Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Persons with disabilities may request this information be prepared and supplied in alternate forms by calling the WSDOT ADA Accommodation Hotline collect (206) 389-2839. Persons with hearing impairments may access WA State Telecommunications Relay Service at TT 1-800-833-6388, Tele-Braille 1-800-833-6385, or Voice 1-800-833-6384, and ask to be connected to (360) 705-7097.
Engineering Publications
Washington State Department of Transportation PO Box 47408 Olympia, WA 98504-7408 E-mail: willisr@wsdot.wa.gov Phone: (360) 705-7430 Fax: (360) 705-6861 http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/fasc/EngineeringPublications/
Foreword
This manual has been prepared to provide Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) bridge design engineers with a guide to the design criteria, analysis methods, and detailing procedures for the preparation of highway bridge and structure construction plans, specifications, and estimates. It is not intended to be a textbook on structural engineering. It is a guide to acceptable WSDOT practice. This manual does not cover all conceivable problems that may arise, but is intended to be sufficiently comprehensive to, along with sound engineering judgment, provide a safe guide for bridge engineering. A thorough knowledge of the contents of this manual is essential for a high degree of efficiency in the engineering of WSDOT highway structures. This loose leaf form of this manual facilitates modifications and additions. New provisions and revisions will be issued from time to time to keep this guide current. Suggestions for improvement and updating the manual are always welcome. All manual modifications must be approved by the Bridge Design Engineer.
__________________________________________ M. MYINT LWIN Bridge and Structures Engineer Washington State Department of Transportation
V:BDM1
September 1993
1.1.4
1.3 1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.6
1.4 1.4.1
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Contents
1 1 1 1.5-1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1.6-1 1 1 1 1 1 1.99-1
Final Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Coordination With Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Technical Design Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bridge Design Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preliminary Design Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Final Design Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Breakdown of Project Man-Hours Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Estimate Design Time Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Monthly Project Progress Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guidelines for Bridge Site Visits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bridge Rehabilitation Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bridge Widenings and Seismic Retrofits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rail and Minor Expansion Joint Retrofits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bridge Demolition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A Design Aids 1.3-A1 Standard Design Criteria Form 1.3-A2 Exceptions to the Standard Design Criteria Form 1.3-A3 Design Completed Checklist 1.3-A4 Job File Table of Contents 1.3-A5 Office Time Report 1.3-A6 Not Included in Bridge Quantities List 1.3-A7 Special Provisions Checklist 1.5-A1 Breakdown of Project Manhours Required Form 1.5-A2 Monthly Project Progress Report Form
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel 1.1 1.1.1 Manual Description Purpose
This manual is intended to be a guide for Bridge Designers and others involved with bridge design for the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT). It contains design details and methods that have been standardized and it interprets the intent of specifications. It is not intended to govern design in unusual situations nor to unduly inhibit the designer in the exercise of engineering judgment. There is no substitute for good judgment. The following axioms are given as a reminder that simple things make a big difference. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Gravity always works if something is not supported, it will fall. A chain reaction will cause small failures to become big failures, unless alternate load paths are available in the structure (i.e., progressive collapse). Small errors, such as a drafting error or a misplaced decimal, can cause large failures. Vigilance is needed to avoid small errors. This applies to construction inspection as well as in the design phase. A construction job should be run by one person with authority, not a committee. It has been said that a camel is a horse designed and built by a committee. High quality craftsmanship must be provided by everyone. An unbuildable design is not buildable. An obvious fact often overlooked by the architect or structural designer. Think about how forms will be built, then removed if necessary. There is no foolproof design. The best way to ensure a failure is to disregard or ignore lessons from past failures.
Manual Description
1.1.2
Specifications
The AASHTO publications Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and LRFD Bridge Design Specifications are the basic documents guiding the design of highway bridges and structures. This WSDOT Bridge Design Manual is intended to supplement AASHTO and other specifications by providing additional direction, design aids, examples, and information on office practices. Where conflicts exist between this manual and the AASHTO Standard Specifications, this manual will control. When a conflict exists that is not resolved within the manual, further guidance shall be obtained from the Bridge Design Engineer or his representative. The AASHTO publications are not duplicated in this manual. Appropriate specifications and other references are listed in Section 1.99.
1.1.3
Format
A. General The Bridge Design Manual consists of two volumes with each chapter organized as follows: Criteria or other information Appendix A (printed on yellow paper) Design Aids Appendix B (printed on salmon paper) Design Examples
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Manual Description
10. Detailing Practice 11. Quantities 12. Construction Costs 13. Construction Specifications 14. Inspection and Rating C. Numbering System 1. The numbering system for the criteria consists of a set of numbers followed by letters as required to designate individual subjects. This format is similar to that used by AASHTO. Example: 5.0 5.4 5.4.2 Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Box Girder Bridges Girder C. Shear Resistance 1. The Shear Diagram a. Shear Reinforcement (1) Placement 2. Numbering of Sheets Each section starts a new page numbering sequence. The page numbers are located in the lower outside corners and begin with the chapter number, followed by the section number, then a sequential page number. Example: 5.4-1, 5.4-2, etc. (Chapter) (Section) (Subsection)
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Manual Description
Appendices are included to provide the designer with design aids (Appendix A) and examples (Appendix B). Design aids are generally standard in nature, whereas examples are modified to meet specific job requirements. An appendix is numbered using the chapter followed by section number and then a hyphen and the letter of the appendix followed by consecutive numbers. Example: 5.4-A1 (Box Girder Bridges) designates a design aid required or useful to accomplish the work described in Chapter 5, Section 4.
4.
Numbering of Tables and Figures Tables and figures shall be numbered using the chapter, section, subsection in which they are located, and then a hyphen followed by consecutive numbers.
Example: Figure 5.4.2-1 is the first figure found in Chapter 5, section 4, subsection 2.
1.1.4
Revisions
A. Manual Updates The Bridge Design Manual will change as new material is added and as criteria and specifications change. Revisions and new material will be issued with a Publications Transmittal Form. The form will have a revision number and remarks or special instructions regarding the sheets. The revision number shall be entered on the Record of Revision sheet in this manual. This allows the user to verify that the manual is up to date. B. Bridge Design Instruction Special instructions regarding interpretation of criteria or other policy statements may be issued using a Bridge Design Instruction (BDI). The BDI will be transmitted in the same manner as outlined above for manual revisions. The BDI should be inserted in the appropriate place in the manual and remains in effect until the expiration date shown or until superseded by a revision to the manual. A sample BDI is shown on Figure 1.1.4-1.
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February 1997
BRIDGE DESIGN INSTRUCTION 5.1.1 CHAPTER 5 SUBJECT: ACTION: Use of Concrete Class 5000 and Class 4000D Place this instruction in your manual and note the instruction number in your Record of Manual Revisions, 1.1.4. There is confusion regarding the availability of Concrete Class 5000. This class of concrete is available within a 30-mile radius of Seattle, Spokane and Vancouver, Washington. Available means that there are concrete suppliers in these urban areas capable of supplying Concrete Class 5000 in accordance with WSDOT specifications. Outside this 30-mile radius (or near the fringe), the concrete suppliers generally do not have the quality control procedures and expertise to supply this higher strength concrete. The Construction Office or Materials Lab should be contacted for availability for project sites outside these areas. In general, Class 4000D Concrete would be specified for bridge roadway decks outside this 30 mile radius. Class 4000D Concrete specifications require a 14-day wet cure and flyash as an additive. Typically, Class 4000 Concrete would be specified for other bridge concrete members above ground. This mix was developed by the Materials Lab to be at least as durable as Class 5000 Concrete. By utilizing the above guidelines, WSDOT will receive the most durable bridge deck at the least cost.
TEXT
Figure 1.1.4-1
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Manual Description
Revision Number
Entry Date
By (Initial)
Revision Number
Entry Date
By (Initial)
Revision Number
Entry Date
By (Initial)
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information 1.2 1.2.1 Bridge and Structures Office Organization General
The document defining the responsibilities for bridge design within the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) is the Organization Handbook. In that document, the responsibilities of the Bridge and Structures Office are stated as follows: Provides structural engineering services for the department. Provides technical advice and assistance to other governmental agencies on such matters. The WSDOT Design Manual states the following: Bridge design is the responsibility of the Bridge and Structures Office in Olympia. Any design authorized to be performed at the regional level is subject to review and approval by the Bridge and Structures Office.
1.2.2
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information 1.2.3 Design Unit Responsibilities and Expertise
The following is an updated summary of design responsibilities/expertise within the Bridge Design Section. Contact the unit manager for the name of the appropriate staff expert for the needed specialty. Unit Manager K. N. Kirker Responsibility/Expertise Expansion Joint Modifications Retaining Walls (including MSE, Tie-Back, and Soil Nail) Seismic Retrofit Noise Walls Bridge Traffic Barriers Standard Plans for Prestressed Concrete Coast Guard Permits Cost Estimates Standard Plans (other than Prestressed Concrete) Bridge Design Manual Sign Supports, Light Standards, Traffic Signal Supports Repairs to Damaged Prestressed Girder Bridges Floating Bridges Special Structures
Y. A. Mhatre
R. T. Shaefer
J. A. VanLund P. T. Clarke
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information 1.3 1.3.0 Design Procedures and Processes
Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) Process for WSDOT Bridge Designs General
A. The QA/QC process for bridge designs is a critical element of quality structure plan preparation. The overall goals of the structural design process are: The structural design maximizes the safety of the traveling public and is in accordance with State Law. The structural design is in accordance with the WSDOT Bridge Design Manual, AASHTO Bridge Design Specifications, good structural engineering practice, and geometric criteria provided by the Region. Designed structures are durable, low-maintenance, and inspectable. The structural design facilitates constructibility and minimizes overall construction costs, while exhibiting a pleasing architectural style. The structural design contract documents are produced in accordance with customers needs (schedule, construction staging, and available program funding). Structural design costs are minimized. A well-organized and readable structure calculation record is produced. Plan quality is maximized. Design process allows for change, innovation, and continuous improvement. The overall goals are listed in order of importance. If there is a conflict between goals, the more important goal takes precedence. The design unit manager determines project assignments and the QC/QA process to be used in preparation of the structural design. The intent of the QC/QA process is to facilitate production efficiency and cost-effectiveness while assuring the structural integrity of the design and maximizing the quality of the structure contract documents.
1.3.1
Design/Check Procedures
A. PS&E Prepared by WSDOT Bridge and Structures Office 1. Design Team The design team, consisting of the Designer(s), Checker(s), Structural Detailer(s), and Specification and Estimate engineer are responsible for preparing a set of contractible, clear, and concise structural contract documents by the scheduled date and within the workforce hours allotted for the project. On large projects, the design unit manager may assign a designer additional duties as a Design Team Leader to assist the manager in planning, coordinating, and monitoring the activities of the design team. In this case, the team leader would also coordinate with the Region and the Geotechnical Branch. The QC/QA process will likely vary depending on the type and complexity of the structure being designed, and the experience level of the design team members. More supervision, review, and checking are required when the design team members are less experienced. In general, it is good QC/QA practice to have some experienced members on each design team. All design team members should have the opportunity to provide input for maximizing the quality of the design being produced.
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g.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information Design Procedures and Processes
(2) For designs checked by an inexperienced checker, a more thorough check should be performed by the checker to enhance his/her understanding of structural design. In this case, the design unit manager should provide the checker with a design example. (3) Revision of design calculations, if required, is the responsibility of the designer. b. Structural Plans (1) The checkers plan review comments are recorded on the structural plans, including details and bar lists, and returned to the designer for consideration. If the checkers comments are not incorporated, the designer should provide justification for not doing so. If there is a difference of opinion that cannot be resolved between the designer and checker, the unit manager shall resolve the issue. (2) If assigned by the design unit manager, the checker shall perform a complete check of the geometry using CADD, hand calculations, or a geometric program. (3) Revision of plans, if required, is the responsibility of the designer. 4. Structural Detailer Responsibility The structural detailer is responsible for the structural plan sheets. The plans shall be neat, correct, and easy to follow and drawn to scale. The structural detailer may also assist the designer and design checker in such areas as determining control dimensions and elevations, geometry, and calculating quantities. Some detailing basics and principles: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Refer to BDM, Chapter 10, for detailing practices. Provide necessary and adequate information. Try to avoid repetition of information. Avoid placing too much information into any one sheet. Plan sheets should detailed in a consistent manner and follow accepted detailing practices. Provide clear and separate detail of structural geometrics. Use clear detailing such as stand alone cross sections or a framing plan to define the structure. Avoid reinforcing steel congestion. Check reinforcement detail for consistency. Beware of common mistakes about placement of stirrups and ties (such as: stirrups too short, effect of skew neglected, epoxy coating not considered, etc.). Check splice location and detail, and welding locations. Use cross references properly. Use correct and consistent terminology. For example, the designation of Sections, Views, and Details. Check for proper grammar and spelling. On multiple bridge contracts, the structural detailing of all bridges within the contract shall be coordinated to maximize consistency of detailing from bridge to bridge. Extra effort will be required to assure uniformity of details, particularly if multiple design units and/or consultants are involved in preparing bridge plans. This is a critical element of good quality bridge plans.
h. i. j. k.
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Refer to the Bridge Book of Knowledge for current special features and details used on other projects.
Specialist Responsibility There are currently four specialist positions in the Bridge and Structures Office. There is a specialist assigned to each of the three design sections and one to the Bridge Preservation Section. The primary responsibility of the specialist is to act as a knowledge resource for this office. The Specialists maintain an active knowledge of their specialty area along with a current file of products and design procedures. Proactive industry contacts are maintained by the Specialists. Specialists also provide training in their area of specialty. As contract plans are prepared by other designers, the Specialists are expected to review and initial drawings covered by their specialty area. Plans produced directly by Specialists in their specialty area should be prepared with their own stamp and signature. Specialists also assist the Bridge Engineer in reviewing and voting on amendments to AASHTO specifications. They also are responsible for keeping their respective chapters of the Bridge Design Manual up to date. The secondary responsibility of the Specialist is to serve as design section supervisor when the supervisor is absent. There are three specialty areas in the Design Section: Concrete, Expansion Joints and Bearings, and Steel.
6.
