Professional Documents
Culture Documents
August 2004
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The purpose of this document is to provide stakeholders with an overview of grid-enhancing advanced
electric delivery technologies. It is intended to give the audience general information on advance electric
delivery technologies. The Technology Briefs provide an overview of various technologies that can
enhance the electric delivery system. The covered technologies correspond to the ones listed in Section
1224, Advanced Transmission Technologies, of Senate Bill S. 2095. This document is a dynamic
document and will be updated as the state of advanced electric delivery technologies evolves.
The following people provided valuable insights and strong support for the document: Larry Mansueti,
Lead, Electric Markets and Technical Assistance, OETD; David Jopling, Regulatory Analyst, Florida
Public Service Commission; Robert Hawsey, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; Joe Eto, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory; Dale Bradshaw, Tennessee Valley Authority; Andrew Spahn, National
Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC).
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1
A. CABLES AND CONDUCTORS .................................................................................................... .2
A1. Superconducting Power Cables................................................................................................ 3
A2. High Voltage DC Technology.................................................................................................. 5
A3. Composites and Ceramics (including high temperature low-sag conductors) ......................... 7
A4. Multiple Phased Transmission Lines ....................................................................................... 9
A5. Underground Transmission Cables ........................................................................................ 10
A6. Other Cable and Conductor Technology................................................................................ 12
B. INTELLIGENCE AND CONTROLS ............................................................................................. 13
B1. Real-Time Monitoring............................................................................................................ 14
B2. Distributed Intelligence .......................................................................................................... 17
B3. Communications Systems ...................................................................................................... 18
C. MODULAR EQUIPMENT .......................................................................................................... 20
C1. Superconducting Transformers .............................................................................................. 21
C2. Superconducting Fault Current Limiters................................................................................ 23
C3. Power Electronics................................................................................................................... 25
C4. High-Performance Ceramics (e.g., connectors, insulators)................................................... 27
C5. Flexible Alternating-Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) ............................................. 29
C6. Superconducting Synchronous Condensers ........................................................................... 31
D. ENERGY STORAGE ................................................................................................................. 33
D1. Batteries.................................................................................................................................. 34
D2. Flywheels ............................................................................................................................... 36
D3. Compressed Air Energy Storage ............................................................................................ 38
D4. Pumped Hydro Energy Storage.............................................................................................. 40
D5. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)............................................................. 42
D6. Other Energy Storage Technology......................................................................................... 44
E. DISTRIBUTED ENERGY ........................................................................................................... 45
E1. Industrial Gas Turbines .......................................................................................................... 46
E2. Microturbines ......................................................................................................................... 48
E3. Fuel Cells ............................................................................................................................... 50
E4. Reciprocating Engines............................................................................................................ 52
E5. Photovoltaics .......................................................................................................................... 54
E6. Demand Response.................................................................................................................. 57
Conductors and cables are the equipment that comprises the power lines that connect electricity users
with power plants. They are the backbone of the electric delivery infrastructure. Conductor designs range
from a single copper wire to cables consisting of several types of wires, including copper and aluminum
and newly-designed high-strength, lightweight composites. Advanced conductors and cables use new
materials and designs to expand current carrying capacity without the need for new real estate or rights-
of-way.
Intelligence and controls can be added to the electric delivery infrastructure to improve grid operation,
enable real-time detection and system restoration, and control the devices working together on the grid.
These systems and software can automate decision making and expand data acquisition capabilities.
Visualization tools can aid grid operators to respond to data and enhance operations in real time to lower
costs and increase reliability.
Modular equipment includes a variety of devices such as transformer banks, switchgear, and capacitors.
Advanced modular equipment designs can lower costs and increase durability and reliability.
Standardized, flexible technologies that can easily be installed throughout the electric delivery system are
needed so that the equipment does not have to be designed uniquely for a specific site.
Energy storage technologies can address peak load problems, power quality disturbances, and improve
the stability of the electric system. Storage equipment can be applied at the power plant, in support of
transmission systems, at various points in the distribution system, and on particular appliances on the
customer’s side of the meter.
Distributed energy technologies are installed at or near the point of consumption. Power generation
technologies such as industrial gas turbines, reciprocating engines, and fuel cells can be installed by users
to improve their power quality and reliability. By reducing peak demand, these technologies can lead to a
reduction in the need for “upstream” investments in electric generation, transmission, and distribution.
At present, there are two principal types of HTS cable under development:
Warm dielectric design
• This simpler design is based on a single conductor, consisting of HTS wires stranded around a
flexible core in a channel filled with liquid nitrogen coolant.
• This cable design employs an outer dielectric insulation layer at room temperature.
• It offers high power density and uses the least amount of HTS wire for a given level of power
transfer.
• Drawbacks of this design relative to other superconductor cable designs include higher electrical
losses (and therefore a requirement for cooling stations at closer intervals), higher inductance, and
required phase separation to limit the effects of eddy current heating.
• Most of the HTS cable demonstrations undertaken to date have been based on the warm dielectric
design.
Cold dielectric design
• An alternative design that employs concentric layers of HTS wires and a cold electrical insulation
system.
• Liquid nitrogen coolant flows over and between both layers of wire, providing both cooling and
dielectric insulation between the center conductor layer and the outer shield layer.
• Cold dielectric HTS cable offers several important advantages, including higher current-carrying
capacity, reduced AC losses, and low inductance.
• The reduction of AC losses enables wider spacing of cooling stations and the auxiliary power
equipment required to assure their reliable operation.
Cost and Performance
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Superconductivity Program, as part of its Superconductivity
Partnerships with Industry (SPI) activity, is cost-sharing the development, installation, and field-testing
of several HTS power cable systems.
• A conservative cost estimate of the first market entry HTS cables is about $10 million per mile on
an installed basis, including ancillary equipment.
• As the HTS cable technology matures, per-mile installed costs are expected to fall well below this
level.
• Even though HTS cable can be more expensive than conventional solutions on a mile-for-mile
basis, the ability of HTS cables to solve power flow problems with shorter lengths of cable, at
lower voltages, and in a shorter timeframe due to simplified siting and permitting requirements can
offset these costs leading to a lower installed-cost system solution.
• While HTS cable remains an early-stage, low-volume product, initial projects are likely to be
focused on highly congested grids in urban areas. As volumes increase and costs decline, its
advantages can be expected to expand to a broader range of applications.
Market Applications
• HTS cables may make an excellent choice for the replacement of existing underground cables in
urban areas where additional underground space is extremely limited and valuable. Their use
would allow a significant increase in the current being delivered to power-starved cities around the
country.
• HTS cables can increase the capacity and flexibility of the grid without further raising system
voltages. Short HTS cable segments can bridge transmission bottlenecks and improve overall
power system efficiency and lower total system costs. HTS cables have the potential to create an
efficient “electricity superhighway.”
• American Superconductor’s Very Low Impedance (VLI) concept where an HTS VLI AC parallel
section can readily unload exiting overhead lines or underground cables. It can be easily
controlled with small changes in phase angles using a small phase angle regulator, and the VLI
section acts like a power electronic static series synchronous compensator (SSSC).
Technology Goals
The R&D goals are to solve the general engineering challenges of integrating dielectrics and cryogenic
systems at high voltage operation. Cables using second generation HTS wire need to be designed,
fabricated, and tested. The ultimate goal is to demonstrate the efficiency, performance, reliability, and
equivalent cost (on a life cycle cost basis) compared to a conventional cable by 2010.
Technology Description
• In a high voltage DC (HVDC) system, electrical current is converted from AC to DC in order to be
transmitted by a line or cable and then converted from DC to AC for distribution and end use.
• The distinguishing component of this technology is the converter station at the end of each line.
