Overview: Molecule of Life

Ch 5: Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules All living things are made up of 4 classes of large biological molecules (the big 4): carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Small organic cell combine to make larger molecules Marcromolecules- large molecules composed of thousands covalently connected atoms Molecular structure and function inseparable 5.1 marcromolecules are polymers, built from monomers 5.2 carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material 5.3 lipids are diverse group of hydrophobic material 5.4 proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions 5.5 nucleic acid store, transmit, and help express hereditary information Polymer- long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks The small building-blocks are called monomer 3 of 4 classes of lifes organic molecules are polymers -Carbohydrates -Proteins -Nucleic acids Dehydration reaction occurs when 2 monomers bond together through threw loss of water Polymers break apart to monomers by hydrolysis, reactions that is reverse of dehydration Enzymes are macromolecules that speed up reaction Each cell has thousands of different macromolecules Macromolecules vary with cells, vary more with a species, vary much more between species Immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers

Key Concepts

C 5.1: Macromolecules are polymers built from monomers

Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers

Diversity of Polymers

C 5.2: Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material

Sugars aldose

Carbohydrates include sugars and polymers of sugars Simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharide, or single sugars Carbohydrate molecules are polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks Monosaccharide have molecular formula that are usually multiples of CH2O Glucose (C6H12O6) is most common monosaccharide Monocc are classified by -locations of carbonyl group (as aldose or ketose) - number of carbons in carbon skeleton Though written as linear skeleton, sugars form rings Monocc serve as major fuel for cells as raw material for building molecules Disaccharide forms as dehydration reaction joins 2 monocc through a glycosidic linkage
1-4 glycosidic linkage

ketoses

glucose glucose (a) dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose

maltose

1-2 glycosidic linkage glucose fructose (b) dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose sucrose

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides, polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles Structure and function of polyscc are determined by sugar monomers and position of glycosidic linkage - Storage- starch (plants) - Storage- glycogen (animals) - Structure- cellulose (plants) - Structure- chitin (insect and fungi) Storage Polysaccharides I Starch, storage polyscc of plants, consists entirely or glucose monomers Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids Glycogen is a storage polyscc in animals Human and other vertebrates store glycogen in liver and muscle cells The polyscc celluse is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells and formed into microfibrils Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but glycosidic linkage differ based on2 ring forms for glucose: alpha (, helectical) and beta (, straight)

Storage Polysaccharides II

Structural Polyscc I

Starch: 1-4 linkage of glucose monomers cellulose: 1-4 linkage of glucose monomers Structural Polyscc II Chitin is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods Chitin also provides structural support for cell wall in many fungi Lipids are class of large biological molecules that dont form polymers Unifying feature of lipids have little of no affinity to water (hydrophobic) because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form non-polar covalent bonds Important lipids are: - Fats - Phospholipids - Steroids Fats are constructed from glycerol and fatty acids (arent polymers) Glycerol is a 3-C alcohol with and OH on each C Fatty acids consists of a COOH on a long carbon skeleton Fats arent miscible with water because dont readily

C 5.3: Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules

(1) Fats

form H-bonds Fatty acids vary in length(# of C) and in # and location of double bonds Saturated fatty acids have the maximum # of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds Saturated fats made from saturated fatty acids and are solid ate room temp - diet rich in saturated fats may help to cardiovascular disease through plaque zones Unsaturated fats made from unsaturated fatty acids and are liquid at room temp - hydrogenation is process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding H - hydrogenating vegetable oils also create unsaturated fats with trans double bonds Fats.plus Major function of fats is energy storage Human store fat in adipose tissue that also cushions vital organs and insulated body Certain unsaturated fats arent synthesis in body and need outside sources (2) Phospholipids

In a phospholipids, 2 fat acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol 2 fatty acids tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head When phospholipids are added to water they self assemble into a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tail into the interior, this is what makes up the cell membrane Phospholipids are major part of a cell membrane But more than just phospholipids can be found in the membrane -sterols -proteins Steroids are lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton of four fused rings Cholesterol, a major steroid, in a component in animal cell membranes Although essential, high level of cholesterol in blood contribute to cardiovascular disease

(3) Steroids

C 5.4: Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide range of functions