Design Unit Technical Responsibilities Each Design Unit is responsible for maintaining a resource of technical knowledge and leadership. As described in the previous Section (5.), each unit has a Design Specialist (Concrete, Steel, Expansion Joints and Bearings). In addition, each Design Unit maintains a resource of technical knowledge in several technical areas. Following, is a list of all technical subjects for which a resource is maintained: Coast Guard Permits Cost Estimates Bridge Special Provisions Sign Supports, Light Standards, Traffic Signal Supports Repairs to Damaged Prestressed Girders Expansion Joint Modifications Retaining Walls (Including MSE, Tie-Back, and Soil Nail) Seismic Retrofit Noise Walls Traffic Barrier Retrofits/Standards Bridge Standard Plans (BDM) The resource/leadership responsibility for these technical areas does not necessarily include responsibility for performing all of the work relating to the technical area. For many of the technical areas, the Design Unit acts as a resource for the technical area, only, and as a contact for industry and stakeholders.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information Design Procedures and Processes
Addendums are created to augment the original advertised document to make sure all Contractors are advised prior to Bid Openings. These Addendums are coordinated with the Region and OSC Plans. The S&E Engineer attends the award meetings to justify bids and advise whether or not to award the contract. Other responsibilities included are: Special Provisions and Estimates for Change Order Work Cost estimates in the scoping stage of a project Working Day information during Stage Construction planning Initiates/Coordinates Amendment and GSP Updates Maintains BSP Library 8. Design Unit Manager Responsibility a. b. The design unit manager is responsible to the Bridge Design Engineer for the timely completion and quality of the bridge plans. The design unit manager works closely with the design team (designer, checker, and structural detailer) during the design and plan preparation phases to help avoid major changes late in the design process. Activities during the course of design include: (1) Evaluate the complexity of the project and the designers skill and classification level to deliver the project in a timely manner. Determine both the degree of supervision necessary for the designer and the amount of checking that will be required by the checker. (2) Assist the design team in defining the scope of the project, identifying the tasks to be accomplished, developing a project work plan and schedule, and assigning resources to achieve delivery of the project. (3) Review and approve design criteria before start of design. (4) Help lead designer conduct face-to-face project meetings, such as: project kick-off and wrap-up meetings with Region, geotechnical staff, bridge construction, and consultants to resolve outstanding issues. (5) Assist the design team with planning, anticipating possible problems, collectively identifying solutions, and facilitating timely delivery of needed information, such as geometrics, hydraulics, foundation information, etc. (6) Interact with design team regularly to discuss progress, problems, schedule, analysis techniques, constructibility and design issues. Always encourage forward thinking, innovative ideas and suggestions for quality improvement. (7) Arrange for and provide the necessary resources and tools for the design team to do the job right the first time. Offer assistance to help resolve questions or problems. (8) Help document and disseminate information on special features and lessons learned for the benefit of others and future projects.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information Design Procedures and Processes
(9) Mentor and train designers and detailers on state-of-the-art practices and through the assignment of a variety of structure types. c. The design unit manager works closely with the design team during the plan review phase. Review efforts should concentrate on reviewing the completed plan details and design calculations for completeness and for agreement with office criteria and practices. Review the following periodically and at the end of the project: (1) Design Criteria Seismic a value Foundation report recommendations, selection of alternates Deviations from AASHTO, BDM, Documentation (2) Design Time d. Review designers estimated time to complete the project. Plan resource allocation to complete the project to meet the scheduled Ad Date. Monitor monthly time spent on the project. Prepare and submit to the Bridge Projects Engineer monthly time reports for each project. Estimate time remaining to complete project, percent completed, and whether project is on or behind schedule. Arrange and plan resources to ensure a timely delivery of the project within the estimated time to complete the project. Advise Region of project scope and cost-creep. Use quarterly status reports to update Region and Bridge Projects Engineer. Use appropriate computer scheduling software or other means to monitor time usage and to allocate resources and to plan projects. Fill out Office Time Report (see Appendix 1.3-A5). Review of constructibility. Any problems unique to the project? Check the final plans for the following: (1) Scan the job file for unusual items relating to geometrics, hydraulics, geotechnical, environmental, etc. (2) Overall check/review of sheet #1, the bridge layout for: Consistency especially for multiple bridge project Missing information (3) Check footing layout for conformance to Bridge Plan and for adequacy of information given. Generally, the field personnel should be given enough information to layout the footings on the ground without referring to any other sheets. Details should be clear, precise, and dimensions tied to base reference such as survey line or defined center line of bridge. (4) Check the sequence of the plan sheets. They should adhere to the following order: layout, footing layout, substructures, superstructures, miscellaneous details, barriers, and bar list. Also check for appropriateness of the titles.
e. f. g. h. i.
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(5) Check overall dimensions and elevations, spot check for compatibility. For example, check compatibility between superstructures and substructure. Also spot check bar marks. (6) Use ones training, common sense, and experience to size-up structural dimensions and reinforcement, etc., for structural adequacy. When in doubt, prepare for a line of questioning to the designer/checker. j. 9. Stamp and seal the plans.
Bridge Design Engineers Responsibilities The Bridge Design Engineer is the coach, mentor, and facilitator for the WSDOT QC/QA Bridge Design Process. The leadership and support provided by this position is a major influence in assuring bridge design quality for structural designs performed by both WSDOT and consultants. The following summarizes the responsibilities of the Bridge Design Engineer relative to QC/QA: a. When the structural contract plans are sealed by the Bridge Design Engineer, a structural/ constructibility review of the plans is performed. This is a quality assurance (QA) function as well as meeting the responsible charge requirements of the laws relating to Professional Engineers. Review and approve the Preliminary Bridge Plans. The primary focus for this responsibility is to assure that the most cost-effective and appropriate structure type is selected for a particular bridge site. Participate in coordination, scheduling, and project-related discussions with stakeholders, customers, and outside agencies relating to major structural design issues. Facilitate resolution of major project design issues. Review unique project special provisions and major Standard Specification modifications relating to structures. Facilitate partnerships between WSDOT, consultant, and construction industry stakeholders to facilitate design quality. Encourage designer creativity and innovation. Exercise leadership and direction for maintaining a progressive and up to date Bridge Design Manual. Create an open and supportive office environment in which Design Section staff are empowered to do high quality structural design work.
b.
c. d. e. f. g. h. i.
10. General Bridge Plan Signature Policy The sealing and signature of bridge plans is an important element of the Bridge QC/QA process. It signifies review and responsible charge of the design and details represented in the plans. The Bridge and Structures Office intends to have at least one Licensed Structural Engineer seal and sign each contract plan sheet (except the bar list). For major projects, the Design Unit Manager and the Bridge Design Engineer will typically review, seal, and sign the bridge plans. For routine bridge designs and transportation structure designs, the Design Unit Manager (SE License) and designer with a Civil Engineer License will typically review, seal, and sign the contract plans (except the bar list).
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information Design Procedures and Processes
Review is made of the Preliminary Plan first and the PS&E second. Comments are treated as advisory, although major structural problems must be corrected. An engineer from the county, city, or consultant may contact the reviewer to discuss the comments.
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Preliminary design calculations and drawings unless used in the final design. Test hole logs. Quantity calculations.
E. Upon completion of the design work, fill out a Design Completed Checklist (Form 230-035). (See Appendix 1.3-A3.)
1.3.3
1.3.4
Addenda
Plan or specification revisions during the advertising period require an addendum. The Bridge Projects Engineer will evaluate the need for the addendum after consultation with the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer, Region, and the Plans Branch. The Bridge Design Engineer or the design unit manager must initial all addenda. For addenda to contract plans, obtain the original drawing from the Bridge Project Unit. Use shading to mark all changes (except deletions) and place a revision note at the bottom of the sheet (Region and Plans Branch jointly determine addendum date) and a description of the change. Return the original and an 11 17 reduced copy to the Bridge Project Unit who will submit the reduced copy to the Plans Branch for processing. See Chapter 10, Section 10.1.1I, for additional information. For changes to specifications, submit a copy of the page with the change to the Bridge S&E Unit for processing.
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3.
The following items pertain only to post-tensioning shop plans: j. k. l. Center of gravity of post-tensioning (P/T) strands matches contract plans. Seating loss. Friction losses.
m. Time-dependent losses. n. o. Steel stress diagram. Elongation of strands in all tendons. These will be compared with the field measurements. (See WSDOT Construction Manual.) For curved bridges where the lengths of the exterior webs vary by more than 2 percent, separate elongations should be provided for each web. Anchor plate size. If nonstandard, check bearing stress on concrete and flexural stress in plate material. Test data must be on file to substantiate the adequacy of internal type anchorages.
p.
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w. Geometric details such as size of blockouts. Note: Manufacturers details may vary slightly from contract plan requirements but must be structurally adequate and reasonable. 4. Items Not Requiring Check: a. b. 5. Quantities in bill of materials. Length dimensions not shown on Contract Plans except for spot checking.
Project Engineers Copy If one copy has been marked by the Project Engineer (in green), do not use this as the office copy. Transfer his corrections, if pertinent, to the office copy using red pencil.
6.
Marking Copies When finished, mark the office copy with one of three categories (in red pencil, lower right corner). a. APPD (Approved, No Corrections required.) b. AAN (Approved as noted minor corrections only. Do not place written questions on an approved as noted sheet.) c. RFC (Return for correction major corrections are required followed by resubmittal.) If in doubt between AAN and RFC, check with the unit manager. An acceptable detail may be shown in red. Mark the plans Approved-As-Noted provided that the detail is clearly noted Suggested Correction Otherwise Revise and Resubmit. Do not mark the other copies. This will be done in the Construction Support Unit. The reviewer may be asked to proof the other copies after they have been marked. Notify Project Engineer of any approved changes to the contract plans. Also notify the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer, who may have to approve a change order and provide justification for the change order.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information Design Procedures and Processes
If problems are encountered which may cause a delay in the checking of the shop plans or completion of the contract, notify the unit manager and the Construction Support Unit. Return all shop drawings and Contract Plans to the Construction Support unit when checking is completed. Include a list of any deviations from the Contract Plans which are allowed and a list of any disagreements with the Project Engineers comments (regardless of how minor they may be). If deviations from the Contract Plans are to be allowed, a Change Order may be required. Alert the Construction Support Unit so that their transmittal letter may inform the Region and the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer. B. Sign Structure, Signal, and Illumination Shop Plans In addition to those instructions described under Bridge Shop Plans, the following instructions apply: 1. 2. Review the shop plans to ensure that the pole sizes conform to the Contract Plans. Determine if fabricator has supplied plans for each pole or type of pole called for in the contract. The Project Engineers copy may show shaft lengths where not shown on Contract Plans or whether a change from Contract Plans is required. Manufacturers details may vary slightly from contract plan requirements, but must be structurally adequate to be acceptable.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information 1.3.7 Design Procedures and Processes
SR # _____ County ____________________ CS # _____ Bridge Name _____________________________________ Bridge # _______________ Contract # ________________ Contents ________________________________________ Designed by _____________ Checked by _____________ Archive Box # _____________________ Vol. # _______
Figure 1
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information 1.4 Coordination With Other Divisions and Agencies
1.4.1
1.4.2
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information 1.5 1.5.1 Bridge Design Scheduling General
The Bridge Projects Engineer is responsible for scheduling and monitoring the progress of projects. The Bridge Design Schedule is used to track the progress of a project and is updated monthly. A typical project would involve the following steps: A. Regions advise Bridge and Structures Office of an upcoming project. B. The Bridge Projects Unit estimates design time required for preliminary plans, design, and S&E (see Section 1.5.2). C. The project is entered into the Bridge Design Schedule with start and due dates for site data preliminary plan, project design, PS&E, and the ad date. D. Bridge site data received. E. Preliminary design started. F. Final Design Started Designer estimates time required for final plans (see Section 1.5.3). G. Monthly Schedule Update Each Design Unit Supervisor turns in to the Bridge Scheduling Engineer an updated copy of the Bridge Design Schedule showing man-months used last month, man-months used to date, percentage complete, and adjustments required in the schedule. The report is due by the fourth working day of the month. H. Project turned in to S&E unit.
1.5.2
1.5.3
August 1998
1.5-1
Completion percentages for Activities 4, 5, and 7 are approximately 5 percent of the project total. Activity 6 is separate from design time required by needs to be included to determine the completion date. Activities 8 and 9 are estimates dependant on individual circumstances. Note: Activities 1 through 5 and Activity 7 make up 100 percent of the design time required to complete the job. The individual activities include the specific items as follows under each major activity. Activity No. 1 Design Includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Activity No. 2 Project coordination. Geometric computations. Design calculations (including time for Load Rating). Complete check of all plan sheets by the designer. Supervisor time related to design (estimate 10 percent of design time).
Design Check As defined in Section 1.3.1A3 Includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. Checking design at maximum stress locations. Checking major items on the drawings, including geometrics. Additional checking required. Supervisor time related to checking (estimate 10 percent of design check time).
1.5-2
August 1998
Activity No. 6
S&E Includes: 1. 2. Preparing special provisions checklist. Assemble backup data covering any unusual feature.
Activity No. 7
Activity No. 8
Activity No. 9
See Figures 1.5.2-1 and 2 for sample Bar Chart problem and corresponding progress report form. C. Monthly Project Progress Report The designer or design team leader is responsible for determining monthly project progress and reporting the results to the Unit Supervisor. In the past, WSDOT Form 232-004 (see Appendix 1.5-A2) was used to monitor the progress of the project design. The Design Unit Supervisor is required to update a copy of the bridge design schedule each month using information from the designer or design team leader. Any discrepancies between actual progress and the project schedule must be determined. Adjustments, either by revising the workforce assigned to the project, hours assigned to activities or, the project schedule, should be made accordingly. Man-hours Used to Date indicates the total number of hours used for each activity during the current period added to the total shown on the last report done. % of Total Time Used is the number of hours used for the activity divided by the current number of hours assigned to the activity from the Current Estimate of Time to Complete on Form 232-003. % of Activity Complete and % of Total Project Complete are estimates. Some activities will probably be ahead of schedule, some behind, and others on schedule. It is here that major discrepancies should be noticed and adjustments made as described above.
August 1998
1.5-3
The designer may use a computer spreadsheet, to track the progress of the project and as an aid in evaluating the percent complete. Other tools include using an Excel spreadsheet listing bridge sheet plans by title, bridge sheet number, percent design complete, percent design check, percent plan details completed, and percent plan details checked. A spreadsheet with this data allows the designer or design team leader to rapidly determine percent of project completion and where resources need to be allocated to complete the project on schedule.
P:DP/BDM1 9807-0802
1.5-4
August 1998
Designed By
Design Checked By
Layout By
Completion Percentage
(Man Hours)
Activity No.
(Man Hours)
Bar Chart
Activity
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9
August 1998
87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321
Subtotals
100%
Remarks
Figure 1.5.2-1
1.5-5
1.5-6
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria General Information 1.6 Guidelines for Bridge Site Visits
The following guidelines are established to help all staff in determining the need for visiting bridge sites prior to final design. These guidelines should apply to consultants as well as to our own staff. In all cases, the associated region should be made aware of the site visit so that they would have the opportunity to participate. Region participation would be especially useful if a preliminary bridge plan is involved.