• There are three types of converters:
− Natural Commutated Converters
− Capacitated Commutated Converters
− Forced Commutated Converters
• There are three primary types of systems:
− point-to-point transmission (monopolar and bipolar systems)
− back to back station (asynchronous interconnection)
− multi-terminal system (two or more converter stations)
• HVDC systems usually have a power capacity of more than 100 MW, many are in the 1,000-3,000
MW range. The Pacific HVDC Intertie spans 1361 km (845 miles) from Sylmar (just north of Los
Angeles) to Ciello, Oregon and has a power capacity rating of 3100 MW.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
A number of factors affect the cost of an HVDC transmission system. Valves and converter
transformers are the biggest cost issue. Below is a diagram that depicts the cost structure of a typical
system.
Sources:
World Bank; http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/em/transmission/technology_abb.pdf
National Transmission Grid Study
Ceramics
• High temperature superconductivity (HTS) offers the opportunity to transmit electricity with zero
line losses. In order to maintain this capability, HTS materials must be cooled to liquid nitrogen
temperature (77 K). Advanced material applications make this possible.
• Using nanotechnology, researchers have been able to configure the atomic structure of certain
materials and composites to create a type of “super-lattice” capable of transmitting electricity with
little to no resistance or losses.
Market Applications
The state-of-the-art technologies in underground cables today are fluid-filled polypropylene paper
laminate (PPL) and extruded dielectric polyethylene (XLPE) cables. PPL cables are more
commercially mature than XLPE cables, with improved performance and reduced electricity losses
over traditional cables, but XLPE cables have several advantages over PPL cables:
• Lower dielectric losses
• Simpler maintenance
• No insulating fluid to affect the environment in the event of system failure
• Smaller insulation thickness
Advanced underground cable technologies include gas-insulated transmission lines (GIL), which are
still under research and are considered to hold promise for future applications. GILs have a relatively
large diameter tubular conductor sized for the gas insulation surrounded by a solid metal sleeve, which
provides lower resistive and capacitive losses, no external electromagnetic fields, good cooling
properties, and reduced total life-cycle costs compared to other types of cables. However, the gas used
to insulate the lines would be considered a greenhouse gas if it were to leak into the environment.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
New underground systems cost approximately $1 million per mile – more than 10 times the cost of
installing overhead electricity lines. 1
One reason the cost of underground cables is higher than above-ground cables is because access for
installation, repair, and replacement is more labor and resources intensive. Above-ground lines can be
visually inspected, whereas underground lines require special equipment to locate the problem and
repair it. Excavation (trenching or boring) and restoration costs of placing electrical transmission cables
underground can approach 75% of total project costs. However, underground cables offer some
benefits over above-ground cables that could be translated into cost savings:
1
“Out of Sight, Out of Mind?,” Brad Johnson for the Edison Electric Institute, January 2004, page 5
Community and government decision makers tend to struggle over when and where to install
underground cables and how to cover the costs of undergrounding, since burying the lines cannot
always be justified by economic data alone.
Technology Goals
Research and development is focused on cutting the costs of undergrounding cables and improving the
reliability of the installed lines. Cost control measures are being undertaken in cable design,
construction, refurbishment, operation, and maintenance. Researchers, including the Electric Power
Research Institute and Pirelli, are working to develop innovative diagnostic monitoring systems for
cable life extension, operational tools to increase reliability, and improved designs for “self healing”
cables. Industry is looking for cost reduction methods that use more standardized circuit ratings and
cable sizes, selecting more optimal routes for installation, and reducing cross-section areas of
excavation trenches.
Since excavation and restoration account for the highest portion of installation costs, research into
alternative burying methods is critical. Open cut trenching, the traditional method for installing
underground cable, is not suitable for burying power lines in many urban and suburban areas. The
underground environment is becoming more congested and deeper trenches are required to go under
existing utility infrastructures. Researchers are developing innovative, trenchless construction methods
that use boring from one point to another and then pulling the lines through the bore. Research is being
done to improve horizontal boring methods so that issues with performance, equipment, and job
specification and design can be resolved, and that the costs and reliability of this undergrounding
method become more competitive.
Sources:
Pirelli (www.pirelli.com/en_42/cables_systems/energy/innovation/ppl1.jhtml)
National Transmission Grid Study Issue Papers, May 2002, page F-34
“High Temperature Superconductivity: The Products and Their Benefits,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory, December 31, 2002
“Going Underground,” UtiliPoint IssueAlert, February 5, 2004
Electric Power Research Institute
“Out of Sight, Out of Mind?,” Brad Johnson for the Edison Electric Institute, January 2004
“Underground Cable that Heals Itself,” NRECA Connections, October 2003
Wireless power transmission, also known as power beaming, involves using a laser or microwave
radiation to transmit electricity. Space applications are the nearest-term uses of wireless power
transmission, and longer-term applications may be remote sites that are far away from the electric grid or
separated from the grid by impassible terrain. Wireless transmission may even be used someday for
aesthetic or economic reasons.
Source:
National Transmission Grid Study Issue Papers, page F-36
www.wirelesspowertransmission.com
Ultra-high voltage lines (UHV) are over 1 MV (1000kV) and can carry more power than lower voltage
lines, but require larger right-of-ways than lower voltage lines, which can lead to higher costs. UHV
increases the need for reactive power reserves and requires larger, modified towers. Several issues have
hindered the application of UHV lines in the United States including concerns about increased electro
magnetic fields (EMFs) and increased rights-of-way. UHV lines are unlikely to have a large impact in the
United States due to cost issues and public concern about possible safety issues pertaining to EMFs. 1000
MV lines are currently being used in Japan.
Source:
National Transmission Grid Study Issue Papers and the National Transmission Grid Study.
Ethernet Cables
Ethernet cables, commonly used for data transmission, are beginning to be used to provide power. The
cables are able to transmit only 13 watts, a standard set by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers in June 2003, which is enough electricity to power items such as telephones, security cameras,
loudspeakers, and wireless network access points. Data and electricity can be transmitted using the same
wires because they are at opposite ends of the frequency spectrum. A connected system of appliances
attached to an Ethernet can be shut down at once instead of being turned off individually. Ethernet power
is uniform, and has the potential to be a worldwide common standard for power.
Research and development is being conducted to improve Ethernet cables so that they can transmit
enough power to run a typical laptop computer. New standards, and possibly new computer hardware,
would need to be developed for higher capacity Ethernet cables to power larger items. The added heat
would require more resilient components and new safety standards.
Source:
“No Outlet? Don’t Worry, an Ethernet Cable May Do,” The New York Times, March 18, 2004
Hardware
Power System Device Sensors help determine the limitations of individual devices such as
transmission lines, cables, transformers and circuit breakers. The limits of each of these devices are
determined by the thermal characteristics. There is to develop improved sensors that dynamically
determine the limits by directly or indirectly measuring temperature.
• Conductor Sag Sensors can determine the line capacity by measuring the sag on the overhead
transmission line. The conductor sag is the major limiting factor for overhead transmission lines.
As the wires heat, they expand, and cause sag, which can eventually result in a short circuit due to
arcing from the line to trees, poles, or whatever object may be underneath the wires. Conductor sag
can be measured directly or indirectly, by estimating sag by measuring the conductor temperature
with a device directly mounted on the line and/or a second device that measures the conductor
tension at insulator supports.
• Transformer Coil Temperature Monitors dynamically determine the transformer capacity. The
transformer capacity is limited by thermal constraints. Transformer constraints are caused by
localized hot spots on the windings that result in degradation of insulation.
• Underground/Submarine Cable Monitoring/Diagnostics detects potentially hazardous situations
for underground and submarine cables to support preventative maintenance, mitigate risk failure,
and maximize the use of the transmission asset. Some of the sensing functions that are being
incorporated in cable design include cable temperature, dynamic thermal rating calculations, partial
discharge detection, moisture ingress, cable damage, and hydraulic condition.