Proteins make up for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells Proteins are polymers constructed from amino acids Proteins functions include structural support, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and defense against foreign substances

 Enzymes are a type of protein that act like a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions Enzymes can form functions repeatedly, functioning like workhorses that carry out processes of life Polypeptides Polypeptides are polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids a protein is a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides Amino acids are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds forming a polypeptide Polypeptides range from a few to more than a thousand monomers Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence or amino acids with a carboxyl at the end (C-terminus) and an amino acid (N- terminus) Sequence of amino acids determine a proteins 3D structure and structure determines its function including its interaction with other molecules

Amino Acid

Four levels of protein structure

Primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids Secondary structure, in most proteins, consists of coils and folds in polypeptide chain Tertiary structure is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups) Quatemary structure results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains Primary structure- sequence of amino acids in a protein, is like the order of letters in a long word Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic info Coil and folds of secondary structure result from hydrogen bonds between the AA units of the backbone Typical secondary structure are a coil ( helix) ad a folded structure ( pleated sheet) Tertiary structure is determined between groups ( not AA) Collagen is a fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptides coiled like a rope Quaternary structure result when 2 or more polypeptide chains form on macromolecule Hemoglobin is a global protein consisting of four polypeptides: 2 alpha and 2 beta chains

Primary Structure

Secondary Structure

Tertiary Structure Quaternary structure

Slight change in primary structure can affect a proteins structure and ability to function Sickle-cell disease: a change in primary structure What determines protein structure? Adding to primary structure, physical and chemical conditions affect structure Altering ph balance, salt concentration, temp, or other environmental factors can cause a protein to unravel Loss of proteins native structure is called denaturation Denatured protein is biologically inactive Hard to see a proteins structure just from its primary structure, and proteins usually go threw several states on their way to a stable structure Chaperonins are protein molecules in charge of properly folding other proteins Scientist use x-ray crystallography to determine a proteins structure Bioinformatics uses computer programs to predict protein structure from amino acid sequence Amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a gene- genes are made of DNA, a nucleic acid 2 types of nucleic acids: - deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - ribonucleic acid (RNA) DNA provides direction for it own replication DNA directs synthesis of -messenger RNA (mRNA) control protein synthesis and AA sequence of polypeptide - Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) forms ribosomes that synthesize polypeptides - Transfer RNA (tRNA) aids rRNA in synthesizing polypeptides

Protein folding in a cell

C 5.5: Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information

The structure of Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are polymers called polynucleotides composed of monomers called nucleotides Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group (nucleotide without he phosphate group is called a nucleoside)

Nucleotide monomers

Two families of nitrogenous bases: - Pyrimidines (C,T,U) have a single six-membered ring - Purines (A,G) have a six-membered ring fused to a five-memebered ring In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribosome; in RNA, the sugar is ribosome Adjacent polymers are joined by covalent bonds that form between the OH group on the 3rd carbon of on mucleotide and the phosphate on the 5th carbon on the next These links are backbones of sugar-phosphate units with nitrogenous bases as appendages Sequence of bases along a DNA or mRNA polymer is unique for each gene DNA - DNA molecules have two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming a double helix - in DNA double helix. Two backbones run in opposite 5 -> 3 directions from each other, and arrangement referred to as antiparallel - on DNA molecule includes many genes - nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up from hydrogen bonds in a complinetary way: - Adeline (A) always with Thymine (T) - Guanine (G) always with Cytosine (C) RNA - usually exists as single polynucleotide chains - In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil (U) so A and U pair - complementary pairing occur in and RNA molecule

Nucleotide polymers

Structure of DNA and RNA molecules

DNA and proteins as tape measures of evolution

Linear sequence in DNA molecules are passed from parent to offspring Two closely related species are more similar in DNA than are more dinstantly species Molecular biology can be used to asses evolutionary kinship Biology 1B 1) list and describe four major classes of molecules 2) describe formation of a glycosidic linkage and distinguish between monosaccharide, disaccharides, and polysaccharides 3) distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fats and between cis and trans fat molecules 4) describe the four levels of protein structure 5) distinguish between following pairs: pyrimidine and purine, nucleotide and nucleoside, ribosome and deoxyribose, and the 5 end and the 3 end of a nucleotide

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