1.6.1
Bridge Rehabilitation Projects (excluding rail and minor expansion joint rehabilitation projects)
For this type of bridge project, it is critical that the design team know as much as possible about the bridge that is to be rehabilitated. There is good information regarding the condition of existing bridges at the Bridge Preservation Office (Mottman). As-built drawings and contract documents are also helpful, but may not necessarily be accurate. At least one bridge site visit is necessary for this type of project. In some cases, an in-depth inspection with experienced condition survey inspectors would be appropriate. The decision to perform an in-depth inspection should include the Unit Supervisor, Region, and the Bridge Design Engineer.
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.6.4
New Bridges
Generally, pictures and site information from the region are adequate for most new bridge designs. However, if the new bridge is a replacement for an existing bridge, a site visit is recommended, particularly if the project requires staged removal of the existing bridge and/or staged construction of the new bridge.
1.6.5
Bridge Demolition
If a bridge demolition is required as part of a project, a site visit would help the design team determine if there are unique sit restrictions that could affect the demolition. If unique site restrictions are observed, they should be properly documented, included in the job file and noted on the special provisions checklist. Before making a site visit, the Condition Survey Unit and the region should be contacted to determine if there are any unique site conditions or safety hazards. Proper safety equipment and procedures should always be incorporated into any site visit. When making a site visit, it is important to obtain as much information as possible. Pictures, video records with spoken commentary, field measurements, and field notes are appropriate forms of field information. A written or pictorial record should be made of any
August 1998
1.6-1
observed problems with an existing bridge or obvious site problem. The site visit data would then be incorporated into the job file. This information will be a valuable asset in preparing constructable and cost-effective structural designs. When negotiating with consultants for structural design work, it is important to make appropriate site visits part of the consultantss scope of work.
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Bibliography
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1.99-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A General Information Standard Design Criteria Form
SR
MADE BY
CHECKED BY
DATE
SUPV.
ITEM
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES AASHTO_________TH EDITION, 19___________ INTERIM SPECIFICATION, 19____________(IF USED) STATE OF WASHINGTON, STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD, BRIDGE, AND MUNICIPAL CONSTRUCTION, 19__________ STATE OF WASHINGTON, STANDARD PLANS FOR ROAD, BRIDGE, AND MUNICIPAL CONSTRUCTION WITH REVISIONS TO 19____________ BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL, VOLUME_____________, WITH REVISIONS TO 19___________ OTHER_______________________________________________________________________________________________________ DESIGN BY: LOAD FACTOR____________________________________________________________________________________ WORKING STRESS________________________________________________________________________________
2 3
5 6 7
STEEL REINFORCING BARS: A.A.S.H.T.O. A.A.S.H.T.O. M31 M31 GRADE 60_______________ GRADE 40______________
CONCRETE: F'C = 4000 PSI (CLASS AX) F'C = 3000 PSI (CLASS B) F'C = _________ PSI (LIGHTWEIGHT) DENSITY = ________________ LBS. PER FT.
3
OTHER__________________________________________________________________________________________________
10
MINIMUM CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRAND RELEASE = _______________________________PSI MINIMUM CONCRETE STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS = ________________________________________PSI
11
PIER NO.
1 2 3 4 5 6
August 1998
1.3-A1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A General Information Standard Design Criteria Form
ITEM
12
STEEL STRUCTURES: INDICATE BY SPECIFICATION THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEEL USE A.A.S.H.T.O. A.A.S.H.T.O. A.A.S.H.T.O. A.A.S.H.T.O. A.A.S.H.T.O. OTHER MMMMMROLLERS CASTINGS
13
SPECIAL CRITERIA: SEE FORM ENTITLED EXCEPTIONS TO THE STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA
230-030
1.3-A1-2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A General Information Exceptions to the Standard Design Criteria Form
Project
SR No.
Made By
Check By
Supervisor
Date
August 1998
1.3-A2
August 1998
1.3-A3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A General Information Job File Table of Contents
August 1998
1.3-A4
Start Date: ____________________ Completion Date: _______________ TIME CHARGED Design ____________ Check ____________ Drafting ___________ Review ___________ Total _____________ Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Standard _______________
Start Date: ____________________ Completion Date: _______________ TIME CHARGED Design ____________ Check ____________ Drafting ___________ Review ___________ Total _____________ Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Standard _______________
August 1998
1.3-A5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A General Information Not Included in Bridge Quantities List
The following is a list of items for which the Bridge and Structures Office is relying on the Region to furnish plans, specifications and estimates.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
DOT
Form 230-038 EF Revised 2/97
August 1998
1.3-A6
August 1998
1.3-A7-1
1.3-A7-2
August 1998
August 1998
1.3-A7-3
1.3-A7-4
August 1998
August 1998
1.3-A7-5
1.3-A7-6
August 1998
Appendix A
By
% Completed
Hours Required
By
% Completed
Hours Required
By
% Completed
Hours Required
By
% Completed
Hours Required
1 2
Date Completed
Date Completed
Date Completed
Date Completed
August 1998
Job No.
SR
Project
General Information
Check
Draw
No.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18
19 20 21 22
1.5-A1
General Information
Appendix A
August 1998
Totals
987654321 98765432 987654321 987654321 1 987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 654321098765432 6543210987654321 1 6543210987654321 9 987654321 8765432 987654321 987654321 1 987654321 6543210987654321 654321098765432 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 1 6543210987654321 987654321 98765432 987654321 987654321 1 987654321 6 1 6543210987654321 54321098765432 654321098765432 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 1 6543210987654321
9 987654321 8765432 987654321 987654321 1 987654321 7 76543210987654321 654321098765432 76543210987654321 76543210987654321 76543210987654321 76543210987654321 76543210987654321 76543210987654321 76543210987654321 76543210987654321 76543210987654321 1 76543210987654321
1.5-A2
% of Total Project Complete % of Activity Complete % of Total Time Used
Job No.
7
% of Total Project Complete % of Activity Complete % of Total Time Used Man Hours Used to Date % of Total Project Complete % of Activity Complete % of Total Time Used Man Hours Used to Date
Activity No.
SR
As of
Reference No.
As of
Reference No.
Project
As of
Reference No.
As of
Reference No.
% of Activity Complete
2.2 2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
August 1998
2.0-i
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.4 2.4.1
2.0-ii
August 1998
2.5.3 2.5.4
2.99
Appendix A Design Aids 2.2-A1 Bridge Site Data General 2.2-A2 Bridge Site Data Rehabilitation 2.2-A3 Bridge Site Data Stream Crossings 2.2-A4 Preliminary Plan Checklist 2.3-A1 Bridge Stage Construction Comparison 2.3-A2 Bridge Redundancy Criteria 2.4-A1 Bridge Selection Guide 2.7-A1 Standard Superstructure Elements 2.7-A2 Standard Pier Elements
August 1998
2.0-iii
Contents
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August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Preliminary Design 2.0 2.1 2.1.1 Preliminary Design Preliminary Studies Interdisciplinary Design Studies
As part of the preparation for a major project, an Interdisciplinary Design Team (IDT) may be established by the region. The IDT is composed of members of different expertise and backgrounds, selected from regions, the Service Center, and outside agencies. The IDT members and the support groups serve to give an objective analysis and review of the various design alternatives for the regions project. They contribute ideas and participate in the selection of design alternatives. This work will often culminate in the publication of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Bridge Design Engineers are often asked to be a part of this process, either as a support resource or as a member of the IDT itself.
Preliminary Studies
2.1.2
2.1.3
August 1998
2.1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Preliminary Design 2.1.4 Preliminary Project Recommendations (New Bridges)
Projects that call for a new bridge require that a recommendation for the new structure be prepared. While a region is preparing a design for a project, they will seek assistance from the Bridge and Structures Office by writing an IDC. This request could range from confirmation of construction cost data to consideration of various structure designs or staging alternatives. An IDC to the region will provide recommendations and information. A face to face meeting with the region project staff is recommended.
Preliminary Studies
2.1.5
2.
3. 4. 5.
2.1-2
August 1998
After piers have been located, a memorandum request for a Hydraulics Report should be made to the Olympia Service Center Hydraulics Unit. FHWA expects specific information on scour and backwater on both falsework and permanent piers. The Olympia Service Center Hydraulics Unit will submit a report for inclusion as an appendix to the TS&L study. The Bridge Architect at the Bridge and Structures Office should be consulted early on and throughout the study process Notes to the file should be made documenting the aesthetic requirements and recommendations of the Architect. Cost backup data is needed for any costs used in the TS&L study. FHWA expects TS&L costs based on estimated quantities. This data is to be included in an appendix to the TS&L study. It is a good idea to coordinate the quantities submitted are in a form compatible with the estimators cost breakdown method. B. TS&L Outline The TS&L study should describe the project, the proposed structure, and give reasons why the bridge type, size, and location were selected. 1. Cover, Title Sheet, and Contents These should identify the project and the contents of the TS&L. 2. Photographs There should be enough color photographs to provide the look and feel of the area. The prints should be numbered and labeled and the location indicated on a diagram. 3. Introduction The introduction describes the report and references other reports used to prepare the TS&L study. The following reports should be listed if used. Design Reports and Supplements Environmental Reports Architectural or Visual Assessment Reports Hydraulic Report Geotechnical Reports 4. Project Description The project description is intended to summarize the preferred alternative of the project design so that the TS&L study clearly defines the project. Care should be taken to describe the project adequately but briefly. A vicinity map should be shown. 5. Design Criteria Design criteria states to what code, loading, etc., the bridge will be constructed. Besides the AASHTO specifications and assorted AASHTO guide specifications, other criteria are sometimes used. These criteria should be listed. Examples of this would be the temperature loading used for segmental bridges or areas defined as wetlands.
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2.1-3
Preliminary Studies
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August 1998
Preliminary Plan
2.2.1
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2.2-1
few for most projects. For some smaller projects and most major projects, design alternatives merit development and close evaluation. The process of considering and rejecting design alternatives provides documentation for the preferred alternative. E. Designer Recommendation Once the designer has done a thorough job of evaluating the needs and limitations of the site, analyzed all information and developed and evaluated design alternatives for the project, he should be able to make a recommendation for the optimum solution. Based on this recommendation, the designer should discuss the recommendation with the Bridge Projects Engineer. F. Concept Approval For some projects, the presentation, in E above, to the Bridge Projects Engineer will satisfy the need for concept approval. Large complex projects, projects of unique design, or projects where two or more alternatives appear viable, should be presented to the Bridge Design Engineer for his concurrence before plan development is completed. For unique or complex projects a presentation is made to the Bridge and Structures Office Peer Review Committee. G. Inspection and Maintenance Access In the process developing the Preliminary Plan, the design engineer should consult with the Bridge Preservation Section for input.
2.2.2
Documentation
A. Job File When a memorandum IDC, transmitting site data from the region is received by the Bridge and Structures Office, a job file is created. This official job file serves as a depository for all communications and resource information for the job. Scheduling and time estimates are logged in this file, as well as cost estimates, preliminary quantities, and documentation of all approvals. When the Preliminary Plan is completed, the job file continues to serve a useful purpose as a communications and documentation depository for all pertinent project-related information during the design process. B. Bridge Site Data All Preliminary Plans are developed from site data as submitted by the region. This submittal will consist of a memorandum IDC, and appropriate attachments as specified by Chapter 1110 of the Design Manual. When this information is received, it should be reviewed for completeness so that missing or incomplete information can be noted and requested. C. Request for Preliminary Foundation Data A Request for Preliminary Foundation Data is sent to Geotech Branch to solicit any foundation data that is available at this preliminary stage. The Geotech Branch is provided with approximate dimensions for overall structure length and width, an approximate number of intermediate piers (if applicable), and approximate stations for beginning and end of structure on the alignment. Based on test holes from previous construction in the area, geological maps, and soil surveys. The Materials Lab responds by IDC giving an analysis of what foundation conditions arc likely to be encountered and what types of substructure are best suited for these conditions.
2.2-2
August 1998
Preliminary Plan
2.2.3
August 1998
2.2-3
Preliminary Plan
2.2.4
Permits
A. Coast Guard As outlined in Chapter 240 of the Design Manual, the Bridge and Structures Office is responsible for coordinating and applying for Coast Guard permits for bridges over waterways. This is handled by the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer in the Bridge Projects Unit of the Bridge and Structures Office. A determination of whether a bridge requires a permit is known before the bridge site data is received. Generally, tidal-influenced waterways and waterways used for commercial navigation will require Coast Guard permits. However, some waterways may qualify for an exemption from a permit if certain conditions apply including the exclusion of use by vessels larger than 21 feet long. The
2.2-4
August 1998
process of getting this exemption, from FHWA, not the Coast Guard, is the responsibility of the region. The Coast Guard Liaison Engineer should be asked to check with the region and the Coast Guard to confirm the situation on a case by case basis. For all waterway crossings, the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer is required to initial the Preliminary Plan as to whether a Coast Guard permit or exemption is required. This box regarding Coast Guard permit status is located in the center left margin of the plan. If a permit is required, the permit target date will also be noted. The reduced print, signed by the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer, shall be placed in the job file. The work on developing the permit application should be started such that it is ready to be sent to the Coast Guard eight months before the project ad date. The Coast Guard Liaison Engineer should be given a copy of the Preliminary Plan from which to develop the plan sheets that are part of the permit. B. Other All other permits will be the responsibility of the region. The Bridge and Structures Office may be asked to provide information to the region to assist them in making applications for these permits.
2.2.5
Approvals
A. Bridge Design When the Preliminary Plan has been checked by the checker and signal by the Bridge Projects Engineer, it is ready to go to the Bridge Design Engineer and the Bridge and Structures Engineer for approval. B. Bridge Architect For all preliminary plans, the Architect should be aware and involved when the designer is first developing the plan. The Architect should be presented with a reduced print of the plan by the designer. This is done prior to the job going to the checker. The Architect will review the print and signify his approval by signing it. This print is placed in the job file. If future plan revisions change elements of aesthetic importance, the Architect should be asked to review and approve, by signature, a print of the revised plan. For large, multiple bridge projects, the Bridge Architect should be contacted for development of a coordinated architectural concept for the project corridor. The architectural concept for a project corridor is generally developed in draft form and reviewed with the project stakeholders prior to finalizing. C. Region Prior to the completion of the preliminary plan the designer should meet with the region to discuss the concept and get their input. When the Preliminary Plan and the Not Included in Bridge Quantities List along with the preliminary plan transmittal IDC. The region will review the plan for compliance and agreement with their original site data. They will work to answer any notes to the region that have been listed on the plan. When this review is complete, the Regional Administrator, or his representative, will sign the plan. The region will send back a print of the plan with any comments noted in red (additions) and green (deletions) along with responses to the notes to the region.
