removal is improper, the lines shall be partially flooded which will increase the pressure drop in pipelines. Another disadvantage is that when fast moving steam picks up slugs of accumulated condensate, water hammering occurs. Water hammer is a prime cause of steam leaks and damage of valve packing. Also steam with entrained water droplets will form a dense water film on heat transfer surfaces and interfere with heating. Steam Piping in Rack Steam header shall be located generally on the upper tier and at one end of the rack adjacent to columns. Branch lines from horizontal steam header, except condensate collection points, shall be connected to the top of the pipe header. Isolation valves (If provided) on the branch line shall preferably be provided on the horizontal run and outside the piperack. All branch lines shall be drainable. Piping Tips for condensate Removal Provision of steam traps with good air venting facilities to remove air which is present in pipelines during startup. Drain pocket shall be provided at every loop and every 30 M distance of steam header. The header shall be sloped towards the drain pocket.

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

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June 22, 2009

All branches shall be taken from top of the header to avoid condensate going to the users. Concentric reducers shall be avoided to prevent forming of water pockets. Drip legs and steam traps shall be provided at all low points and dead ends of steam header. All turbines on automatic control for start up shall be provided with a steam trap in the steam inlet line. Driplegs to collect condensate It is futile to provide a small dripleg or drain pocket on large lines as the condensate will not be collected efficiently. Driplegs are made from pipe and fittings. Draining Superheated steam lines Steam lines with more than a few degrees of superheat will not usually form condensate in operation. During the warming-up period after starting a cold circuit, the large bulk of metal in the piping will nearly always use up the degrees of superheat to produce a quantity of condensate. Start-ups are infrequent and with more than a few degrees of superheat it is unnecessary to trap a system which is continuously operated. These superheated steam lines can operate with driplegs only, and are usually fitted with a blowdown line having two valves so that condensate can be manually released from the dripleg after startup. A superheated steam supply to an intermittently operated piece of equipment will require trapping directly before the controlling valve for the equipment, as the temperature will drop at times allowing condensate to form. Piping Tips for Thermal Expansion Effects Expansion loops are to be provided to take care of the expansions within units.

Notes prepared by Chandrajit Kirad

Contact : 9270978070