Direct System-State Sensors are used to quickly measure region-wide phenomena such as transient
stability limitations, oscillatory stability limitations, an voltage stability limitations. The voltage
magnitudes and angles at the system buses ultimately determine the system state.
• Power-System Monitors collect essential signals from local monitors and forwards the
appropriate data to the regional operator. Existing SCADA and Energy Management Systems
provide low-speed data access for the utility’s infrastructure. A network of high-speed monitors
will help verify system performance. Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) has developed a
network of high-speed data collection with dynamic monitors- the power system analysis monitor
(PSAM) and the portable power system monitor (PPSM).
• Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) are synchronized digital transducers that stream data in real-
time to phasor data concentrator units. PMU networks have been deployed at several utilities
across the country. They have their highest value in mission critical applications that involve wide
area measurements.
• Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems provide real time monitoring of
the utility system status. SCADA systems include hardware and software components. The
hardware gathers and feeds data into a computer that has SCADA software installed. The computer
then processes these data and presents it in a timely manner. SCADA also records and logs all
events and warns when conditions become hazardous by sounding alarms.
• Energy Management Systems
• The Synchronized Phasor Measurement Tools, which take data snapshots many times per
second and display the data visually, allow grid operators to examine the exact shape of the 60-
cycle wave form—even noting transient phenomena that may have been missed by the current
technology that uses 4-second intervals for a single snapshot. With this more accurate picture,
operators can verify that their systems are operating within safe margins. This information is
critical to supporting reliable regional and inter-regional electricity transfers, particularly in the
Eastern Interconnection.
• The VAR-Voltage Management Tool provides a three-dimensional, geographically oriented,
visual depiction of system voltage levels across an entire interconnection area and displays reactive
reserve margins at critical grid locations. Since the same display also includes sensitivity
calculations, distances from voltage collapse and remedial action options, operators and reliability
coordinators can use a single tool to recognize warning signals, diagnose potential problems, and
maneuver the system to safer operating regions before major reliability threats occur.
• The Area Control Error (ACE)-Frequency Real-Time Monitoring System creates a real-time
visual display of the power grid using data generated every four seconds from more than 100
control areas in the United States, which is then made available to all 18 reliability coordinators in
the Eastern and Western Interconnections. The data immediately lets the coordinators know when
an area is out of compliance with the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) rules,
which are designed to ensure the reliable supply of electricity. Frequency and load flow
abnormalities allow operators to quickly identify the control areas where the violation occurred in
time to address the situation and ward off an unplanned outage.
• Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS) is a smart, automatic network that applies real-time
measurements in intelligent, automatic control systems to operate a reliable, efficient, and secure
electric transmission infrastructure.
Market Applications
• Real-time monitoring can be used for measuring conductor sag, coil temperature, and grid
management.
WAMS is in place in the West, where it continuously monitors grid performance across the power
system. It provides operators with high-quality data and analysis tools to detect impending grid
emergencies or to mitigate grid outages.
Technology Goals
• In the future, WAMS will monitor the grid parameters in real time, facilitate calculating location
marginal prices in real time to support market designs, and assist in providing customer
transparency.
• There are further needs for improved sensors, advanced visualization tools, wide area measurement
tools, and advanced controls that apply real-time monitoring. EPRI is working on a Fast Simulation
Model (FSM) that will be able to visually show thermal, voltage, and transient stability problems
faster than real time.
Technology Description
Distributed intelligent systems are multiple entities (such as agents or robots) that integrate perception,
reasoning, and action to perform cooperative tasks under circumstances that are insufficiently known in
advance, and dynamically changing during task execution.
• Low-cost physical sensors will be used to measure voltage, current, temperature, phase angle, and
will have other electric distribution and grid system characterization applications.
• The system architecture will be dependent on the ability of intelligent agents to diagnose and
forecast local faults. This will involve placing a number of sensors, intelligent agents, and
controllers at strategic locations.
• The sensing, communication, and information analysis required for intelligent decision making
must happen in real time or near real time (in seconds), sufficiently faster than the time required to
affect coordination, control, and protection schemes.
• Communications must take place to advise the central controller of the local system status, perform
critical nonrepudiating functions to manage the electricity commerce, and enable real-time markets
for energy and ancillary services.
• A Grid-Friendly appliance controller, based on the gate array chip, is being developed to monitor
the power grid while controlling on-off operations of household appliances (refrigerators, air
conditioners, water heaters, etc.) in response to power grid overload.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
• Current cost for the grid friendly appliance is $15 for 100; when manufactured in higher quantities,
costs are expected to drop to about $5-10/unit or lower.
Market Applications
• The Grid friendly appliance device developed by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNL) has
been tested in a laboratory environment and is ready for installation in the next generation of
appliances.
• A wireless end-device controller is being installed at more than 200 facilities in southwest
Connecticut, with the goal of controlling 2-3 megawatts of electricity on a real-time, dispatchable
basis. The controller collects real-time, energy-use information and controls end-use loads
(lighting, vending machines, etc.) to manage system peak demand.
Source: Bi-directional PLC AMR: A Market Snapshot, National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, Cooperative
Research Network, Technology Surveillance newsletter, March 2003.
Technology Goals
• BPL technology is currently being tested in many areas.
• PLC performance varies with frequency. Frequency variations may be caused by switching power
supplies or plugging a device into a power line. In addition to dealing with a transfer function
problem, PLC faces interference problems. Interference sources can range from brush motors,
such as those in vacuum cleaners or hair dryers, dimmer switches, lamps, and amateur band radio
transmitters. The interference results in bit error in the data bits.
• Circuit breakers can have substantial attenuation. In home networking many homes only have a
physical connection to other circuits via the circuit breaker that can create 20 dB of loss at
frequencies below 1 MHz.
Source:
Bi-directional PLC AMR: A Market Snapshot, National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, Cooperative Research Network,
Technology Surveillance newsletter, March 2003.
HomePlug Standard Brings Networking Home, www.commdesign.com, December 2000.
Powerline Communications, www.plcform.org
Technology Description
• Transformers lower or raise system voltages in order to transport electricity more efficiently.
• Electricity generally passes through at least three transformers before reaching the end consumer.
• A transformer is composed of two conductor coils, or “windings,” wound around a magnetic core.
• Via electromagnetic induction, current flows into the primary coil and out of the secondary coil.
• Ideally, the input power equals the output power, resulting in lossless voltage transformation;
however, since the coils in conventional transformers are made of copper wire, resistance in the wire
causes a one to two percent loss of energy.
• HTS transformer coils, made of HTS wire, incur substantially less resistance loss, bringing the
efficiency rate of the transformer closer to its theoretical potential (100%).
• The copper or aluminum conductors of conventional transformers are replaced by an HTS conductor
incorporated into a HTS transformer coil design.
• There are eddy and AC losses in the windings that require refrigeration power. The HTS coils will be
operated at liquid nitrogen temperature (77oK, or -196oC). These losses are small compared to losses
due to resistive heating in conventional transformer windings.
• HTS transformers offer the possibility of operating with low losses and at 10 to 30 times greater
current density than conventional transformers. The windings are electrically insulated with dielectric
material, which is designed to meet ANSI standard dielectric tests for system voltages and the
associated basic impulse insulation test levels.
• Additionally, HTS transformers can develop greater flux densities and magnetic fields within a
smaller coil, which also increases device efficiency per unit volume. Conventional transformers are
extremely heavy because of the magnetic core, copper winding, and insulting/cooling oil. HTS
transformers will be lighter and will require no oil.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
• HTS transformers have potential advantages over conventional transformers in the following areas:
− about 30% reduction in total losses
− about 45% lower weight
− about 20% reduction in total cost of ownership
• These advantages are based on a 100 MVA transformer with HTS wire providing a critical current
density of 10 kA/cm2 and AC losses of 0.25 mW/A-m in a parallel field of 0.1 tesla.