August 1998
2.2-5
Preliminary Plan
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Preliminary Design 2.3 2.3.1 Preliminary Plan Criteria Highway Crossings
A. General A highway crossing is defined as a grade separation between two intersecting roadways. A highway crossing is further categorized as either an undercrossing or an overcrossing. 1. Undercrossing A bridge which provides for passage of a state highway under a less important state highway, a county road, or a city street is called an undercrossing. Relative importance between state highways is indicated by functional classification. For details, see Chapter 440 of the Design Manual. For example, a bridge included as a part of an interchange involving SR 182 (Interstate) and SR 14 (Principal) and providing for passage of traffic on SR 182 under SR 14 would be called SR 14 I/C Undercrossing. 2. Overcrossing A bridge which carries traffic on a state highway over a less important state highway, a county road, or a city street is called an overcrossing. For example, a bridge which carries traffic on SR 5 over Hamilton Road would be called Hamilton Road Overcrossing. B. Bridge Width The bridge roadway channelization is provided by the region with the Bridge Site Data. For state highways, the roadway geometrics are controlled by Chapters 430 and 440 of the Design Manual. For city and county arterials, the roadway geometrics are controlled by Chapter IV of the Local Agency Guidelines. C. Horizontal Clearances Safety dictates that fixed objects be placed as far from the edge of the roadway as is economically feasible. Criteria for minimum horizontal clearances to bridge piers and retaining walls are outlined in the Design Manual. Chapter 710 of the Design Manual outlines clear zone and recovery area requirements for horizontal clearances without guardrail or barrier being required. Actual horizontal clearances shall be shown in the plan view of the Preliminary Plan (to the nearest 0.1 foot). Minimum horizontal clearances to inclined columns or wall surfaces should be provided at the roadway surface and for a vertical distance of 6 feet above the edge of pavement. When bridge end slopes fall within the recovery area, the minimum horizontal clearance should be provided for a vertical distance of 6 feet above the fill surface. See Figure 2.3.1-1. Bridge piers and abutments ideally should be placed such that the minimum clearances can be satisfied. However, if for structural or economic reasons, the best span arrangement requires a pier to be within clear zone or recovery area, then guardrail or barrier can be used to mitigate the hazard. There are instances where it may not be possible to provide the minimum horizontal clearance even with guardrail or barrier. An example would be placement of a bridge pier in a narrow median. The required column size may be such that it would infringe on the shoulder of the roadway. In such cases, the New Jersey barrier shape would be incorporated into the shape of the column. Barrier or
August 1998
2.3-1
guardrail would need to taper into the pier at a flare rate satisfying the criteria in Chapter 710 of the Design Manual. See Figure 2.3.1-2. The reduced clearance to the pier would need to be approved by the region. D. Vertical Clearances The required minimum vertical clearances are established by the functional classification of the highway and the construction classification of the project. For state highways, this is as outlined in Chapters 430 and 440 of the Design Manual. For city and county arterials, this is as outlined in Chapter IV of the Local Agency Guidelines. Actual minimum vertical clearances are shown on the Preliminary Plan (to the nearest 0.1 foot). The approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the plan. For structures crossing divided highways, minimum vertical clearances for both directions are noted. E. End Slopes The type and rate of end slope used at bridge sites is dependent on several factors. Soil conditions and stability, right of way availability, fill height or depth of cut, roadway alignment and functional classification, and existing site conditions are all important. The region should have made a preliminary determination based on these factors during the preparation of the bridge site data. The side slopes noted on the Roadway Section for the roadway should indicate the type and rate of end slope. The Materials Lab will recommend the minimum rate of end slope. This should be compared to the rate recommended in the Roadway Section and to existing site conditions (if applicable). The types of end slopes and the conditions for which each are applicable are spelled out in Chapter 640 of the Design Manual. End slope protection may be required at certain highway crossings, as spelled out in Chapter 1120 of the Design Manual. Examples of slope protection are shown on Standard Plan D-9. F. Determination of Bridge Length Establishing the location of the end piers for a highway crossing is a function of the profile grade of the overcrossing roadway, the minimum vertical and horizontal clearances required for the structure, and the type and rate of end slope used. For the general case of bridges in cut or fill slopes, the control point is where the cut or fill slope plane meets the bottom of ditch or edge of shoulder as applicable. From this point, the fill or cut slope plane is established at the recommended rate up to where the slope plane intersects the grade of the roadway at the shoulder. Following the requirements of Standard Plan H-9, the back of pavement seat, end of wing wall or end of retaining wall can be established at 3 feet behind the slope intersection. For the general case of bridges on wall type or closed abutments, the controlling factors are the required horizontal clearance and the size of the abutment. This situation would most likely occur in an urban setting or where right of way is limited.
2.3-2
August 1998
August 1998
2.3-3
2.3.2
Railroad Crossings
A. General A railroad crossing is defined as a grade separation between an intersecting highway and a railroad. A bridge which provides highway traffic over the railroad is called an overcrossing. A bridge which provides highway traffic under the railroad is called an undercrossing. Requirements for railroad separations for both undercrossings and overcrossings may involve negotiations with the railroad company concerning clearances, geometrics, utilities, and maintenance roads. The railroads review and approval, will be based on the completed Preliminary Plan. B. Criteria The initial Preliminary Plan shall be prepared in accordance with the criteria of this section to apply uniformly to all railroads. Variance from this criteria will be negotiated with the railroad, when necessary, after a Preliminary Plan has been provided for their review. C. Bridge Width For railroad overcrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width of highway crossings shall apply. Details for railroad undercrossings will depend on the specific project and the railroad involved.
2.3-4
August 1998
Horizontal clearance shall be measured from the center of the outside track to the face of pier. When the track is on a curve, the minimum horizontal clearance shall be increased at the rate of 11/2 inches for each degree of curvature. An additional 8 feet of clearance for off-track equipment shall only be provided when specifically requested by the railroad. E. Crash Walls Crash walls, when required, shall be designed to conform to the criteria from of the AREA Manual. F. Vertical Clearances For railroad undercrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to vertical clearances of highway crossings shall apply. For railroad overcrossings, the minimum vertical clearance shall satisfy the requirements of Chapter 1120 of the Design Manual. The actual minimum vertical clearances are shown on the Preliminary Plan (to the nearest 0.1 foot). The approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the plan. G. Determination of Bridge Length For railroad overcrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to the determination of bridge length shall apply. For railroad overcrossings, the minimum bridge length shall satisfy the minimum horizontal clearance requirements. The minimum bridge length shall generally satisfy the requirements of Figure 2.3.2-1. H. Special Considerations For railroad overcrossings, the top of footings for bridge piers or retaining walls adjacent to railroad tracks shall be 2 feet or more below the top of tie. The footing face shall not be closer than 10 feet to the center of the track. Any cofferdams, footings, excavation, etc., encroaching within 10 feet of the center of the track requires the approval of the railroad.
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2.3-5
For railroads, the minimum horizontal construction opening is 8 feet 6 inches to either side of the centerline of track. The minimum vertical construction opening is 22 feet 6 inches above the top of rail at 6 feet offset from the centerline of track. Falsework openings shall be checked to verify that enough space is available for falsework beams to span the required horizontal distances and still provide the minimum vertical falsework clearance. Minimum vertical openings of less than 22 feet 6 inches may be negotiated with the railroad through the Utilities-Railroad Engineer.
2.3.3
Water Crossings
A. Bridge Width The provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width for highway crossings apply here. B. Horizontal Clearances Water crossings over navigable waters requiring clearance for navigation channels shall satisfy the horizontal clearances required by the Coast Guard. Communication with the Coast Guard will be handled through the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer. For bridges over navigable waters, the centerline of the navigation channel and the horizontal clearances (to the nearest 0.1 foot) to the piers or the pier protection are shown on the Plan view of the Preliminary Plan. C. Vertical Clearances Vertical clearances for water crossings must satisfy floodway clearance and, where applicable, navigation clearance. Bridges over navigable waters must satisfy the vertical clearances required by the Coast Guard. Communication with the Coast Guard will be handled through the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer. The actual minimum vertical clearance (to the nearest 0.1 foot) for the channel span is shown on the Preliminary Plan. The approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the plan. The clearance shall be shown to the water surface as required by the Coast Guard criteria. Floodway vertical clearance will need to be discussed with the Hydraulics Office. In accordance with the flood history, nature of the site, character of drift, and other factors, they will determine a minimum vertical clearance for the 100-year flood. The roadway profile and the bridge superstructure depth must accommodate this. The actual minimum vertical clearance to the 100-year flood is shown (to the nearest 0.1 foot) on the Preliminary Plan, and the approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the plan. D. End Slopes The type and rate of end slopes for water crossings is similar to that for highway crossings. Soil conditions and stability, fill height, location of toe of fill, existing channel conditions, flood and scour potential, and environmental concerns are all important. As with highway crossings, the region, and Materials Lab will make preliminary recommendations as to the type and rate of end slope. The Hydraulics Office will also review the Regionss recommendation for slope protection. E. Determination of Bridge Length Determining the overall length of a water crossing is not as simple and straight forward as for a highway crossing. Floodway requirements and environmental factors have a significant impact on where piers and fill can be placed.
2.3-6
August 1998
If a water crossing is required to satisfy floodway and environmental concerns, it will be known by the time the Preliminary Plan has been started. Environmental studies and the Design Report prepared by the region will document any restrictions on fill placement, pier arrangement, and overall floodway clearance. The Hydraulics Office will need to review the size, shape, and alignment of all bridge piers in the floodway and the subsequent effect they will have on the base flood elevation. The overall bridge length may need to be increased depending on the span arrangement selected and the change in the flood backwater, or justification will need to be documented. F. Scour The Hydraulics Office will indicate the anticipated depth of scour at the bridge piers. They will recommend pier shapes to best streamline flow and reduce the scour forces. They will also recommend measures to protect the piers from scour activity or accumulation of drift (minimum cover to top of footing, riprap, pier alignment to stream flow, closure walls between pier columns, etc.). G. Pier Protection For bridges over navigable channels, piers adjacent to the channel may require pier protection. The Coast Guard will determine whether pier protection is required. This determination is based on the horizontal clearance provided for the navigation channel and the type of navigation traffic using the channel. H. Construction Access and Time Restrictions Water crossings will typically have some sort of construction restrictions associated with them. These must be considered during preliminary plan preparation.
August 1998
2.3-7
The time period that the contractor will be allowed to do work within the waterway may be restricted by regulations administered by various agencies. Depending on the time limitations, a bridge with fewer piers or faster pier construction may be more advantageous even if more expensive. Contractor access to the water may also be restricted. Shore areas supporting certain plant species are sometimes classified as wetlands. In order to work in or gain access through such areas, a work trestle may be necessary. Work trestles may also be necessary for bridge removal as well as new bridge construction.
2.3.4
Bridge Widenings
A. Bridge Width The provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width for highway crossings shall apply. In most cases, the width to be provided by the widening will be what is called for by the design standards, unless a deviation is approved. B. Traffic Restrictions Bridge widenings inherently involve traffic restrictions on the lanes above and where applicable on the lanes below. The bridge site data submitted by the district should contain information regarding temporary lane widths and staging configurations. This information should be checked to be certain that the existing bridge width, and the bridge roadway width during the intermediate construction stages of the bridge are sufficient for the lane widths, shy distances, temporary barriers, and construction room for the contractor. These temporary lane widths and shy distances are noted on the Preliminary Plan. The temporary lane widths and shy distances on the roadway beneath the bridge being widened should also be checked that adequate clearance is available for any substructure construction. C. Construction Sequence Using the traffic restriction data in the bridge site data, a construction sequence shall be developed. Such a sequence shall take into account necessary steps for construction of the bridge widening (substructure and superstructure), any construction work off of and adjacent to the structure, and the requirements of traffic flow on and below the structure. Checks shall be made to be certain that girder spacings, closure pours, and removal work are all compatible with the traffic arrangements. Projects with several bridges being widened at the same time should have sequencing that is compatible with the regions traffic plans during construction and that allow the contractor room to work. It is important to meet with the region project staff to assure that the construction staging and characterization of traffic during construction is constructible and minimizes the impact to the traveling public.
2.3.5
Detour Structures
A. Bridge Width The lane widths, shy distances, and overall roadway widths for detour structures are determined by the Region. Review and approval of detour roadway widths is done by the Traffic Office. B. Live Load Unless otherwise justified, all detour structures shall be designed for an AASHTO HS 15 live load. Construction requirements and staging can be sufficient reason to justify designing for a higher live load.
2.3-8
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Preliminary Design 2.3.6 Retaining Walls and Noise Walls
The requirements for Preliminary Plans for retaining walls and noise walls are similar to the requirements for bridges. The plan and elevation views define the overall limits and the geometry of the wall. The section view will show general structural elements that are part of the wall and the surface finish of the wall face. The most common types of walls are outlined in Section 9.4.2 of the Bridge Design Manual and Chapter 1130 of the Design Manual. The Bridge and Structures Office is responsible for Preliminary Plans for all nonstandard walls (retaining walls and noise walls) as spelled out in Chapter 1130 of the Design Manual.
2.3.7
2.3.8
2.3.9
Construction Clearances
Most projects will involve construction in and around traffic. Both traffic and construction have to be accommodated. Construction clearances and working room must be reviewed at the Preliminary Plan stage to verify the constructibility of the project. For construction clearances for roadways, the region shall supply the necessary traffic staging information with the bridge site data. This includes temporary lane widths and shy distances, allowable or necessary alignment shifts, and any special minimum vertical clearances. With this information, the designer can establish the falsework opening or construction opening.
August 1998
2.3-9
The horizontal dimension of the falsework or construction opening shall be the sum of the temporary traffic lane widths and shy distances, plus two 2-foot temporary concrete barriers, plus 2 feet shy behind these barriers. For multispan openings, a minimum of 2 feet shall be assumed for the interior support. This interior support shall also have 2 feet shy on both sides to the two 2-foot temporary concrete barriers that will flank it. The vertical clearance shall normally be 14 feet 6 inches minimum. The space available for the falsework must be enough for whatever depth is necessary to span the required horizontal opening. If the necessary depth is greater than the space available, either the minimum vertical clearance for the falsework shall be reduced or the horizontal clearance and span for the falsework shall be reduced. Preferably, the falsework span shall not exceed 38 feet. This limits the stresses in the new structure from the construction and concrete pouring sequences. While the falsework or construction openings are measured normal to the crossroad alignment, the falsework span is measured parallel to the bridge alignment. Once the construction clearances have been determined the designer should meet with the region to review the construction clearances to assure compatibility with the construction staging. This review should take place prior to finalization of the preliminary bridge plan. For railroads see Section 2.3.2H.
