Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coecients

Second-Order Homogeneous DE: ay + by + cy = 0 Characteristic Equation: am2 + bm + c = 0 Case 1: Distinct Roots (m1 = m2 ) y = c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x

Case 2: Repeated Roots (m1 = m2 ) y = c1 em1 x + c2 xem1 x

Case 3: Conjugate Complex Roots (m1 = + i and m2 = i ) y = c1 ex cos x + c2 ex sin x (=0)

n-order Homogeneous DE: an y n + an1 y n1 + + a2 y + a1 y + a0 y = 0 Characteristic Equation: an mn + an1 mn1 + + a2 m2 + a1 m + a0 = 0

Case 1: Roots are real and distinct: y = c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x + + cn emn x

Case 2: m1 is a root of multiplicity k: y = c1 em1 x + c2 xem1 x + c3 x2 em1 x + + ck xk1 em1 x

Case 3: Complex Roots of Multiplicity k:

Linear Combination of 2k Linearly Independent Solutions

ek cosx, xek cosx, x2 ek cosx, . . . , xk1 ek cosx ek sinx, xek sinx, x2 ek sinx, . . . , xk1 ek sinx