• Additional benefits include:
− two times the overload rating capability for extended periods without insulation damage or loss of
lifetime
− unprecedented fault current limiting functionality, which is expected to protect and reduce the cost
of utility system components
− reduced operating impedance, which will improve network voltage regulation
• In addition to greater efficiency than conventional transformers, HTS transformers eliminate oil
cooling, thus reducing fire and environmental hazards associated with oil-based systems. These
benefits enable HTS transformers to have higher power densities so they will be lighter and more
compact allowing them to be sited in high-density urban areas and inside buildings.
Market Applications
• One-half of all U.S. power transformer sales will be in the class of 30 MVA, 138-kV/18.8-kV
transformer rating for the next two decades.
• It is envisioned that HTS transformers will primarily be used at substations within the electric utility
grid.
• The first applications for HTS transformers are in urban and other substations that are space
constrained yet need to increase capacity.
• Super-efficient, quiet, lightweight, compact, and oil-free HTS transformers can be used where
transformers previously could not be sited, such as in high-density urban areas or inside buildings.
• An alpha prototype 5/10 MVA HTS transformer has been built by Waukesha Electric. This prototype
will demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of 30/60 MVA and larger HTS transformers.
The 30/60 MVA transformer represents the largest target market.
Technology Goals
HTS transformer product design and demonstration will focus on the following targets:
• Demonstrate 5/10 MVA HTS transformer in the Wisconsin electricity grid, 2004.
• High-capacity (30 MVA and higher) HTS transformers to be available in 2007.
• Improve designs anticipating better HTS conductors and better insulation to allow higher power and
higher voltage in same frame size:
− 2004: 24.9 kV, 10 MVA
− 2007: 138 kV, 50 MVA
− 2010: 345 kV, 340 MVA
• Improve designs anticipating better cryogenics to provide enhanced performance and reliability.
Sources:
High Temperature Superconducting Electric Power Products Modernizing the Existing Electricity Infrastructure, DOE
High Temperature Superconductivity: The Products and Their Benefits, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
DOE Superconductivity Program Website
Technology Description
A current limiter protects against sudden momentary surges of current that can destroy expensive utility
equipment and cause power outages. For instance, if lightning sends an uncontrollable surge of power
through the utility grid that is beyond its capacity, a circuit will be tripped, as a preventive measure,
causing a power outage. Utilities have traditionally relied on more expensive transformers, current-
limiting reactors or single-use fuses to deal with this problem. Fault current limiters (FCLs) provide a
more advanced option to help deal with these electrical disturbances.
• Strategically placed in the utility grid, these devices can effectively limit current spikes that are
experienced by circuit breakers allowing utilities to increase systems loads, reliability, and power
quality without upgrading these circuit breakers.
• HTS materials are perfectly suited to this role because they are natural FCLs, being able to quickly
change from a zero to a high impedance state.
• HTS current controllers have the ability to detect power surges and redirect them to HTS coils that
can then safely absorb the excess energy without tripping the circuit breakers or causing an outage.
• A number of FCL concepts have been proposed. FCL designs typically fall into one of three generic
categories: resistive, inductive, and hybrid (including bridge FCL with power electronics). The
resistive class of FCLs is the least complex and the most viable using HTS conductors.
• The HTS FCL allows enhanced operating capacity of utility systems. Conventional copper-based
current limiters (i.e., line reactors) can cause voltage instability in the electrical system by adding
reactance (a resistance to the flow of current) to the system. This forces the utility to add expensive
capacitance to the system to counter-balance the reactive element. No capacitive correction is needed
with HTS FCL devices, since it has no reactance and is passive during non-fault conditions.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
• Utilities can reduce or eliminate the cost of upgrading circuit breakers and fuses by installing HTS
current limiters.
• Fault current levels on a typical transformer can be as high as 10 to 20 times the steady state current.
• One conventional solution to limiting fault current is the use of higher rated circuit breakers and
power fuses.
• Large capital costs are incurred not only to upgrade the circuit breaker, but also the entire substation
buswork.
• By design, the superconducting current controller will limit fault current to 3 to 5 times the amount of
steady state current, reduce standby energy losses, protect and extend the life of transformers and
associated utility equipment, and provide improved flexibility in the use of existing lower-rated
circuit breakers and fuses.
• An ideal HTS FCL would have zero impedance throughout normal operation; provide sufficiently
large impedance under fault conditions; provide rapid detection and initiation of limiting action
(within less than one cycle, or 16 ms (16/1000 s)); provide immediate (within a half-cycle, or 8 ms)
recovery to normal operation after the clearing of a fault; be capable of addressing two faults within a
period of 15 s; and be compact, lightweight, inexpensive, fully automatic, and highly reliable with a
long lifetime.
Since FCLs represent a new class of equipment, no specific cost data are available. To be commercially
feasible FCLs must be economically competitive with conventional solutions such as upgrading or
replacing circuit breakers, building new substations, or bus splitting. HTS FCL design specifications for
each major market application are shown in the following table.
Energetics, Incorporated 23 August 2004
Superconducting FCL
Performance Bus Tie Application Feeder Breaker Applications Transformer Applications
Characteristics
Basic Power Quality Basic Underground Industrial Basic Underground
Steady-State Current (kA) 0.6-1.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.2 2.5 1
Fault Current (kV) 1.8-5.0 1.8 3 3 <20 7.5 3
Hold time (msec) 100 100 400 400 400 600 100
Re-closing Requirement No No Yes No No Yes Yes
Instant Recovery No No Yes No No Yes No
Market Applications
• Power electronics have several market applications as displayed in the table below.
• Power electronics in inverters and rectifiers can convert high frequency AC electricity from
flywheels and microturbines to 60 hz electricity that can be used in the electric grid and distributed
generation.
• They are the advanced electronics that allow switching power AC to DC or vice versa at multiple
locations in the electric system.
• They are also used in fault current limiters needed to control fault current levels on utility
distribution and transmission networks.
• The fault current limiters can operate effectively without adding impedance to electric circuits
during normal operations.
• Static VAR compensators, built partially with power electronics, can be used in several ways:
− To control the switching of capacitors and reactors
− To control voltage fluctuations
− To mitigate the effect of switching in conventional capacitor and reactors and dynamically
control reactive power flow in electric systems.
• The latest use of power electronics resides in the design of FACTS. FACTS systems allow
dynamic voltage support and control of inter line power flows in the electric grid.
Power Electronics Applications
• Diamond based power electronic devices offer tremendous promise. They would have a very small
footprint and would be lossless in the off state.
Source:
National Electric Delivery Technologies Roadmap, Office of Electric Transmission and Distribution, January 2004
Alumina
• Today’s high-performance electrical insulators are often made from high-purity alumina, which
maintains its insulating properties at temperatures and voltages that would break down porcelain.
• Alumina is the most versatile engineered ceramic because of its high temperature service limit and
its chemical, electrical, and mechanical properties.
• It is relatively low-cost and is easily formed and finished using a number of fabrication methods.
• Alumina tubes are highly impermeable to gases, a necessity for electrical feed-through lines in
instruments that require high-vacuum systems.
Level of increases in the key structural characteristics of strength, toughness, and Weibull
Source: DOE/ORO 2076: Opportunities for Advanced Ceramics to Meet the Needs of the Industries of the Future, December
1998, http://www.ms.ornl.gov/programs/energyeff/cfcc/doe2076.htm
Market Applications
• NGK Insulators, Ltd., Nagoya, Japan, manufactures a variety of insulators for large-capacity
transmission lines, which are subject to severe operating conditions, such as heavy contamination
and earthquakes. Insulator contamination is a concern for many utilities. The contamination is
typically caused by super cooled drops and/or droplets from fog, drizzle, or rain (salt water is
particularly damaging).