2.3-10
August 1998
Figure 2.3.10-1 B. Safety Cables Safety cables strung on steel plate girders or trusses allow for walking access. Care must be given to the application and location. Built-up plate girder bridges are detailed with a safety cable for inspectors walking the bottom flange. However, when the girders become more than 8 feet deep, the inspection of the top flange and top lateral connections becomes difficult. When the girders are less than 5 feet deep, it is not feasible for the inspectors to stand on the bottom flanges. On large trusses, large gusset plates (3 feet or more wide) are difficult to negotiate around. Cable are best run on the exterior of the bridge except at large gusset plates. At these locations, cables or lanyard anchors should be placed on the inside face of the truss. This way inspectors can utilize bottom lateral gusset plates to stand on while traversing around the main truss gusset. C. Travelers Under bridge travelers, placed on rails that remain permanently on the bridge, can be considered on large steel structures. This is an expensive option but it should be evaluated for large bridges with high ADT as access to the bridge would be limited by traffic windows that specify when a lane can be closed. Some bridges are restricted to weekend UBIT inspection for this reason.
4:P:BDM2
August 1998
2.3-11
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Preliminary Design 2.4 2.4.1 Selection of Structure Type Bridge Types
The following superstructure depth to span ratios have been determined from past experience to be reasonable and economical and are in some cases less than the minimum depth recommended by AASHTO. In this situation, the Bridge Design Manual will govern. The length of span used to determine superstructure depth shall be the length between centerline of bearings. Do not use the length between points of dead load contraflexure as noted in AASHTO for design. A. Reinforced Concrete Slab l. Use Used for simple and continuous spans up to 60 feet. 2. Characteristics Design details and falsework relatively simple. Shortest construction time for any cast-in-place structure. Correction for anticipated falsework settlement must be included in the dead load camber curve because of the single concrete pour. 3. Depth/Span Ratios a. Constant depth Simple spans Continuous spans b. Variable depth Adjust ratios to account for change in relative stiffness of positive and negative moment sections. B. Reinforced Concrete Tee-Beam 1. Use Used for continuous spans 30 feet to 60 feet. Has been used for longer spans with inclined leg piers. 2. Characteristics Forming and falsework is more complicated than flat slab. Construction time is longer than for a flat slab. 3. Depth/Span Ratios a. Constant depth Simple spans Continuous spans b. Variable depth Adjust ratios to account for change in relative stiffness of positive and negative moment sections. 1/13 1/15 1/22 1/25
August 1998
2.4-1
*If the configuration of the exterior web is sloped and curved, a larger depth/span ratio may be necessary.
2.4-2
August 1998
Characteristics Construction details and forming are fairly simple. Construction time is less than for a cast-in-place bridge. Little or no falsework is required.
F. Composite Steel Plate Girder 1. Use For simple spans up to 260 feet and for continuous spans from 120 to 400 feet. Relatively low dead load when compared to a concrete superstructure makes this bridge type an asset in areas where foundation materials are poor. 2. Characteristics Construction details and forming are fairly simple Construction time is comparatively short. Shipping and erecting of large sections must be reviewed. Cost of maintenance is higher than for concrete bridges. Current cost information should be considered because of changing steel market conditions. 3. Depth/Span Ratios a. Constant depth Simple spans Continuous spans b. Variable depth @ Center of span @ Intermediate pier G. Composite Steel Box Girder 1. Use For simple spans up to 260 feet and for continuous spans from 120 to 400 feet. Relatively low dead load when compared to a concrete superstructure makes this bridge type an asset in areas where foundation materials are poor. 1/40 1/20 1/22 1/25
August 1998
2.4-3
Sloping webs are not used on box girders of variable depth. H. Steel Truss 1. Use For simple spans up to 300 feet and for continuous spans up to 1,200 feet. Used where vertical clearance requirements dictate a shallow superstructure and long spans or where terrain dictates long spans and construction by cantilever method. 2. Characteristics Construction details are numerous and can be complex. Cantilever construction method can facilitate construction over inaccessible areas. Through trusses are discouraged because of the resulting restricted horizontal and vertical clearances for the roadway. 3. Depth/Span Ratios a. b. Simple spans 1/6 Continuous spans @ Center of span @ Intermediate pier I. Segmental Concrete Box Girder 1. Use For continuous spans from 200 to 700 feet. Used where site dictates long spans and construction by cantilever method. 2. Characteristics Use of travelers for the form apparatus facilitates the cantilever construction method enabling long-span construction without falsework. Precast concrete segments may be used. Tight geometric control is required during construction to ensure proper alignment. 3. Depth/Span Ratios Variable depth @ Center of span @ Intermediate pier 1/50 1/20 1/18 1/9
2.4-4
August 1998
2.4.2
Wall Types
The process of selecting a type of retaining wall should economically satisfy structural, functional, and aesthetic requirements and other considerations relevant to a specific site. A detailed listing of the common wall types and their characteristics can be found in Section 9.4.2 of the Bridge Design Manual.
2:-4DTP:BDM2
August 1998
2.4-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Preliminary Design 2.5 2.5.1 Aesthetic Considerations General Visual Impact
A bridge can be a strong feature in any landscape. Steps must be taken to assure that even the most basic structure will complement rather than detract from its surroundings. The Design Report, EIS, and bridge site data submitted by the region should each contain a discussion on the aesthetic importance of the project site. This commentary, along with the video and/or pictures submitted, will help the designer determine the appropriate structure. Generally a visit to the bridge site with the Bridge Architect and the region will be made as well. The Bridge Architect should be contacted early in the preliminary bridge plan process for input. Aesthetics is a very subjective element that must be factored into the design process in the otherwise very quantitative field of structural engineering. Bridges that are well proportioned structurally using the least material possible are generally well proportioned. However, the details such as pier walls, columns, and crossbeams require special attention to ensure a structure that will enhance the general vicinity.
Aesthetic Considerations
2.5.2
End Piers
A. Wing Walls The size and exposure of the wing wall at the end pier should balance, visually, with the depth and type of superstructure used. For example, a prestressed girder structure fits best visually with a 15-foot wing wall (or curtain wall/retaining wall). However, there are instances where a 20-foot wing wall (or curtain wall/retaining wall) may be used with a prestressed girder (maximizing a span in a remote area, for example). These guidelines shall be used with engineering judgment and with the review of the Bridge Architect. It is less expensive for bridges of greater than 40 feet of overall width to be designed with wing walls (or curtain wall/retaining wall) than to use a longer superstructure. B. Retaining Walls For structures at sites where profile, right of way, and alignment dictate the use of high exposed wall-type abutments for the end piers, retaining walls that flank the approach roadway can be used to retain the roadway fill and reduce the overall structure length. Stepped walls are often used to break up the height, and allow for landscape planting. A curtain wall runs between the bridge abutment and the heel of the abutment footing. In this way, the joint in the retaining wall stem can coincide with the joint between the abutment footing and the retaining wall footing. This simplifies design and provides a convenient breaking point between design responsibilities if the retaining walls happen to be the responsibility of the region. The length shown for the curtain wall dimension is an estimated dimension based on experience and preliminary foundation assumptions. It can be revised under design to satisfy the intent of having the wall joint coincide with the end of the abutment footing. C. Slope Protection The region is responsible for making initial recommendations regarding slope protection. It should be compatible with the site and should match what has been used at other bridges in the vicinity. The type selected shall be shown on the Preliminary Plan. It shall be noted on the Not Included in Bridge Quantities list.
August 1998
2.5-1
Aesthetic Considerations
2.5.4
2.5.5
Superstructure
The horizontal elements of the bridge are perhaps the strongest features. The sizing of the structure depth based on the span/depth ratios in Section 2.4.1, will generally produce a balanced relationship. Haunches or rounding of girders at the piers can enhance the structures appearance. The use of such features should be kept within reason considering fabrication of materials and construction of formwork. The amount of haunch should be carefully reviewed for overall balance from the primary viewing perspective. The slab overhang dimension should approach that used for the structure depth. This dimension should be balanced between what looks good for aesthetics and what is possible with a reasonable slab thickness and reinforcement. For box girders, the exterior webs can be sloped. The amount of slope should not exceed l1/2: l for structural reasons. Sloped webs should only be used in locations of high aesthetic impact.
DP:BDM2
2.5-2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Preliminary Design 2.6 2.6.1 Miscellaneous Structure Costs
Historical bridge and structure cost data is outlined in Chapter 12. When using this data for cost estimates, the cost range assumed shall be based on the amount of information available. Unless foundation conditions are known, the worst case conditions would be assumed (e.g., pile foundations) for cost analysis. An estimate contingency of 10 percent (minimum) staff be added to all preliminary bridge plan estimates. For small projects or remote areas, high-range costs would be used. The cost data would be adjusted for inflation to the current date. Estimates include mobilization but not sales tax, engineering, future inflation, or contingencies, and the accuracy of the estimate is 15 percent.
Miscellaneous
2.6.2
2.6.3
Salvage of Materials
When a bridge is being replaced or widened, the material being removed should be reviewed for anything that WSDOT may want to salvage. Items such as aluminum rail, luminaire poles, sign structures, and steel beams should be identified for possible salvage. The region should be asked if such items are to be salvaged since they will be responsible for storage and inventory of these items.
DP:BDM2
August 1998
2.6-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Preliminary Design 2.7 2.7.1 WSDOT Standard Highway Bridge Design Elements
The following are standard design elements for highway undercrossings and overcrossings. They are meant to provide a generic base for consistent, clean looking bridges, and to reduce design and construction costs. Modification of some elements may be required, depending on site conditions. This should be determined on a case-by-case basis during the preliminary plan stage of the design process. A. General Fractured Fin Finish shall be used on the exterior face of the traffic barrier. All other surfaces shall be Plain Surface Finish. Exposed faces of wingwalls, columns, and abutments shall be vertical. The exterior face of the traffic barrier and the end of the intermediate pier crossbeam and diaphram shall have a 1:12 backslope. B. Substructure End piers use the following details: 15-0 wingwalls (Standard Cadd File WW15_21.FGB). Stub abutment wall with vertical face. Footing elevation, pile type (if required), and setback dimension are determined from recommendations in the WSDOT Materials Laboratory Foundation Report. Intermediate piers use the following details: Semi-drop Crossbeams: The crossbeam below the girders is designed for the girder and slab dead load, and construction loads. The crossbeam and the hinge diaphram together are designed for all live loads and composite dead loads. The crossbeam shall be 3-0 minimum depth. Round Columns: Columns shall be 3-0 or 4-0 in diameter. Dimensions are constant full height with no tapers. Bridges with roadway widths of 28-0 or less will generally be single column piers. Bridges with roadway widths of greater than 28-0 shall have two or more columns, following the criteria established in Section 2.3.1 H. C. Superstructure Concrete Slab: 7 1 2 minimum thickness, with the top mat being epoxy coated steel reinforcing bars. Prestressed Girders: Girder spacing will vary depending on roadway width and span length. The slab overhang dimension is approximately half of the girder spacing. Girder spacings typically range between 6-0 and 8-0. W74G spans up to about 132. (Standard Cadd File W74G.FGB). W58G spans up to about 110. (Standard Cadd File W58G.FGB). Intermediate Diaphrams: Locate at the midspan for girders up to 80 long. Locate at third points for girders over 80 long. (Standard Cadd File DIA63A5.FGB). End Diaphrams: End Wall on Girder type. (Standard Cadd File DIA63A5.FGB). Traffic Barrier: New Jersey face barrier. (Standard Cadd File TB.FGB).
Miscellaneous
August 1998
2.7-1
Hinge Diaphram: Full width of crossbeam between girders and outside of the exterior girders. Exterior face is flush with the end of the crossbeam and matches the 1:12 slope of the crossbeam face. (Standard Cadd File TO BE DEVELOPED). BP Rail: 3-6 overall height for pedestrian traffic. 4-6 overall height for bicycle traffic. (Standard Cadd File BPRAIL.FGB). Sidewalk: 6 height at curb line. Transverse slope of -.01 per foot towards the curb line. (Standard Cadd File PED_BAR.FGB). Sidewalk barrier: Inside face is vertical. Outside face slopes 1:12 outward. (Standard Cadd File PED_BAR.FGB). D. Examples Appendices 2.7-A1 and A2 detail the standard design elements of a standard highway bridge. The following bridges are good examples of a standard highway bridge. However, they do have some modifications to the standard. SR 17 Undercrossing 395/110 Mullenix Road Overcrossing 16/203E&W
DTP:BDM2
2.7-2
August 1998
Bibliography
4. 5. 6.
DTP:BDM2
August 1998
2.99-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Preliminary Design Bridge Site Data General
Bridge Information
SR Bridge Name Section, Township & Range Control Section Datum Project No.
Highway Section
Will the structure be widened in a contract subsequent to this contract ? Which side and amount ?
Yes
No
N/A
No No
N/A N/A
Yes
Stage construction requirements ?
No No
Yes
Yes
Should the additional clearance for off-track railroad maintenance equipment be provided? Can a pier be placed in the median?
Yes N/A
Will signs or illumination be attached to the structure?
No No No
Yes
No
What are the required falsework or construction opening dimensions ? Are there detour or shoofly bridge requirements? (If Yes, attach drawings) Yes
Yes
Will utility conduits be incorporated in the bridge?
Yes
What is the required vertical clearance?
Furnish type and location of existing features within the limits of this project, such as retaining walls, sign support structures, utilities, buildings, powerlines, etc.
Yes
Can profile be revised to provide greater or less clearance? If Yes, which line and how much? Will bridge be contracted before, with or after approach fill?
No No
N/A N/A
Any other data relative to selection of type, including your recommendations?
Yes
Before
Vicinity Map Bridge Site Contour Map
With
After
N/A
Attachments
Specific Roadway sections at bridge site and approved roadway sections Vertical Profile Data Horizontal Curve Data Superelevation Transition Diagrams Tabulated field surveyed and measured stations, offsets, and elevations of existing roadways Photographs and video tape of structure site, adjacent existing structures and surrounding terrain
August 1998
2.2-A1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Preliminary Design Bridge Site Data Rehabilitation
Bridge Information
SR Bridge Name Section, Township & Range Control Section Datum Project No.
