Oracle 1

Oracle Arthitecture
Last Reviewed By : Bhagavn/Sourajit Seth,Bangalore

Last updated on :23/08/2005
People. Processes. Technology. Results.
www.perotsystems.com Proprietary and confidential. © 2005 Perot Systems. All rights reserved. All registered trademarks are the property of their respective owners. V1.0
Contents
• Introduction to Oracle Server

• Overview of Database Structure
• Oracle Instance
• Logical Database Structure
• Physical Database Structure
• Data Dictionary
• Oracle Server Architecture
– Memory Structures
– Processes
– Program Interface
www.perotsystems.com Proprietary and confidential. © 2005 Perot Systems. All rights reserved. All registered trademarks are the property of their respective owners. V1.0 2
Oracle Server
• RDBMS
• Open, comprehensive and integrated approach to information

management via.
– Independence of physical and logical data storage
– Variable and easy access to all data
– Flexibility in database design
– Reduced data storage and redundancy
• Consists of a database and an instance
Data Modeling
• A Data model is a conceptual representation of data

structures(tables) required for a database and is very powerful
in expressing and communicating the business requirements.
• A data model visually represents the nature of data, business

rules governing the data, and how it will be organized in the
database. A data model is comprised of two parts logical
design and physical design.
Data Modeling types
• Logical Data modeling

• This is the actual implementation and extension of a conceptual data model. A Logical data
model is the version of a data model that represents the business requirements(entire or part)
of an organization and is developed before the physical data model.
• Logical data model includes all required entities, attributes, key groups, and relationships that
represent business information and define business rules.
• Physical Data modeling

• Physical data model includes all required tables, columns, relationships, database properties
for the physical implementation of databases. Database performance, indexing strategy,
physical storage and denormalization are important parameters of a physical model.
• The transformations from logical model to physical model include imposing database rules,
implementation of referential integrity, super types and sub types etc.
Entity Relationship Model
• the ER model is a conceptual data model that views the real world as entities and
relationships. A basic component of the model is the Entity-Relationship diagram
which is used to visually represents data objects.
– It maps well to the relational model. The constructs used in the ER model can
easily be transformed into relational tables.
– It is simple and easy to understand with a minimum of training. Therefore, the
model can be used by the database designer to communicate the design to the end
user.
– In addition, the model can be used as a design plan by the database developer to
implement a data model in a specific database management software.
• Entities are the principal data object about which information is to be collected.
• A Relationship represents an association between two or more entities.
• Relationship types: One-to-One, One-to-Many, Many-to-Many
Normalization
• In relational database design, the process of organizing data to

minimize redundancy.
• Normalization is the process of removing redundant data from your

tables in order to improve storage efficiency, data integrity and
scalability. This improvement is balanced against an increase in
complexity and potential performance losses from the joining of the
normalized tables at query-time.
• Well normalized data makes programming (relatively) easy, and works

very well in multi-platform, enterprise wide environments. Non-
normalized data leads to heartbreak.
Normalization Types
• First Normal form:

• No repeating groups. Grouping similar type data into separate tables and giving each table
a primary key.
• Second Normal Form:

• Each column must depend on the *entire* primary key. Move attributes that do not depend
on entire key to a new table.
• Third Normal Form:

• Each column must depend on *directly* on the primary key. Separate items that doesn't
depend solely on the primary key.
– Arrange the data so that the columns in each table, other than the primary key, are dependent
only on the whole primary key. Table is said to be in third normal form if all of the columns are
dependent only on the primary key.
– "the key, the whole key, and nothing but the key"
Overview of Database Structure
• Physical Structure
• Logical Structure
Physical Structure
– Operating System files that constitute the database.
– Files are physical storage of the database information.
– 3 types of files:
Data files
Redo log files
Control files
Overview of Database Structure
Logical Structure
Dictate how the physical space of the database is used.
Comprises:
– Table spaces : Logical area of storage
– Schema Objects: Logical structures that directly refer to the dB
data. Schema objects and their relationships
form the relational design of the database.
Oracle Instance
• When a database is started, a system global area (SGA)is

allocated and Oracle background processes are started. SGA
is a memory area used for dB information shared by dB users.
• An Oracle instance is this combination of background
processes and memory buffers.
• Oracle instance has 2 types of processes:
– User Process: Executes the application program code
– Oracle Process:
Server Process: Perform work for user processes
Background Process: Perform maintenance work for
the
Oracle Server.
Logical Database Structure - Tablespaces
Database
System Tablespace USERS Tablespace
Data1.ORA
(1MB)
Data2.ORA Data3.ORA
(1MB) (4MB)
Logical Database Structure - Schemas
& Schema Objects
• Schema is a collection of objects