• NGK’s bushing shell for 1,000-kV ultrahigh voltage (UHV) transmission systems is the world’s
largest porcelain product, with a height of 11.5 meters (~38 feet) and a maximum diameter of 1.6
meters (~5 feet). These insulators have been distributed throughout the world. According to NGK,
successful long-term service experience in higher system voltage illustrates the reliability and
quality of these insulators.
• NGK has also developed products such as transmission line arresters and insulator washing
equipment which prevents reduction of insulator performance caused by contamination. These
products contribute to the reliability of power supply.
Technology Goals
• NGK Insulators, Ltd., Nagoya, Japan, has been developing new technologies for transmission lines
and substations. Their High Voltage Laboratory is equipped with world's largest-level UHV
research facilities.
Sources:
The American Ceramics Society, www.ceramics.org
Purdue University chemistry department web site, www.purdue.edu
Today’s Chemist at Work, May 2002 issue.
NGK Insulators, Ltd., http://www.ngk.co.jp/english/index.html
Technology Description
The term “Flexible Alternating-Current Transmission Systems” or “FACTS” describes a variety of
power electronic devices used to improve control and stability of the transmission grid. As electricity
travels through the system, many transmission lines become overloaded, while others are underutilized.
FACTS devices can be used to alleviate this problem.
• The technology consists of high power semiconductors configured in a three phase inverter.
• Voltage is then injected into the transmission system to control the flow of power on a given
transmission line. By combining high-voltage, high-current electronic devices with communication
links and automatic controllers, FACTS devices enable electrical power transmission circuits to
operate at a level that is closer to the thermal limit of the transmission wire. Thus, the strain on
overused transmission wires is reduced and capacity on underused lines is increased.
• Because FACTS devices respond quickly and precisely, power can be added to the line very
quickly, and, thus, the transmission system becomes more stable and reliable in a way that offers a
power supplier much flexibility.
• A supplier could load a line up near its thermal limit when necessary, and reduce the amount of
power on the line when such generation is not needed.
• The supplier can also relocate power within the system to meet increased demand in different
sectors of the service area. FACTS devices may also allow for alternative energy sources to be
connected to the existing transmission network without installing additional transmission lines to
accommodate the new sources.
Additional applications:
• The idea of combining FACTS technology with energy storage systems (such as battery storage or
superconducting magnetic energy storage) is currently being researched since short-term energy
storage can aid in power flow control. Recent work shows that even a small amount of storage can
significantly enhance the performance of some FACTS devices.
• FACTS devices may allow for alternative energy sources to be connected to the existing
transmission network without installing additional transmission lines to accommodate the new
sources.
Technology Goals
The major challenge is to reduce the cost of FACTS systems to achieve widespread use. New power
electronics advances are needed to lower the costs of these systems and accelerate their application on
the network. New semiconductor materials (such as silicon carbide, gallium nitride, and thin-film
diamond) could dramatically lower the cost of FACTS devices by providing the basis for developing a
power electronic equivalent of the integrated circuit.
Sources:
Utility Automation & Engineering T&D, November 2003.
“Advanced Transmission Technologies” issue paper, National Transmission Grid Study, U.S. Department of Energy, May 2002.
Energy Info Source’s Transmission Insight newsletter, “Tech Brief: Flexible AC Transmission Systems,” Vol 1, Issue 3,
June 2002.
“Transmission Planning And The Need For New Capacity,” Eric Hirst and Brendan Kirby, Consulting in Electric-Industry
Restructuring, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, December 2001, Prepared for National Transmission Grid Study, U.S. Department
of Energy.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Electricity Technology Roadmap, July 1999.
Market Applications
• DSC synchronous condensers can be used for peaking as well as base load applications without loss
of life due to frequent load changes.
• HTS synchronous condensers can be used to alleviate voltage problems for:
• reactive compensation in transmission and distribution systems
• steady state voltage regulation for long radial delivery systems
• dynamic power factor correction in large industrial sites
• flicker mitigation for sensitive power quality in steel mills, electric arc furnaces, etc.
• The first SuperVAR synchronous condenser is being used by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
to alleviate voltage flicker at a steel mill in Gallatin, Tennessee.
Energetics, Incorporated 31 August 2004
Technology Goals
Sources:
American Superconductor Corporation, AMSC
“Superconducting Dynamic Synchronous Condenser for Improved Grid Voltage Support”, Published in Proceedings of IEEE
T&D Conference, Dallas, TX, September 2003
“A Synchronous Machine Using High Temperature Superconducting Wire to Mitigate Voltage Flicker”, Michael R. Ingram,
P.E., Tennessee Valley Authority.
D1. Batteries
D2. Flywheels
• The most mature battery systems are based on lead acid technology. There are two major kinds of lead acid
batteries: flooded lead acid batteries and valve-regulated-lead-acid (VRLA) batteries. Flooded lead acid
batteries were invented first and have the following disadvantages: the need for periodic addition of water,
and the need for adequate ventilation because they release hydrogen gas when charging. VRLA batteries are
sealed batteries fitted with pressure release valves. They are considered low-maintenance batteries because
they do not require periodic adding of water, unlike flooded batteries. They have a smaller footprint than
flooded lead acid batteries as they can be stacked horizontally as well as vertically. They are more expensive
than flooded batteries and more sensitive to the charging cycle used. They often display reduced battery life
and performance when exposed to high temperatures.
• There are several rechargeable, advanced batteries under development for stationary and mobile applications,
including lithium-ion, lithium polymer, nickel metal hydride, zinc-air, zinc-bromine, sodium sulfur and
sodium bromide. These advanced batteries promise several advantages over lead acid batteries in terms of
cost, energy density, footprint, lifetime, operating characteristics, reduced maintenance, and improved
performance.
• The zinc-bromine battery consists of a zinc positive electrode and a bromine negative electrode separated by
a microporous separator. An aqueous solution of zinc/bromide is circulated through the two compartments of
the cell from two separate reservoirs. Zinc-bromine batteries are currently being demonstrated in a number
of hybrid installations, with microturbines and diesel generators.
• Sodium bromide/sodium bromine batteries are similar to zinc-bromine batteries in function and are under
development for large scale, utility applications. These flow battery technologies have the following
advantages: low cost, modularity, scalability, transportability, low weight, flexible operation, and easily
recyclable components. Their major disadvantages are that they offer relatively low cycle efficiency.
• Other advanced batteries include the lithium-ion, lithium-polymer and sodium sulfur batteries. Lithium
batteries have specific energies four times higher that those of lead acid batteries. Sodium sulfur batteries
operate at high temperature and are being tested for utility load leveling applications.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
• Energy storage systems for large-scale power quality applications (~10 MW) are economically viable now–
with very strong sales from several manufacturers such as East Penn, Exide, GNB, Enersys, Yuasa, CND and
Fiamm between 2000 and 2001.
• Lead acid battery annual sales have tripled between 1993 and 2000. The relative importance of battery sales
for switchgear and UPS applications has shrunk during this period from 45% to 26% of annual sales by 2000.
VRLA and flooded battery sales were $534 and $171 million, respectively, in 2000.
• Sales for lead acid batteries have dropped recently with the collapse of battery demands from the
telecommunications industry in 2001. There was significant growth in sales in 2000, due to the demand from
communications firms and investments in production and marketing. Many manufacturers have been subject
Source: Long vs. Short Term Energy Storage Analysis, A Study for the DOE Energy Storage Systems Program,
SANDIA Report, Printed August 2003.
Market Applications
• The first application of batteries is stationary applications for the following industries: telecommunications,
utility switchgear and control, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), and photovoltaic and nuclear power
plants. Installations can be any size. The largest system to date is a 40 MW Nickel Cadmium Battery from
Saft installed in Fairbanks, Alaska.