Highway Section
Existing roadway width, curb to curb Proposed roadway width, curb to curb
Left of C L Left of C L
Existing wearing surface (concrete, ACP, ACP w /membrane, LMC, epoxy, other) Existing drains to be plugged, modified, moved, other? Proposed overlay (ACP, ACP w /membrame, LMC, epoxy) Is bridge rail to be modified? Existing rail type Proposed rail replacement type Will terminal design F be required? Will utilities be placed in the new barrier? Yes Yes No No With Rail Replacement Yes No
Thickness
Will the structure be overlayed with or after rail replacement? Condition of existing joints Existing joints watertight? Yes No @ curb line Measure width of existing joint, normal to skew. Estimate structure temperature at time of joint measurement Type of existing joint Describe damage, if any, to existing joints Existing Vertical Clearance Proposed Vertical Clearance (at curb lines of traffic barrier)
Attachments
Video tape of project
Sketch indicating points at which joint width was measured. Photographs of existing joints. Existing deck chloride and detamination data. Roadway deck elevations at curb lines (10-foot spacing)
DOT Form 235-002A EF
Revised 3/97
2.2-A2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Preliminary Design Bridge Site Data Stream Crossings
Bridge Information
SR Bridge Name Section, Township & Range Tributary of Control Section Datum Project No.
Elevation of W.S.
(@ date of survey)
Stream Velocity
(fps @ date of survey)
Depth of Flow
(@ date of survey)
Max Highwater Elevation Normal Highwater Elevation Normal Stage Elevation Extreme Low Water Elevation Amount and Character of Drift Streambed Material Datum (i.e., USC and GS, USGS, etc.) Mannings N Value (Est.)
Attachments
Site Contour Map (See Sect. 7.02.00 Highway Hydraulic Manual) Highway Alignment and Profile (refer to map and profiles) Streambed: Profile and Cross Sections (500 ft. upstream and downstream) Photographs Character of Stream Banks (i.e., rock, silt, etc.) / Location of Solid Rock
Other Data Relative to Selection of Type and Design of Bridge, Including your Recommendations (i.e., requirements of riprap, permission of piers in channel, etc.)
August 1998
2.2-A3
Project__________________ SR______ Prelim. Plan by _____ Check by _____ Date_____ PRELIMINARY PLAN CHECKLIST PLAN ___Survey Lines and Station Ticks ___Survey Line Intersection Angles ___Survey Line Intersection Stations ___Survey Line Bearings ___Roadway and Median Widths ___Lane and Shoulder Widths ___Sidewalk Width ___Connection/Widening for Guardrail/Barrier ___Profile Grade and Pivot Point ___Roadway Superelevation Rate (if constant) ___Lane Taper and Channelization Data ___Traffic Arrows ___Mileage to Junctions along Mainline ___Back to Back of Pavement Seats ___Span Lengths ___Lengths of Walls next to/ part of Bridge ___Pier Skew Angle ___Bridge Drains, or Inlets off Bridge ___Existing drainage structures ___Existing utilities Type/Size, and Location ___New utilities - Type, Size, and Location ___Luminaires, Junction Boxes, Conduits ___Bridge mounted Signs and Supports ___Contours ___Top of Cut: Toe of Fill ___Bottom of Ditches ___Test Holes (if available) ___Riprap Limits ___Stream Flow Arrow ___R/W Lines and/or Easement Lines ___Points of Minimum Vertical Clearance ___Horizontal Clearance ___Exist. Bridge No. (to be removed, widened) ___Section, Township, Range ___City or Town ___North Arrow ___SR Number ___Bearing of Piers, or note if radial MISCELLANEOUS ___Structure Type ___Live Loading ___Undercrossing Alignment Profiles/Elevs. ___Superelevation Diagrams ___Curve Data ___Riprap Detail ___Layout Approval Block ___Notes to Region ___Names and Signatures ___Not Included in Bridge Quantities List ___Inspection and Maintenance Access ELEVATION ___Full Length Reference Elevation Line ___Existing Ground Line x ft. Rt of Survey Line ___End Slope Rate ___Slope Protection ___Pier Stations and Grade Elevations ___Profile Grade Vertical Curves ___BP/Pedestrian Rail ___Barrier/Wall Face Treatment ___Construction/Falsework Openings ___Minimum Vertical Clearances ___Water Surface Elevations and Flow Data ___Riprap ___Seal Vent Elevation ___Datum ___Grade elevations shown are equal to ___For Embankment details at bridge ends ___Indicate F, H, or E at abutments and piers TYPICAL SECTION ___Bridge Roadway Width ___Lane and Shoulder Widths ___Profile Grade and Pivot Point ___Superelevation Rate ___Survey Line ___Overlay Type and Depth ___Barrier Face Treatment ___Limits of Pigmented Sealer ___BP/Pedestrian Rail dimensions ___Stage Construction Lane Orientations ___Locations of Temporary Concrete Barrier ___Closure Pour ___Structure Depth/Prestressed Girder Type ___Conduits/Utilities in bridge ___Substructure Dimensions LEFT MARGIN ___Job Number ___Bridge (before/with/after) Approach Fills ___Structure Depth/Prestressed Girder Type ___Deck Protective System ___Coast Guard Permit Status ___Railroad Agreement Status ___Points of Minimum Vertical Clearance ___Cast in Place Concrete Strength RIGHT MARGIN ___Control Section ___Project Number ___Region ___Highway Section ___SR Number ___Structure Name
2.2-A4
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Preliminary Design Bridge Stage Construction Comparison
January 1991
2.3-A1
Concentrated Load Coefficients General Concentrated Load Coefficients Case I Fixed End Moment Coefficient Chart Influence Lines Two Equal Spans Coefficients and Factors for Double Tapered Members Stiffness Factors for Tapered Members Carry Over Factors for Tapered Members Fixed End Moments for Tapered Members
July 1994
3.0-i
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Analysis 3.0 3.1 3.1.1 Analysis General Considerations Philosophy of Analysis Procedures
For the design of concrete bridges, in distribution of moments, generally use the gross moment of inertia of the concrete superstructure. In lieu of including the transformed area of steel for columns or other compression members, 120 percent of the gross moment of inertial of columns and other compression members may generally be used.
General Considerations
3.1.2
Analysis Methods
The maximum live load deflection computed shall be in accordance with AASHTO except that the maximum live load deflection in a span shall not exceed 1/1000 and for a cantilever 1/375, regardless of whether the bridge is used by pedestrians.
3-1:V:BDM3
July 1994
3.1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Analysis 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 Theory (Vacant) Member and Frame Factors (Vacant) Partial Fixity
In general, assume 50 percent fixity of footings except footings on rock shall be 100 percent fixed. For frame analysis, the point of fixity shall normally be taken to be at the approximate center line of footing. For column design, Volume 2 Sheets 9-220 through 9-225 shall be consulted. This shall hold for footings with or without seals. Where superstructures are supported directly on piles, for analyses of the structure the piles may be assumed fixed at a point 5 feet to 10 feet in the ground. For flat slab bridges supported on piling, the piles shall be assumed pinned at the tops. For design of structures with large diameter shafts see Section 9.8 For one column piers assume the footing fully fixed in the direction transverse to the roadway. For loads on one column piers assume the pier acts transversely as a simple cantilever, fixed at the footing, with no allowance for torsional, or lateral stiffness of the superstructure.
Frame Analysis
3-2:V:BDM3
July 1994
3.2-1
July 1994
3.0-A1
3.0-A2
July 1994
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Fixed End Moment Coefficient Chart
July 1994
3.0-A3-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Fixed End Moment Coefficient Chart
3.0-A3-2
July 1994
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Influence Lines Two Equal Spans
July 1994
3.0-A4
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Coefficients and Factors for Double Tapered Members
July 1994
3.0-A5-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Coefficients and Factors for Double Tapered Members
3.0-A5-2
July 1994
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Stiffness Factors for Tapered Members
July 1994
3.0-A6
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Carry Over Factors for Tapered Members
3.0-A7
July 1994
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Fixed End Moments for Tapered Members
July 1994
3.0-A8-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Analysis Fixed End Moments for Tapered Members
3.0-A8-2
July 1994
P:DP/BDM4
August 1998
4.0-i
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Loads and Loading 4.0 Loads and Loading
AASHTO loading specifications shall be the minimum design criteria used for all bridges.
Loads
4.1 4.1.1
4.1.2
Live Loads
A. General Live load design criteria is specified in the lower right corner of the bridge preliminary plan sheet. The Bridge Projects Unit determines this criteria using the following guideline: HS 25 New bridges on the interstate or state system and bridge widenings involving addition of substructure. HS 20 Bridge widenings with no addition of substructure. HS 15 Detour bridges. Use values described in AASHTO. Design for HS25 loading by multiplying HS20-44 axle loads by 1.25. The loading consisting of two 24K axles at 4-foot centers sometimes governs for short span bridges. See Figure 4.3.2-1 for illustration of this alternative loading. See Figures 4.3.2-2 and 3 for L value to use in the formula in Section 4.3.2. Figure 4.3.2-2 illustrates determination of the L length of the member under consideration. For beams and girders, use span length center to center of supports. For cantilevers, use length from center of support to farthest load on cantilever. See Figure 4.3.2-2 for illustration. B. Distribution to Superstructure 1. Integral Deck Precast Sections The Live Load Distribution factor for Bulb Tee, Single Tee, and Double Tee bridges shall be as determined through use of the DISTBM computer program. (See Bridge Computer Programs Manual.) The AASHTO Specifications should be used for Rib Deck Bridges and the beam types listed therein. For Rib Deck Bridges use a K value of 2.2. Examples of beam types are shown on Figure 4.1.2-1. 2. Concrete Box Girders The value for the number of traffic lanes to be used in the concrete box girder superstructure design shall be determined by dividing the entire roadway slab width by 14. Use fractional lanes, rounding to the nearest tenth of a foot, if applicable. Roadway slab widths of less than 28 feet shall have two design lanes. No reduction factor will be applied to the superstructure for multiple loadings.
August 1998
4.1-1
4.1-2
August 1998
Loads
4.1.3
Wind Loads
AASHTO load combinations for wind are based on probability of simultaneous load occurrence. The basic wind loads result from 100 mph wind, which produces 75 psf on trusses and arches, 50 psf on girders and beams, and 40 psf on substructures. This wind is assumed to act on the structure when live load is not present. A 30 mph wind (0.3 100, or a 70 percent reduction from basic) is included in Groups III and IV, and is assumed to act when live load is present. The forces tending to overturn a structure are represented by an upward high wind pressure of 20 psf acting on the plan view area, for Groups II, V, and IX. A moderate wind pressure of 6 psf is used for Groups III and VI. The force is applied at the windward quarter point of the transverse superstructure.
4.1.4
4.1.5
Earthquake Loads
a. b. Design for earthquake shall be in accordance with Division 1-A, Seismic Design of the 1996 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges. The Multimode Spectral Method of dynamic analysis described in the AASHTO Specifications shall be used for most continuous bridges. The SEISAB computer program can be used to analyze most common bridges. The GTSTRUDL dynamic analysis system is capable of handling a larger range of structures. The Single Mode Spectral Method may be used in certain cases, as described in the AASHTO Specifications. Use the USGS Peak Ground Acceleration map (Appendix 4.4-A2, 10 percent Probability of Exceedance in 50 Years) to obtain an acceleration coefficient for preliminary design. The project Foundation Report will contain the acceleration coefficient to use in the final design of a bridge. When using Appendix 4.4-A2, interpolate between contours to find the value to use for particular site, and round to the nearest 1 percent of gravity (g). In general, Appendix 4.4-A2 can also be used for
c. d.
August 1998
4.1-3
bridge seismic retrofit designs. However, seismic evaluation and retrofitting of older bridges can sometimes result in excessive costs (the retrofit costs are not consistent with the benefit gained). In these situations, the Bridge Design Engineer should be consulted for direction. e. It is recommended that temporary (detour) structures shall be designed for a seismic acceleration coefficient equal to 0.5 x the acceleration coefficient for a permanent structure. All other requirements of the AASHTO Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges shall apply. Seismic Performance Category shall be based on the magnitude of the reduced acceleration coefficient. The Geotechnical Engineer should be consulted when determining the soil type to be used in the seismic analysis.
f.
4.1.6
Other Loads
A. Thermal, Shrinkage, and Prestressing Member loadings are induced by movements of the structure and can result from several sources. Movements due to temperature changes are calculated using coefficients of thermal expansion of 0.000006 ft/ft per degree for concrete and 0.0000065 ft/ft per degree for steel. Reinforced concrete shrinks at the rate of 0.0002 ft/ft. Refer to AASHTO and Bridge Design Manual Chapters 6, 8, and 9 for guidance on computation and application of these force types. B. Buoyancy The effects of submergence of a portion of the substructure is to be calculated, both for designing piling for uplift and for realizing economy in footing design. C. Centrifugal Centrifugal forces are included in all groups which contain vehicular live load. They act 6 feet above the roadway surface and are significant where curve radii are small or columns are long. They are radial forces induced by moving trucks. See AASHTO for force equation.
4.1-4
August 1998
Loads
W.S. = SF Ad Ap V Pd Pp = = = = = =
Water surface as defined by the Hydraulics Unit PdAd + PpAp Area of drift or floating ice = D x E Area of pier below ice = B x C. Where the pier is skewed to the stream, flow C equals the width of the column normal to the stream flow. Velocity of water (ft/sec) Pressure on drift (psf) = 1.38 V2 Pressure on pier (psf) = KV2
In the absence of other data, the maximum values of D and E shall be 10 feet and 50 feet, respectively. Water Related Forces Figure 4.1.6-1
DP:BDM4
August 1998
4.1-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Loads and Loading 4.2 4.2.1 Load Combinations Combination of Loads
Group numbers represent various combinations of loads and forces which may act on a structure. Group loading combinations for both Load Factor and Service Load Design are defined by the following equation: Group (N) = [d D + p PS + L (L+I) + c CF + E E + D B + s SF + w W + wL WL + L LF + R (R + S + T) + EQ EQ + ICE ICE] where: N N D PS L I E B W WL LF CF R S T EQ SF ICE = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Group Number General Factor Specific Factor Dead Load (including overburden) Prestress Load* Live Load Live Load Impact Earth Pressure (Lateral, only) Buoyancy Wind Load on Structure Wind Load on Live Load 100 pounds per linear foot of span Longitudinal Force from Live Load Centrifugal Force Rib Shortening Shrinkage Temperature Earthquake Stream Flow Pressure Ice Pressure
Load Combinations
*PS = Forces and moments transferred from members containing post-tensioning steel to other members upon application of the post-tensioning force. Terms in the general equation that do not contribute to a particular combination are represented by zeros in the table.