• Schema objects are logical structures that directly refer to the
database’s data
• No relationship between a tablespace and a schema
Schema Objects
– Tables : Basic unit of data storage. Data is stored in the form of
rows and columns.
– Views : Custom tailored presentation of data in one or more
tables.
Logical Database Structure -
Schemas & Schema Objects
Schema Objects
– Sequences: Generate a serial list of unique numbers for
numeric columns of a database’s table.
– Program Unit: Stored procedures, functions and packages.
– Indexes: Provides a faster access path to a table data.
– Clusters: Groups of one or more tables physically stored
together because they share common columns, thus improving
the disk access time.
– Database links: Describes a path from one database to
another. Used in distributed databases.
– Data Blocks: A data block corresponds to a specific number of
bytes of physical database space on the disk.
Logical Database Structure - Schemas
& Schema Objects
Schema Objects
– Extents: A specific number of contiguous data blocks, obtained
in a single allocation, used to store a specific type of
information
– Segments: A set of extents allocated for a certain logical
structure. 4 types are:
Data Segment: Each table has a data segment
Index Segment: Each index has a index segment
Rollback Segment: Stores ‘undo’ information
Temporary Segment: Created when a SQL statement needs
a temporary work area.
Oracle allocates segments dynamically when existing extents
of a segment become full. This dynamic allocation causes
non-contiguous extents.
Physical Database Structure
Data files
– One or more physical files in the disk
– Contain database data
– Can be associated with only one database
– Have certain characteristics that allow them to automatically
extend when the database runs out of space
– One or more data files form a tablespace
The data in a data file is read during normal database operation and
stored in the memory cache of Oracle.
Modified / new data is pooled in memory and written to appropriate
data files all at once.
Redo Log files

– Two or more physical files in the disk
– Set of redo log files are called the database’s ‘redo log’
– Records all changes made to data
– Protects database against failures
– Process of applying a redo log during a recovery operation is
called ‘rolling forward’
Control Files
– One physical file in the disk
– Contains entries that specify the physical structure of the
database viz. Database name, names and locations of
data files and redo log files, time stamp of database
creation etc.
– Can be associated with only one database
When an instance of an Oracle database is started, the control
file is used to identify the database and the redo log files that
have to be opened. If the physical makeup of the database is
altered, this control file is automatically modified by Oracle to
reflect the change.
Data Dictionary
• Contains data about data

• Stores information about
– logical and physical structure of the database
– Valid users of the database
– integrity constraints defined for tables in the database
– space allocation for a schema object and its utilization
• Created when the database is created
• Automatically updated by Oracle in response to specific
actions
Oracle Server Architecture
The architectural features discussed in this session is to

provide an understanding of Oracle’s capabilities to support:
– many users concurrently accessing a single database
– high performance required by concurrent multi-user, multi-
application database
Topics covered here are:

– Memory Structures
– Processes
– Program Interface
Oracle Server Architecture
Figure 1
Memory Structures
Oracle creates and uses memory structures to complete

several jobs.
Ex:
Memory is used to
– store program code being executed.
– Store data that is shared among users.
Basic Memory Structures associated with Oracle:

– System Global Area (SGA)
– Program Global Area (PGA)
Memory Structures -SGA
• Shared memory region that contains data and control information for
one Oracle instance.
• Oracle allocates the SGA when an instance starts and de-allocates it
when an instance shuts down.
• Optimal performance requires that the SGA be as large as possible, to
store as much data as possible, thus minimizing disk I/O.
• Types of structures (fixed sizes) within the SGA:
– Database Buffer Cache
– Redo log Buffer
– Shared Pool
– Cursors
Database Buffer Cache