• Lead acid batteries are the most common energy storage technology for stationary and mobile applications.
They offer maximum efficiency and reliability for a wide variety of stationary applications such as power
quality, peak shaving, spinning reserve, and other ancillary services.
• Government and private industry are currently developing a variety of advanced batteries for transportation
and defense applications: lithium-ion, lithium polymer, nickel metal hydride, sodium metal chloride, sodium
sulfur, and zinc bromine.
• Rechargeable lithium batteries are also being used in consumer electronics.
Technology Goals
• Lead-acid batteries are likely to remain a strong technology in the future because they provide the best long-
term power in terms of cycles and float life.
• Battery manufacturers such as Exide, Saft, NKG, GNB and Sanyo are working on incremental improvements
in energy and power density.
• The battery industry is trying to improve manufacturing practices and build more batteries at lower costs to
stay competitive. Gains in development of batteries for mobile applications will likely crossover to the
stationary market.
Technology Description
Flywheels use a mechanical process to store kinetic energy in a rotating mass. The amount of stored
energy is dependent on the speed, mass, and configuration of the flywheel. The most common use for
flywheels is as short-term energy storage devices for propulsion applications such as engines for large
road vehicles.
• Flywheel energy storage systems are usually categorized as either low-speed or high-speed. High-
speed wheels are made of high strength, low-density/weight composite materials, making these
systems considerably more compact than those employing lower-speed metallic wheels. However,
the low-speed systems are still considerably less expensive per kWh.
Flywheels systems require power conditioning and balance-of-plant components. A dozen companies are
actively developing flywheels. Low-speed, steel flywheels are commercially available now and
composite, high-speed flywheels are rapidly approaching commercialization.
Market Applications
• Flywheels are primarily used in transportation, defense, and power quality applications. Flywheels
can also be used for energy storage applications. However, there are barriers such as parasitic losses
due to windage and bearings. They can be used in load management to have energy stored during off-
peak hours discharged at peak hours, achieving savings in peak energy, demand charges, and a more
uniform load. In addition, flywheels are under development for vehicle applications.
• Flywheels can handle angular instabilities and provide low cost frequency regulation, and can provide
power balancing for wind energy systems.
Technology Description
Pumped hydroelectric energy storage is based on conventional hydropower technology. Generally,
pumped hydropower plants pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir when demand for
electricity is low. Water is stored in an upper reservoir for release to generate power during periods of
peak demand. For example, in the summer, water is released during the day for generating power to
satisfy the high demand for electricity for air conditioning. At night, when demand decreases, the water is
pumped back to the upper reservoir for use the next day. A typical pumped hydro energy storage plant
consists of the following components:
Dam (upper reservoir). Controls the flow of water and increases the elevation to create the head. The
reservoir that is formed is, in effect, stored energy.
Penstock. Carries water from the reservoir to the turbine in a power plant.
Reversible Turbine. Turned by the force of water pushing against its blades and also spins backward to
pump the water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir.
Generator. Connects to the turbine and rotates to produce the electrical energy.
Transformer. Converts electricity from the generator to usable voltage levels.
Transmission lines. Conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to the electric distribution system.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
• Pumped hydroelectric storage plants range in size from 300 MW to 1800 MW.
• Existing plant capital costs were low. The Tennessee Valley Authority’s pumped storage plants were
$250 kW in the early 1980s.
• Efficiencies range from 60% (old units) to 78% (newer units).
• Cold start usually takes 1 to 4 minutes.
• Change over from pumping to generating takes 5 to 40 minutes.
• Operate as little as once a week to 8 times per week. Capacity factors from 15% to 35%.
• Availability is high, between 90-98% and starting reliability is 99%.
Market Applications
• Most popular large storage technology in the world with 19 gigawatts in the United States (2.7 % of
total generation)
• Used for price arbitrage and reduced price volatility and also ancillary services, such as VAR support
and voltage regulation.
• While pumped storage facilities are net energy consumers, they are valued by a utility because they
can be rapidly brought on-line to operate in a peak power production mode. The pumping to
replenish the upper reservoir is performed during off-peak hours when electricity costs are lowest.
This process benefits the utility by increasing the load factor and reducing the cycling of its baseload
units. In most cases, pumped storage plants run a full cycle every 24 hours.
• Pumped hydro can be very useful if used with intermittent energy sources such as solar or wind
power. Some regions may produce excess wind or solar energy than is in demand; this extra energy
can be used to pump water to a high reservoir. When it is no longer sunny or the wind stops
blowing, water from the upper reservoir can be released and used to generate electricity.
Technology Goals
Experts have determined that the best sites for pumped hydro storage plants in the United States have
been used and the remaining sites are in remote areas that may require new transmission to utilize the
technology. There are also many environmental impact issues to deal with at potential pumped hydro
plant sites.
The cost for a D-SMES unit is about $250/kW. Six D-SMES units were deployed on the Wisconsin
Public Service Grid (115 kV) for transmission stabilization at a cost of approximately $4 million.
Market Applications
Due to the ability to store and release large amounts of energy very quickly, the SMES is well suited for
uninterruptible power supply applications. The SMES overcomes the most prevalent type of power-
quality problem, which are momentary voltage sags. These are drops in voltage that typically last much
less than one second (causing lights to flicker), but long enough to knock out sensitive manufacturing
equipment or to cause voltage instabilities in transmission systems. The applications of SMES in the
utility sector go well beyond simple energy storage and have the ability to significantly increase
transmission capacity through enhanced line stability.
• D-SMES systems are employed by electric utilities and are connected to their grids at substations.
• D-SMES systems increase transfer capacity and protect utility grids from the destabilizing effects of
Energetics, Incorporated 42 August 2004
short-term events, such as voltage dips caused by lightning strikes and downed poles, sudden
changes in customer demand levels, and switching operations.
• In many cases, D-SMES is a cost-effective way to reinforce a transmission grid without the costly
and environmentally intrusive construction of new lines. Rather than protecting one individual
customer, a D-SMES system consists of a number of SMES units placed at strategically selected
locations on the utility system.
• By improving the stability of the entire transmission grid, a D-SMES system can cost-effectively
increase system capacity and improve the reliability and quality of electric service to thousands of
customers simultaneously.
• D-SMES is a shunt connected Flexible AC Transmission (FACTS) device designed to increase grid
stability, improve power transfer, and increase reliability. Unlike other FACTS devices, D-SMES
injects real power as well as dynamic reactive power to compensate more quickly for disturbances
on the utility grid. Fast response time prevents motor stalling, the principal cause of voltage
collapse.
• Larger SMES (10-180 MW), when developed, would be appropriate for load-leveling applications.
Technology Goals
LTS SMES is commercial. There are no R&D goals. There may be some R&D opportunities for larger
SMES devices and incorporating HTS conductors into the larger SMES designs.
Source:
American Superconductor Corporation website, www.amsuper.com
Ultracapacitors
They are used in consumer electronics, power quality devices, and transportation and defense
applications, and have potential use in combination with distributed generation equipment for following
rapid load changes. An 8 kJ ultracapacitor typically costs between $50 and $100, resulting in an energy
cost of $45,000/kWh. One R&D goal is to increase production enough to have the energy cost at
$25,000/kWh. Ultracapacitor development needs improved energy density from the current 1.9 W-h/kg
for light-duty hybrid vehicles. Manufacturers include Nanolab, Cooper Maxwell, and NEC.