4.2.2
August 1998
4.2-1
Column Design D = 0.75 or bD = 1.0, whichever governs. Flexural and Tension Members D = 1.0 E = 1.0 Footing Bearing Pressure and Internal Footing Stresses D = 0.75 or D = 1.0 E = 1.0 Footing Stability and Sliding D = 0.75 or D = 1.0, whichever governs. E = 0.4 or E = 1.3, whichever governs. Notes: 1. 2. 3. 4. For footing design, check Basic Loading Combination in accordance with BDM Section 9.5.1A3.a. For rigid frame design, see BDM Section 9.3.4.E. Check stability for all group loadings in accordance with BDM Section 9.5.1A3.b. Group 1A load combination shall be applied only with live loadings less than HS 20 or H 20. See AASHTO.
*Applies if design loads are already factored, such as in cases where MDes = 1.0 ML + 0.3 MT or MDes = 0.3 ML + 1.0 MT are used. Table of Coefficients and For Load Factor Design Table 4.2.2-1
4.2-2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Loads and Loading 4.2.3 Service Load Coefficients
Table 4.2.3-1 contains the terms and factors required to meet AASHTO Service Load Design. The allowable percentage of the basic unit stress is given in the right hand column of the table.
Load Combinations
Footing Bearing Pressure and Internal Footing Stresses E = 1.0 Footing Stability and Sliding E = 0.5 or E = 1.0, whichever governs. Notes: 1. 2. For culvert loading, see AASHTO. No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members or connections carrying wind load only. Table of Coefficients and For Service Load Design Table 4.2.3-1
4-2:P:BDM4
August 1998
4.2-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Loads and Loading 4.3 4.3.1 Application of Loads Dead Loads
Dead load is commonly applied to supports by assuming that it acts along each girder line.
Application of Loads
4.3.2
Live Loads
The three types of live loadings ordinarily applied to a bridge when checking for maximum stresses in its components are illustrated in AASHTO and Figure 4.3.2-1. The standard H-S truck represents common vehicles. The lane load consists of combinations of uniform and concentrated loads which represent three lighter trucks spaced close together. The alternative loading represents certain heavy military vehicles. The loading type governing the design depends on the structure configuration. For example, truck loading governs for maximum moment in simple spans shorter than 145 feet and lane loading controls for longer spans. In continuous spans, lane loading governs for maximum negative moment, except for spans shorter than 45 feet, in which truck loading will govern. The maximum positive moment in continuous spans is usually produced by using lane loading, for span lengths of over about 110 feet. Alternative loading governs in certain short span situations. Figures 4.3.2-2 and 4.3.2-3 illustrate application of loads to produce maximum stresses in various span arrangements. Appendix 4.3-B1 illustrates calculation of reactions and maximum moments in a simple span. Impact is figured using the following formula:
I= 50 L + 125
August 1998
4.3-1
4.3-2
August 1998
August 1998
4.3-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Loads and Loading 4.3.3 Wind Loads
Wind loads acting on the superstructure are based on the profile presented to the wind, the height of which usually consists of the girder depth and traffic barrier height.
Application of Loads
4.3.4
Earthquake Loads
Bibiography 1 through 4 contain several examples of applying earthquake loads to bridges. This section serves to amplify some analysis concepts. Load factors applied in the Group VII combination are based on two concepts: 1. 2. Full utilization of the elastic capacity of a particular element or member. Taking advantage of the ductility or redundancy of the structure to absorb the energy released in an earthquake and keep the structure intact. Two typical AASHTO load case equations are: MEQ MEQ = or = 1.0 1.0 ML ML + + 0.3 1.0 MT MT
These equations are intended to satisfy concept 1. The SEISAB computer program prints out solutions to the two equations as load cases 3 and 4. Concept 2 is handled through use of the R factor. It appears in the factored loading equation: Mu = 1.0 (MDL + MEQ/R)
The Guide Specification lists values for R for various structural components and types of supports. Some common examples are: Single column bents, considered ductile but nonredundant, R = 3 for both directions. Multi-column bents, considered ductile and redundant, R = 5 both ways. Wall-type piers, less ductile than single column bents, often having R = 2 for transverse behavior and R = 3 longitudinally. Footings, R = 1 for seismic performance Categories C and D and R = Rcol for SPC B. Higher values are used than for columns and crossbeams because below ground structural damage is difficult to spot and repair. Plastic hinging moments are often less than those produced using an R of 1, so that some economy may be realized. Bearing type connections and stops, R = 0.8, due to lack of ductility and redundancy and because they serve to prevent large displacements. See Appendix 4.3-B2-1 and 2 for illustrations of common piers and appropriate factors to apply to the members.
4.3-4
August 1998
In order to design structures to survive the forces and strains resulting from earthquake motion, the following factors need to be considered: The proximity of the site to known active faults and the historical record of activity. The seismic response of the soil at the site. The dynamic response characteristics of the total structure. See Appendix 4.3-B3-1 through 3 for a general discussion of a seismic analysis.
4-3:P:BDM4
August 1998
4.3-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Loads and Loading 4.4 Foundation Modeling
Proper foundation modeling for earthquake loads is necessary because misinterpreted AASHTO Specifications can lead to a wide range of member sizes. Realistic models will likely produce savings in material, especially when determining loads to apply to a substructure. Analysis is an iterative process which converges to an acceptable design.
Foundation Modeling
4.4.1
Procedure Summary
Following is a workable procedure for analysis: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Assume the foundation as fixed (unless you know otherwise). Use SEISAB or GTSTRUDL to perform a dynamic analysis to determine initial loading. If the support is not founded in rock, multiply the forces from the fully fixed model by 0.85 for the initial trial design. Otherwise, use the fully fixed forces for the trial. Determine a preliminary footing size, pile size, and arrangement, as applicable to the type of support. Determine foundation springs as outlined in this section and Section 4.4.2. If pile support is being used, see Section 4.4.3.E. Rerun the dynamic model with springs included. Compare loads and deflections using the same range used to determine the springs. Redesign the footing, piles, adjust the springs, etc., until tolerable convergence is attained.
4.4.2
Spread Footings
a. You may apply load factor column moments from groups other than Group VII and column plastic hinging moments for a first trial footing configuration. Then determine soil spring constants using the footing plan area and depth of embedment. Assuming a shear wave velocity value, consult a Foundation or Geotechnical Engineer for an appropriate value. Appendix 4.4-B1 through 4 illustrate a procedure to determine soil spring constants for spread footings.
b.
4.4.3
Pile Foundations
A. Lateral Spring Input from P-Y Curves Spring constants that represent pile supports may be obtained using a procedure which begins by applying moments (as described in Section 4.4.1A) to an assumed footing and pile configuration. P-Y curves from the foundation report may be input to the LPILE1 computer program to derive the initial spring constants. The spacing between pile centers is often about 4 times the pile diameter (D), which means that each pile in the group may deflect more than if it were acting alone. Apply efficiency factors, if provided on the soils report, to quantify that difference. If information is not available, use the following table to estimate values.
August 1998
4.4-1
Efficiency Factor Table 4.4.3-1 For driven piles, the following factors apply: Contact the Olympia Service Center Materials Lab to verify any assumptions. The LPILE1 computer program will generate P-Y curves, or the user can input them. To obtain generated curves, input a modulus of subgrade reaction (K), and a soil shear strength (C) which are the values taken from the soils report multiplied by the efficiency factor. To figure P-Y curves for input, multiply the P-Y values from the soils report by the efficiency factor. For a typical soil, the relationship between its normalized resistance value and friction angle is defined by the curve in Figure 4.4.3-1. The friction angle could be adjusted for efficiency and input to LPILE1 by following these steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Begin at the coordinate of the natural friction angle (36). Read across to the normalized resistance (61). Multiply the resistance by the efficiency reduction factor, i.e., 61 (0.5) = 31. Read across from the reduced value to obtain the adjusted friction angle (31). Input the value to LPILE1.
4.4-2
August 1998
Friction Angle ()
PS = Ka (tan8B-1) + Ko tan tan 4B bx
PS b g X N B Ka Ko
= = = = = = = =
Soil Resistance on Pile Element Pile Width Soil Unit Weight Depth to Pile Element Step in Example 45 + /2 tan2(45 /2) 1 Sin Figure 4.4.3-1
August 1998
4.4-3
Foundation Modeling
4.4-4
August 1998
Figure 4.4.3-2A
Figure 4.4.3-2B
August 1998
4.4-5
Foundation Modeling
= = = = Moment Lbs-In
2 0.250D+05 lbs = 25 K applied 0.000D+00 in/in 0.758D+05 lbs Shear Lbs Soil Reaction Lbs/In Total Stress Lbs/In**2 Flexural Rigidity Lbs-In**2
(A) Loading Number 1 Boundary condition code Deflection at the pile head Moment at the pile head Axial load at the pile head X In ***** 0.00 28.04 Deflection In ********** 0.000D+00 -0.237D+00 0.237 = 1 28.04 = H f = Tan1 H = Tan1
1
= = = = Moment Lbs-In
4 0.000D+00 in 0.391D+07 in-lbs = 391 K-in applied 0.103D+06 lbs Shear Lbs Soil Reaction Lbs/In Total Stress Lbs/In**2 Flexural Rigidity Lbs-In**2
4.4-6
August 1998
Foundation Modeling
1.
2.
August 1998
4.4-7
Torsional (M/) spring constants for individual piles are based on the strength of the pile only. The torsional resistance is given by the following equation: M/ where, G J L = = = 0.4 E Torsional Moment of Inertia length of pile = T/ = JG/L
D. Stiffness Matrix Eight individual pile stiffness terms should be put into Seisab, which forms a {6 6} matrix as shown below: F1 F1 F2 F3 M1 M2 M3 KF1F1 F2 0 KF2F2 F3 0 0 KF3F3 M1 0 0 -KF3M1 KM1M1 M2 0 0 0 0 KM2M2 M3 KF1M3 0 0 0 0 KM3M3
"Symmetrical"
KF1M3 is cross-coupling term P/. -KF3M1 is cross-coupling term M/d. Note that the two have opposite signs. E. GPILE Computer Program If a large number of piles is required per footing, to reduce Seisab input/output, individual springs can be used in the GPILE computer program. The output will contain a {6 6} stiffness matrix for the pile group which can be used to model the foundation in SEISAB. GPILE input includes pile configuration and spring constants. The program also computes individual pile loads and deflections from a set of input loads. GPILE can be used in conjunction with the plastic hinging moments, transmitted from the column, to converge on an acceptable pile configuration.
4-4:P:BDM4
4.4-8
August 1998
Bibliography
10. Washington State Department of Transportation, Bridge Computer Programs Manual, GPILE and DISTBM. 11. Washington State Department of Transportation, 1996, USGS National Seismic Hazards, Mapping Project. 12. Hart Crowser, Subsurface Explorations and Design Phase Geotechnical Engineering Study, SR 90, Seattle Access, Volume 111, September 1986, J-712-50. 13. Federal Highway Administration, Manual on Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations, FHWA-DD-66-1, Revision 1. 14. Imbsen & Associates, FHWA, Seismic Design of Highway Bridges Training Course Participant Workbook, February 1989. 15. FHWA-86/103, Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, Vol. II: Example problems and Sensitivity Studies, June 1986.
4-99:P:BDM4
August 1998
4.99-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
August 1998
4.4-A1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
4.4-A1-2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
August 1998
4.4-A1-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
4.4-A1-4
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
August 1998
4.4-A1-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
4.4-A1-6
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
August 1998
4.4-A1-7
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
4.4-A1-8
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
August 1998
4.4-A1-9
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
4.4-A1-10
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Loads and Loading Peak Ground Acceleration Map
August 1998
4.4-A2
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Basic Truck Loading
August 1998
4.3-B1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Common Response Modification Factors
August 1998
4.3-B2-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Common Response Modification Factors
4.3-B2-2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Seismic Analysis Example
A recent analysis of a bridge on I-90 in the Mercer Slough area near Bellevue provides the following example: The deep soft soil at the site is classified as Type III from the AASHTO Specifications. An acceleration coefficient of 0.25, see Figure 4.1.5-1, was selected as appropriate. The acceleration spectrum shown in Appendix 4.3-B3-2 was used to load the bridge. The results which SEISAB calculated for the first 6 modes of oscillation appear in Appendix 4.3-B3-3. The CS values in the table relate directly to the response periods of the various modes as solutions to the equation: CS = 1.22AS /3
T
where: A S T = = = The acceleration coefficient The soil profile coefficient (1.5 in this case) The period of vibration of the bridge, the time it takes for one cycle of oscillation
In an undamped, single degree of freedom system, the natural period is defined as: T= where: M K = = The mass involved The spring constant
M K
See Bibliography 1 and 7 for further comments and procedures. CS, the elastic seismic response coefficient, is the percentage of a gravity force which is applied to the bridge for a particular mode. The participation factors indicate that modes 1 and 3 contribute most heavily to the design forces. In this case, the ground sends 0.25 g and the bridge receives about 0.50 g. The 0.50 g applied, divided by R = 5, translates to 0.1 g when figuring design moments for a multiple column bent. Design shears would be the lesser of the values produced by 0.50 g and the shears associated with plastic hinging moments. Since the column reinforcement may yield when the 0.1 g level is reached, the energy remaining will be redistributed to the remainder of the bridge. The main column reinforcement must be adequately confined by ties or spirals to allow redistribution to occur while maintaining structural integrity.
P:DP/BDM4
August 1998
4.3-B3-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Seismic Analysis Example
4.3-B3-2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Seismic Analysis Example
August 1998
4.3-B3-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Spring Constants Evaluation Example
Given Data Cohesionless soil Poissons ratio = 0.33 = Soil density 120 pcf = VS = shear wave velocity = 1,500 ft/sec Solution: Shear Modulus G= Vs2 = 32.2 ft/sec 2 1000 Lb/ K ( ) Vertical Stiffness L/W; Z ; L/W = 1.0 2.12
18 = 1.20 15
1.5 2.14
3.0 2.26
5.0 2.44
10.0 2.82
KZ =
Embedment Factor ro =
KW =- 9.27
H 6 ro = 9.27 = 0.65
August 1998
4.4-B1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Spring Constants Evaluation Example
Vertical Stiffness Modified KZH = 1.36 KZ = 1.36 438,000 = 596,000 kips/ft = KFY Horizontal Stiffness
L = 1.20 < 5 W
x = 2.0 G LW 8385
KX = X (1 ) = 2.0 (1 0.33)
18 15 = 185,000 K/ft
Assuming that the horizontal embedment effect is the same as the vertical. Horizontal Stiffness Modified KXH = 1.85 105 1.36 = 2.5 105 K/ft = KFX = KFZ
4.4-B1-2
August 1998
d = 9
0.2 0.4
1.0 0.5
2.0 0.6
4.0 0.8
6.0 0.95
8.0 1.1
K =
(8G cd )
1
K =
(8G)dc 2
1
16cd(c 2 + d 2 ) 6
=4
16 7.5 9(7.52 + 9 2 ) 6
Appendix 4.4-B1-4 depicts the footing from the example in spring matrix form. The nomenclature is general, and is used for GTSTRUDL input (GTSTRUDL 4.2.2d contains a similar matrix using SEISAB nomenclature).