– Stores most recently used blocks of database data
– Set of database buffers is an instance of the database buffer
cache
– Can contain modified data that has not been permanently
written to the database
Since most recently used data is kept in memory, less disk I/O
is necessary and performance is increased.
Redo log Buffer
– Stores redo entries - a log of changes made to the database
– Redo entries are written to an online redo log file
Redo log file is used for database recovery.
Shared Pool
– Stores shared memory constructs like shared SQL areas
– Shared SQL area is used to process every unique SQL
statement submitted to the database and contains information
such as the execution plan for the SQL statement
These are used by multiple applications that issue the same
statement, thus leaving more shared memory for other users
Cursors
– Handle for the memory associated with a specific statement
Memory Structures - PGA
• Memory buffer that contains data and control information of a

single process (server or background)
• Created when a process is started
• Also called ‘Process Global Area’
Processes
• A process is a ‘thread of control’ or mechanism in an

operating system that can execute a series of steps.
• Also called ‘job’ or ‘task’
• Oracle has two general types of processes:

– User (Client) processes
– Oracle processes
Processes - User
• Created when a user runs an application program.
• Maintained to execute the software code of an application

program
• User process manages communication with the server

process using program interfaces.
Processes - Oracle
• Called by other processes to perform functions on behalf of

the invoking process
• Types of Oracle processes:
– Server Processes
– Background Processes
Database Writer (DBWR) Log Writer (LGWR)
Checkpoint (CKPT)
System Monitor (SMON) Process Monitor (PMON)
Archiver (ARCH) Recoverer (RECO)
Dispatcher (Dnnn) Lock (LCKn)
Processes - Oracle Server
Server Processes
– Created by Oracle to handle requests from connected user
processes
– Communicates with user process and interacts with Oracle to
carry out requests of the user.
– The number of server processes viz.. a viz. the user processes
can be configured based on a dedicated server / multi-
threaded server configuration
Processes - Oracle Background
Background Processes
– Oracle creates a set of background processes for each
instance
– Background processes consolidate common functions that are
handled by Oracle programs
– Perform asynchronous I/O and monitor other Oracle processes
– Each Oracle instance may use several background processes
Database Writer (DBWR)

Writes modified blocks from the dB buffer cache to the data files (disk).
Log Writer (LGWR)

Writes redo log entries to the redo log files (disk)
Checkpoint (CKPT)
Responsible for signalling DBWR to do its job at specific times, called
the check point. Also updates all data files and control files to indicate
the most recent check point. CKPT is optional. If not present LGWR
will assume its role.
System Monitor (SMON)

Performs instance recovery at instance startup. It cleans up
temporary segments that are not in use and recovers dead
transactions skipped during a dB crash.
Process Monitor (PMON)

Performs process recovery when a user process fails. It cleans
up the cache and frees resources that the process was using.
It checks the Dnnn and server processes to restart them if they
have failed.
Archiver (ARCH)
Copies the online redo log files to archive storage when they
get full.
Recoverer (RECO)
Resolves the distributed transactions that are pending due to
n/w or system failure. Applicable in a distributed database
scenario.
Dispatcher (Dnnn)
Routes requests from connected user processes to shared
server processes. Also returns response back to user
processes. Applicable in a multi-threaded server configuration.
Atleast one dispatcher process is created for every
communication protocol in use (D000,….., Dnnn)
Lock (LCKn)
Used to lock inter-instances in a Oracle Parallel Server
scenario.
Program Interface
• A software layer between a database application and Oracle

• A mechanism by which a user process communicates with a
server process
• Provides a method of standard communication between any
client tool or application and Oracle
– Formats information requests
– Converts, translates and passes data
– Traps and returns errors
Ex: OCI or SQLLIB, TCP/IP
Oracle Architecture
Session 2
People. Processes. Technology. Results.
www.perotsystems.com Proprietary and confidential. © 2005 Perot Systems. All rights reserved. All registered trademarks are the property of their respective owners. V1.0
Contents
• Data Access
• Data Concurrency & Consistency
• Database Security
• Database Backup & Recovery
• Distributed Processing
Data Access
Oracle meets the general requirements of a DBMS to:

– Adhere to industry accepted standards for a data access
language
– Control and preserve data consistency while manipulating data
– Provide for defining and enforcing rules to maintain integrity of
information
– Provide high performance
Data Access
• SQL
– Simple yet powerful database access language
– Compliant with ANSI/ISO standard SQL data la
• Transactions
– A logical unit of work that comprises one or more SQL
statements, executed by a single user.
Transactions are committed - making permanent changes to
the database
Transactions are rolled back - retracting any of the changes
made by SQL statements
Save points - Large transactions are divided into smaller
parts using intermediate markers
Data Access
• Transactions
– Guarantee consistent changes to data when SQL statements within a
transaction are grouped logically.
– Data in the referenced tables are in a consistent state before and after
the transaction
• PL/SQL
– Procedural language extension to SQL - Combines ease & flexibility of
SQL with the procedural functionality of a structured programming
language
– Defined and stored in compiled form, centrally in a database
Stored Procedures Functions
Packages Database triggers
Data Access
• Data Integrity
– Guarantees that data adheres to certain business rules as
determined by the application developer or the database
administrator
– Achieved using
Integrity Constraints
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
KEYS
Database Triggers
Data Concurrency & Consistency
Oracle has software mechanisms to fulfill the following:

– Data must be read and modified in a consistent fashion
– Data concurrency of a multi-user system must be maximized
– Provide high performance
Data Concurrency & Consistency
• Concurrency
– Simultaneous access of the same data in the database, by
many users causing data integrity issues.
– Concurrency is controlled using
Read Consistency
Rollback segments
Read-only transactions
Locking
Automatic Locking
Manual Locking
Database Security
Oracle has security features that control how a database is

accessed and used:
– Prevent unauthorized database access
– Prevent unauthorized access to schema objects
– Control disk usage
– control system resource usage
– audit user actions
Database Security
Database security can be classified into:

– System Security
valid user name and password
amount of disk space available to the objects of a user
resource limits for a user
– Data Security
Users, their access to various schema objects and specific
actions allowed on the schema objects
Actions to be audited for each schema object
Database Security
Security Mechanisms
– Database users & Schemas
actions
tablespace quotas
system resource limits
– privileges
system privileges
object privileges
granting privileges
– storage settings and quotas
Default tablespace
Temporary tablespace
Tablespace quotas
Database Security
Security Mechanisms
– roles
– profiles & resource limits
number of concurrent sessions
CPU processing time
amount of logical I/O
amount of idle time for a user session
amount of connect time for a user session
– auditing
statement
privilege
object
Database Backup & Recovery
One or more database files can be physically damaged as a

result of disk failure. Hence backup of the database is
important.
Types of backup:
– Full backup
Done when the database is closed and unavailable for use
– Partial backup
Done to backup a part of the database
In every database system, the possibility of a system or

hardware failure always exists. Hence recovery is important.
Types of failures:
– User Error
– Statement and process failure
– Instance failure
– media failure
Structures used for Recovery:
– The Redo Log
– Control files
– Rollback Segments
Recovery Steps
– Rolling Forward
– Rolling Back
Distributed Processing
Distributed processing uses more than one processor to

divide the processing for a set of related jobs. This improves
the performance and capabilities of the system as a whole.
Oracle uses its Client/Server architecture to achieve this.

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Oracle Arthitecture

Last Reviewed By : Bhagavn/Sourajit Seth,Bangalore

People. Processes. Technology. Results.

• Introduction to Oracle Server

• Open, comprehensive and integrated approach to information

• Consists of a database and an instance

• A Data model is a conceptual representation of data

• A data model visually represents the nature of data, business

• Logical Data modeling

• Physical Data modeling

• A Relationship represents an association between two or more entities.

• Relationship types: One-to-One, One-to-Many, Many-to-Many

• In relational database design, the process of organizing data to

• Normalization is the process of removing redundant data from your

• Well normalized data makes programming (relatively) easy, and works

• First Normal form:

• Second Normal Form:

• Third Normal Form:

• When a database is started, a system global area (SGA)is

• Schema is a collection of objects

Redo Log files

• Contains data about data

The architectural features discussed in this session is to

Topics covered here are:

Oracle creates and uses memory structures to complete

Basic Memory Structures associated with Oracle:

Database Buffer Cache

• Memory buffer that contains data and control information of a

• A process is a ‘thread of control’ or mechanism in an

• Also called ‘job’ or ‘task’

• Oracle has two general types of processes:

• Created when a user runs an application program.

• Maintained to execute the software code of an application

• User process manages communication with the server

• Called by other processes to perform functions on behalf of

Database Writer (DBWR)

Log Writer (LGWR)

System Monitor (SMON)

Process Monitor (PMON)

• A software layer between a database application and Oracle

People. Processes. Technology. Results.

Oracle meets the general requirements of a DBMS to:

Oracle has software mechanisms to fulfill the following:

Oracle has security features that control how a database is

Database security can be classified into:

One or more database files can be physically damaged as a

In every database system, the possibility of a system or

Distributed processing uses more than one processor to

Oracle uses its Client/Server architecture to achieve this.

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