E2. Microturbines
E5. Photovoltaics
Technology Description
A gas turbine is a heat engine that uses high-temperature, high-pressure gas as the working fluid. Gas
turbines are compact, lightweight, quick starting, and simple to operate. They are used widely in
industry, universities and colleges, hospitals, and commercial buildings to produce electricity, heat, or
steam. In such cases, “simple cycle” gas turbines convert a portion of input energy from the fuel to
electricity and use the remaining energy, normally rejected to the atmosphere, to produce heat. This
waste heat may be used to power a separate turbine by creating steam. The attached steam turbine may
generate electricity or power a mechanical load. This is referred to as a combined cycle combustion
turbine since two separate processes or cycles are derived from one fuel input to the primary turbine.
The durability and sustainability of advanced materials need to be increased without increasing costs.
Sources:
The Installed Base of U.S. Distributed Generation, Resource Dynamics Corporation, 2003
Technology Description
Microturbines have few moving parts, a compact size, are light weight, have high efficiency, low
emissions, low electricity costs, and waste heat utilization opportunities. Waste heat recovery can be
used in combined heat and power (CHP) systems to achieve energy efficiency levels greater than 80
percent. They are fuel flexible machines that can run on natural gas, biogas, propane, butane, diesel,
and kerosene.
Technology Description
A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device that converts hydrogen and oxygen into
electricity and water. This unique process is practically silent, nearly eliminates emissions, and has no
moving parts.
• Similar to a battery, fuel cells have an anode and a cathode separated by an electrolyte.
• Fuel cell systems today typically consist of a fuel processor, fuel cell stack, and power conditioner.
• The fuel processor, or reformer, converts hydrocarbon fuels to a mixture of hydrogen-rich gases
and, depending on the type of fuel cell, can remove contaminants to provide pure hydrogen. The
fuel cell stack is where the hydrogen and oxygen electrochemically combine to produce electricity.
The electricity produced is direct current (DC) and the power conditioner converts the DC
electricity to alternating current (AC) electricity, for which most of the end-use technologies are
designed. As a hydrogen infrastructure emerges, the need for the reformer will disappear as pure
hydrogen will be available near point-of-use.
Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) were the first type of fuel cell to be used in space applications. AFCs
contain an electrolyte made up of a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution and operate at temperatures
between 60 and 250°C (140 to 482°F). The fuel supplied to an AFC must be pure hydrogen. Carbon
monoxide poisons an AFC, and carbon dioxide (even the small amount in the air) reacts with the
electrolyte to form potassium carbonate.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) were the first fuel cells to be commercialized. These fuel cells
operate at 150-220°C (302-428°F) and achieve 35 to 45% fuel-to-electricity efficiencies on a lower
heating value basis (LHV). UTC Fuel Cells has delivered over 250 200 kW PAFC systems worldwide.
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) operate at relatively low temperatures of 70-
100°C (158-212°F), have high power density, can vary their output quickly to meet shifts in power
demand, and are suited for applications where quick start-up is required (e.g., transportation and power
generation). The PEM is a thin fluorinated plastic sheet that allows hydrogen ions (protons) to pass
through it. The membrane is coated on both sides with highly dispersed metal alloy particles (mostly
platinum) that are active catalysts.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) technology has the potential to reach fuel-to-electricity
efficiencies of 45 to 60% LHV. Operating temperatures for MCFCs are around 650°C (1,200°F), which
allows total system thermal efficiencies up to 85% LHV in combined cycle applications. MCFCs have
been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine diesel, and
simulated coal gasification products.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) operate at temperatures up to 1,000°C (1,800°F), which further
enhances combined-cycle performance. A solid oxide system usually uses a hard ceramic material
instead of a liquid electrolyte. The solid-state ceramic construction enables the high temperatures,
allows more flexibility in fuel choice, and contributes to stability and reliability. As with MCFCs,
SOFCs are capable of fuel-to-electricity efficiencies of 45 to 60% LHV and total system thermal
efficiencies up to 85% LHV in combined-cycle applications.
Market Applications
• Fuel cell systems can be sized for grid-connected applications or customer-sited applications in
residential, commercial, and industrial facilities. Depending on the type of fuel cell (most likely
SOFC and MCFC), useful heat can be captured and used in combined heat and power systems
(CHP).
• Premium power applications are an important niche market for fuel cells. Multiple fuel cells can be
used to provide extremely high (more then six-times) reliability and high-quality power for critical
loads.
• Data centers and sensitive manufacturing processes are ideal settings for fuel cells.
• Fuel cells also can provide power for vehicles and portable power. PEMFCs are a leading
candidate for powering the next generation of vehicles. The military is interested in the high-
efficiency, low-noise, small-footprint, portable power.
Technology Goals
According to the Business Communications Company, the market for fuel cells, which was about $218
million in 2000, will increase to $2.4 billion by 2004, and will reach $7 billion by 2009.
• Fuel cells are being developed for stationary power generation through a partnership of the U.S
DOE and the private sector.
• Industry will introduce high-temperature natural gas-fueled MCFC and SOFC at $1,000 -$1,500
per kW that are capable of 60% efficiency, ultra-low emissions, and 40,000 hour stack life.
• DOE is also working with industry to test and validate the PEM technology at the 1-kW level and
to transfer technology to the Department of Defense. Other efforts include raising the operating
temperature of the PEM fuel cell for building, cooling, heating, and power applications and
improve reformer technologies to extract hydrogen from a variety of fuels, including natural gas,
propane, and methanol.
Source:
Power Technologies Databook, NREL
The Installed Base of Distributed Generation, Resource Dynamics Corporation, 2003
• Reciprocating engines fall into one of two categories depending on the ignition source: spark
ignition (SI), typically fueled by gasoline or natural gas; or compression ignition (CI) typically
fueled by diesel oil.
• Reciprocating engines also are categorized by the number of revolutions it takes to complete a
combustion cycle. A two-stroke engine completes its combustion cycle in one revolution and a
fourstroke engine completes the combustion process in two revolutions.
• Reciprocating engine systems typically include several major parts: fuel storage, handling, and
conditioning, prime mover (engine), emission controls, waste recovery (CHP systems) and
rejections (radiators), and electrical switchgear.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
• Commercially available engines have electrical efficiencies (LHV) of approximately 40% and
yield NOx emissions of 1.5 lbs/MWh.
• Installed cost for reciprocating engines range between $600 and $1,600/kW depending on size and
whether the unit is for a straight generation or cogeneration application. Operating and
maintenance costs range 2 cents to 2.5 cents/kWh.
• Exhaust temperature for most reciprocating engines is 700-1200°F in non-combined heat and
power (CHP) mode and 350-500°F in a CHP system after heat recovery.
• Noise levels with sound enclosures are typically between 70-80 dB.
Market Applications
• Reciprocating engines can be installed to accommodate baseload, peaking, or standby power
applications. Commercially available engines range in size from 50 kW to 6.5 MW making them
suitable for many distributed-power applications. Utility substations and small municipalities can
install engines to provide baseload or peak shaving power. However, the most promising markets
for reciprocating engines are on-site at commercial, industrial, and institutional facilities. With fast
start-up time, reciprocating engines can play integral backup roles in many building energy
systems. On-site reciprocating engines become even more attractive in regions with high electric
rates (energy/demand charges).
• When properly treated, the engines can run on fuel generated by waste treatment (methane) and
other biofuels.
• By using the recuperators that capture and return waste exhaust heat, reciprocating engines can be
used in CHP systems to achieve energy efficiency levels approaching 80%. In fact, reciprocating
engines make up a large portion of the CHP or cogeneration market.
Technology Goals
• High Efficiency- Target fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency (LHV) is 50% by 2010.
• Environment – Engine improvements in efficiency, combustion strategy, and emissions reductions
will substantially reduce overall emissions to the environments. The NOx target for the Department
of Energy’s Advanced Reciprocating Engine System (ARES) program is 0.1 g/hp-hr, a 90%
• Flat-plate PV arrays use global sunlight; concentrators use direct sunlight. Modules are mounted on
a stationary array or on single- or dual-axis sun trackers. Arrays can be ground-mounted or on all
types of buildings and structures (e.g., see semi-transparent solar canopy, right). PV DC output can
be conditioned into grid quality AC electricity, or DC can be used to charge batteries or to split
water to produce hydrogen.
• Flat-plate cells are either constructed from crystalline silicon cells, or from thin films using
amorphous silicon. Other materials such as copper indium diselinide (CIS) and cadmium
telluride also hold promise as thin-film materials. The vast majority of systems installed today are
in flat-plate configurations where multiple cells are mounted together to form a module. These
systems are generally fixed in a single position, but can be mounted on structures that tilt toward
the sun on a seasonal basis, or on structures that roll east to west over the course of the day.
• Photovoltaic concentrator systems use optical concentrators to focus direct sunlight onto solar cells
for conversion to electricity. A complete concentrating system includes concentrator modules,
support and tracking structures, a power-processing center, and land. PV concentrator module
components include solar cells, an electrically isolating and thermally conducting housing for
mounting and interconnecting the cells, and optical concentrators. The solar cells in today's
concentrators are predominantly silicon, although gallium arsenide-based (GaAs) solar cells may
be used in the future because of their high-conversion efficiencies.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
The cost of PV-generated electricity has dropped 15- to 20-fold; and grid-connected PV systems
currently sell for about $5–$10/Wp (20 to 50¢/kWh), including support structures, power conditioning,
and land. They are highly reliable and last 20 years or longer.
• Crystalline silicon is widely used and the most commercially mature photovoltaic material. Thin-
film PV modules currently in production include three based on amorphous silicon, cadmium
telluride, and CIS alloys.
• About 288 MW of PV were sold in 2000 (more than $2 billion worth); total installed PV is more
than 1 GW. The U.S. world market share is about 26%. Annual market growth for PV has been
about 25% as a result of reduced prices and successful global marketing. In recent years, sales
growth has accelerated to almost 40% per year. Hundreds of applications are cost-effective for off-
grid needs.
• Almost two-thirds of U.S.-manufactured PV is exported. However, the fastest growing segment of
the market is grid-connected PV, such as roof-mounted arrays on homes and commercial buildings
in the United States. California is subsidizing PV systems because it is considered cost-effective to
reduce their dependence on natural gas, especially for peak daytime loads for air-conditioning,
which matches PV output.
• Highest efficiency for wafers of single-crystal or polycrystalline silicon is 24%, and for
commercial modules is 13%–15%. Silicon modules currently cost about $2-$3/Wp to manufacture.
• During the past two years, world record solar cell sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiencies
were set by federally funded universities, national laboratories, or industry in copper indium
Energetics, Incorporated 54 August 2004
gallium diselenide (19% cells and 12% modules) and cadmium telluride (16% cells, 11%
modules). Cell and module efficiencies for these technologies have increased more than 50% in the
past decade.
• Efficiencies for commercial thin-film modules are 5%–11%. A new generation of thin-film PV
modules is going through the high-risk transition to first-time and large-scale manufacturing. If
successful, market share could increase rapidly.
• Highest efficiencies for single-crystal Si and multijunction gallium arsenide (GaAs)-alloy cells for
concentrators are 25%–34%; and for commercial modules are 15%–17%. Prototype systems are
being tested in the Southwestern U.S. desert.
Market Applications
• Crystalline Silicon - Most PV systems installed to-date have used crystalline silicon cells. That
technology is relatively mature. In the future, cost-effectiveness will be achieved through
incremental efficiency improvements, enhanced yields, and advanced lower cost manufacturing
techniques.
• Even though some thin-film modules are now commercially available, their real commercial
impact is only expected to become significant during the next three to 10 years. Beyond that, their
general use should occur in the 2005-2015 time frame, depending on investment levels for
technology development and manufacture.
• Thin films using amorphous silicon, which are a growing segment of the U.S. market, have several
advantages over crystalline silicon. They can be manufactured at lower cost, are more responsive
to indoor light, and can be manufactured on flexible or low-cost substrates.
• Other thin-film materials will become increasingly important in the future. In fact, the first
commercial modules using indium gallium diselinide thin-film devices were produced in 2000.
Improved manufacturing techniques and deposition processes will reduce costs and help improve
efficiency.
• Substantial commercial interest exists in scaling-up production of thin films. As thin films are
produced in larger quantity, and as they achieve expected performance gains, they will become
more economical for the whole range of applications.
• Multijunction cells with efficiencies of 38% at very high concentrations are being developed.
• Manufacturing research and supporting technology development hold important keys to future cost
reductions. Large-scale manufacturing processes will allow major cost reductions in cells and
modules.
Source:
Power Technologies Databook, NREL
• The reliability of the system is at risk. Load response during periods of high demand alleviates
strain on the system and increases system reliability. Load response can also be used as short-term
response to system contingencies.
• Wholesale electricity prices are very high. Load response can be performed for procurement cost
minimization purposes (e.g., load bidding)
For these demand response mechanisms, the utility or independent system operator would determine
when the electricity demand would be reduced, and the customer would be compensated. However,
price response can also be performed directly by end-use customers for bill management purposes.
Load response is typically attained through interruptible tariffs and direct load control programs.
Price response can be attained through time-of-use rates, dynamic pricing, and demand bidding
programs.
Cost and Performance Characteristics
• Demand response programs—also known as “Demand-Side Management (DSM)” programs—
have been producing economic and environmental benefits for years. Utilization of demand
response is a cost-effective solution to transmission reliability problems from an engineering,
economic, and environmental standpoint since it is a “non-wire” solution. Benefits include
avoided energy, avoided capacity (transmission and generation), and avoided reserves (ancillary
services).
• A study by e-Meter in March 2002 revealed that by using demand response options in California
the total annual cost will be less than one-eight of the fixed costs of adding 5,000 MW of peaking
plant capacity.
• A study by McKinsey Co. states that consumers could save nearly $15 billion annually if all states
implemented real-time pricing strategies, and that the savings would be almost evenly split
between the industrial and residential sectors.
• ISO New England says that the reduction of 50 MW in a congested zone would improve reliability
by 30 percent.
• EPRI found that a two percent reduction in energy usage in California in the summer of 2001
would have cut wholesale electricity expenditures by $700 million.
The cost of advanced meters, which are needed for some demand response applications, is a
• Direct load control programs - The objective of a direct load control program is to achieve load
reduction during emergencies resulting in load reduction at times of electric capacity shortfall.
Reduction in system peak demand is achieved by the direct remote control of selected load by the
utility without prior notice to the customer. Loads can be interrupted by the utility through
remotely activated signals. Examples include the utility interrupting the operation of air
conditioners or water heaters.
Price Response
• Dynamic pricing – Customers typically do not know when electricity is unusually expensive and
therefore have no motivation or incentive to reduce demand during those times. Dynamic pricing
tariffs could be used as a strategy for avoiding forced outages because of electricity demand-supply
imbalances and/or mitigating high prices because of scarce supply resources. One form of these
tariffs would offer rate discounts when system conditions are normal (most of the time) and charge
higher rates when the grid is approaching an overloaded state, or during wholesale price spikes.
Dynamic rates can also signal to the market wholesale electricity costs, which tend to be highest
when electricity demand is unusually high or when supply is unusually low. Current retail
electricity rates do not reflect such unexpected changes in wholesale prices.
Demand response research, development, demonstrations, and technology transfer continues to occur.
Research on policies, programs, and tariffs to promote demand response needs to be completed, as well
as insight into consumer and institutional behavior in an effort to boost success of programs.
Sources:
New England ISO Demand Response Program web site and presentations
“Demand Responsiveness in Electricity Markets,” Office of Markets, Tariffs and Rates, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission,
January 15, 2001
“Energy Conservation Squeezed,” March 30, 2004, IssueAlert.