August 1998
4.4-B1-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Loads and Loading Spring Constants Evaluation Example
Spring Matrix
4.4-B1-4
August 1998
5.1.2
5.2 5.2.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
July 2000
5.0-i
5.3.7 5.3.8
5.4
5.5 5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3 5.5.4
5.0-ii
July 2000
Contents
P65:DP/BDM5
July 2000
5.0-iii
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures 5.0 5.1 Reinforced Concrete Superstructures General
Prior to precast pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members introduced in the early 1960s, all short and medium span bridges were built as cast-in-place (CIP) reinforced concrete superstructures. Examples of reinforced concrete superstructures are: flat slabs, slab and T-beams, arches, slabs for all types of steel bridges, and box girders. Many of the bridges built before 1960 are functional, durable, and structurally sound. The service life of some of these early bridges can be extended by widening their decks to accommodate increased traffic demand or to improve safety. This chapter addresses special requirements for widenings. The design aids in this chapter can also be utilized in the design of nonprestressed reinforcement in prestressed structural elements and reinforced concrete substructures.
General
5.1.1
July 2000
5.1-1
General
*40 percent reduction from CLASS 4000. **Concrete Class 5000 is available within a 30-mile radius of Seattle, Spokane, and Vancouver. Outside this 30-mile radius, concrete suppliers do not have the quality control rocedures and expertise to Supply Control Class 5000. ***15 percent reduction from CLASS 4000 for all drilled shafts. 2. Relative Compressive Concrete Strength a. During design or construction of a bridge, it is necessary to determine the strength of concrete at various stages of construction. For instance, Section 6-02.3(17)J of the Standard Specifications discusses the time at which falsework and forms can be removed to various percentages of the concrete design strength. Occasionally, construction problems will arise which require a knowledge of the relative strengths of concrete at various ages. Table 5.1-1 is intended to supply this information. Curing conditions of the concrete (especially in the first 24 hours) have a very important influence on the strength development of concrete at all ages. Temperature affects the rate at which the chemical reaction between cement and water takes place. Loss of moisture can seriously impair the concrete strength. Table 5.1-1 shows the approximate values of the minimum compressive strengths of different classes of concrete at various ages. If the concrete has been cured under continuous moist curing at an average temperature, it can be assumed that these values have been developed. If test strength is above or below that shown in Table 5.1-1, the age at which the design strength will be reached can be determined by direct proportion. For example, if the relative strength at 10 days is 64 percent instead of the minimum 70 percent shown in Table 5.1-1, the time it takes to reach the design strength can be determined as follows: Let x = relative strength to determine the age at which the concrete will reach the design strength
b.
c.
d.
x 100 = Therefore, x = 110 70 64 From Table 5.1-1, the design strength should be reached in 40 days. C. Grout Grout is usually a prepackaged cement based grout or nonshrink grout that is mixed, placed, and cured as recommended by the manufacturer. It is used under steel base plates for both bridge bearings and luminaire or sign bridge bases. Nonshrink grout is used in keyways between precast prestressed deck slabs, tri-beams, and bulb-tees. For design purposes, the strength of the grout, if properly cured, can be assumed to be equal to or greater than that of the adjacent concrete. Should the grout pad thickness exceed 4 inches, steel reinforcement shall be used.
5.1-2
July 2000
The following chart shows approximate relative strength of concrete and compressive strength of different classes of concrete at various ages based on continuous moist curing at an average temperature. Relative and Compressive Strength of Concrete Table 5.1.1-1 Relative Age Strength (Days) (%) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 35 43 50 55 59 63 67 70 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 Class 5000 (psi) 1750 2150 2500 2750 2950 3150 3350 3500 3650 3750 3850 3950 4050 4150 4250 4350 4450 Class 4000 (psi) 1400 1720 2000 2200 2360 2520 2680 2800 2920 3000 3080 3160 3240 3320 3400 3480 3560 Class 3000 (psi) 1050 1290 1500 1650 1770 1890 2010 2100 2190 2250 2310 2370 2430 2490 2550 2610 2670 Relative Age Strength (Days) (%) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 91 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 102 110 115 120 125 129 131 Class 5000 (psi) 4550 4650 4700 4750 4800 4850 4900 4950 5000 5100 5500 5750 6000 6250 6450 6550 Class 4000 (psi) 3640 3720 3760 3800 3840 3880 3920 3960 4000 4080 4400 4600 4800 5000 5160 5240 Class 3000 (psi) 2730 2790 2820 2850 2880 2910 2940 2970 3000 3060 3300 3450 3600 3750 3870 3930
5.1.2
Reinforcement
A. Grades Steel reinforcing bars are manufactured as plain or deformed bars (which have ribbed projections that grip the concrete in order to provide better bond between steel and concrete). In Washington State, main bars are always deformed. Plain bars are used for spirals and ties. Reinforcing bars conform to either the requirements of AASHTO M31, Grade 60 (ASTM A-615 Grade 60) with a 60,000 psi yield strength or in the case of bars in portions of concrete members where plastic hanging can occur during an earthquake or which are to be spliced by welding, ASTM A 706 Specifications for Low-Alloy Steel deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. B. Sizes Reinforcing bars are referred to in the contract plans and specifications by number and vary in size from #3 to #18. For bars up to and including #8, the number of the bar coincides with the bar diameter in eighths of an inch. The #9, #10, and #11 bars have diameters that provide areas equal to 1 x 1 square bars, 11/8 x 11/8 square bars and 11/4 x 11/4 square bars respectively. Similarly, the #14 and #18 bars correspond to 11/2 x 11/2 and 2 x 2 square bars, respectively. Tables 5.1-A1 through 5.1-A3 in Appendix A, show the sizes, number, and various properties of the types of bars used in Washington State.
July 2000
5.1-3
General
5.1-4
July 2000
General
July 2000
5.1-5
General
5.1-6
July 2000
Figure 5.1.2-3
July 2000
5.1-7
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.1.2-4
5.1-8
July 2000
Table 5.1A6 in Appendix A, shows tension lap splices for both uncoated and epoxy coated Grade 60 bars for normal weight concrete with specified strengths of 3,000 to 6,000 psi. For additional requirements, see Section 8.32.3 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. For Seismic Performance Categories C and D, Section 8.4.1(F) of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, the lap splices for longitudinal column bars are permitted only within the center half of the column height and shall not be less than the lap splices given in Table 5.1-A6 in Appendix A, or 60 bar diameters whichever is greater. Note that the maximum spacing of the transverse reinforcement (i.e., column ties) over the length of the splice shall not exceed the smaller of 4 inches or 1/4 of the minimum column plan dimension. 2. Lap Splices Compression The compression lap splices shown in Table 5.1-A7 (right-hand column) in Appendix A, are for concrete strengths greater than 3,000 psi. If the concrete strength is less than 3,000 psi, the compression lap splices should be increased by one third. Note that when two bars of different diameters are lap spliced, the length of the lap splice shall be the larger of the lap splice for the smaller bar or the development length of the larger bar. 3. Mechanical Splices A second method of splicing is by mechanical splices, which are proprietary splicing mechanisms. The requirements for mechanical splices are found in Section 6-02.3(24)F of the Standard Specifications, Sections 8.32.2 and 8.32.3 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, and Section 8.4.1(F) of the Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges. 4. Welded Splices Welding of reinforcing bars is the third acceptable method of splicing reinforcing bars. Section 6-02.3(24)E of the Standard Specifications describes the requirements for welding reinforcing steel. On modifications to existing structures, welding of reinforcing bars may not be possible because of the non-weldability of some steels. See Sections 8.32.2 and 8.32.3 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Section 8.4.1(F) of the Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges for additional welded splice requirements. E. Bends For standard hooks and bend radii, see Table 5.1-15. Note that the tail lengths are greater for the 135 seismic tie hook than for the regular or nonseismic 135 tie hook. For field bending requirements, see Section 6-02.3(24)A of the Standard Specifications. F. Fabrication Lengths Reinforcing bars are normally stocked in lengths of 60 feet. They can also be fabricated in longer lengths.
July 2000
5.1-9
General
Where possible, specify lengths 60 feet and less for bar sizes #8 through #18. Because of placement considerations, the overall lengths of bar size #3 has been limited to 30 feet and bar sizes #4 and #5 to 40 feet. To use longer lengths, the designer should make sure that the bars can be placed and transported by truck. See Table 5.1-A1 in Appendix A. G. Placement Placement of reinforcing bars can be a problem during construction. Reinforcing bars are more than just lines on the drawing, they have size, weight, and volume. In confined areas, the designer should ensure that reinforcing bars can be placed. Sometimes it may be necessary to make a large scale drawing of reinforcement to look for interference and placement problems. If interference is expected, additional details may be required in the contract plans showing how to handle the interference and placement problems. H. Percentage Requirements There are several AASHTO requirements to ensure that minimum reinforcement is provided in reinforced concrete members. 1. Flexure The reinforcement provided at any section should be adequate to develop a moment at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated on the basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete. The modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete is 7.5 fc . This requirement may be waived if the area of reinforcement provided is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis. For additional minimum reinforcement required, see Section 8.17, AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. 2. Compression For columns, the area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not exceed 0.08 nor be less than 0.01 of the gross area, Ag, of the section. Preferably, the ratio of longitudinal reinforcement should not exceed 0.04 of the gross area, Ag, to ensure constructibility and placement of concrete. If a ratio greater than 0.04 is used, the designer should verify that concrete can be placed. If for architectural purposes the cross section is larger than that required by the loading, a reduced effective area may be used. The reduced effective area shall not be less than that which would require 1percent of the longitudinal area to carry the loading. Additional lateral reinforcement requirements are given in Section 8.18, AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, and for plastic hinge zones, see Section 8.4.1(D), AASHTO Standard Specifications for the Seismic Design of Highway Bridges. For column reinforcing, ASTM A 706 reinforcing should be pecified to improve durability. 3. Other Minimum Reinforcement Requirements For minimum shear reinforcement requirements, see Section 8.19 and for minimum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement, see Section 8.20, AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
5.1-10
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures 5.2 5.2.1 Design Methods Strength Design Method
A. Design Philosophy In the strength design method or ultimate strength method, the service loads are increased by load factors to obtain the ultimate design load. The structural members are then proportioned to provide the design ultimate strength. Several textbooks listed in the bibliography, which are excellent sources [1,2,3]. B. Flexure The basic strength design requirement can be expressed as follows: Design Strength Required Strength or Mn Mu (1)
Design Methods
For design purposes, the area of reinforcement for a singly reinforced beam or slab can be determined by letting: Mu = Mn = [As (fy) (d a/2)] However, if a As(fy)/(0.85)(fc)(b) and = As/(b)(d) Equation (2) can be expressed as: Mu/ (b) (d)2 = (fy) [1 0.59 () fy/fc] Tables 5.2-1 through 5.2-3 in Appendix 5.2-A1, -A2, and -A3, were prepared based on Eq (4) to quickly determine the amount of reinforcing steel required, As required, when Mu, fc, fy, b, and d are known. An alternate approach is to solve directly for As required from: As required = 0.85 fc (b) fy (4) (2) (3)
(
d
d2
31.3725 Mu fc (b)
where
Mu = kips in fc = ksi
(5)
Similarly, substituting 1.2Mcr for Mu, As min can be found from: As min = 0.85 fc (b) fy
(
d fc fy
d2
0.124 h2 f c
where
h = slab thickness
(6)
From AASHTO 8.16.3.1.1 and 8.16.3.2.2, As max can be found from: As max = 0.6375 1 (b) (d) where
87 87 + fy
(7)
1 = 0.85 if fc 4 ksi and 1 = 0.85 0.05 (fc 4) if fc > 4 ksi, but not less than 0.65
Tension reinforcement should be designed in the following order: 1. 2. 3. From Eq (5) or Tables 5.2-A1 through 5.2-A3 in Appendix A, determine As required. From Eq (6) determine As min. From Eq (7) or Tables 5.2-A1 through 5.2-A3 in Appendix A, determine As max.
July 2000
5.2-1
Design Methods
See Appendix 5.2-B1 and 5.2-B2 for design examples. C. Shear The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges addresses shear design of members in Section 8.16.6. Shear friction provisions (Section 8.16.6.4) are applied to transfer shear across a plane, such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or at a construction joint between two sections of concrete placed at different times. The shear design for deep beams is not addressed in the AASHTO Standard Specifications, but is discussed in Section 11.8, ACI 318-89 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and Commentary, and ACI-ASCE Committee 343 Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures [4,5,6]. D. Strut-and-Tie Model 1. General Strut-and-tie models may be used to determine internal force effects near supports and the points of application of concentrated loads [16]. The strut-and-tie model should be considered for the design of deep footings and pile caps or other situations in which the distance between the centers of applied load and supporting reaction is less than twice the member thickness. 2. Structural Modeling The structure and a component or region, thereof, may be modeled as an assembly of steel tension ties and concrete compressive struts interconnected at nodes to form a truss capable of carrying all the applied loads to the supports as shown in Figure 5.2.1-1 for a deep beam. The required widths of compression struts and tension ties shall be considered in determining the geometry of the truss. The truss model does not necessarily need to conform to structural stability as a real truss would. The factored resistance, Pn,of struts and ties shall be taken as that of axially loaded components. Pu = Pn where: Pn = nominal resistance of strut or tie (KIP) = 0.7 Compression = 0.9 Tension
5.2-2
July 2000
Design Methods
July 2000
5.2-3
5.2-4
July 2000
July 2000
5.2-5
Design Methods
Anchorage of Tie The tension tie reinforcement shall be anchored to transfer the tension force therein to the node regions of the truss in accordance with the requirements for development of reinforcement as specified in Article 5.1.2C.
5.
Proportioning of Node Regions Unless confining reinforcement is provided and its effect is supported by analysis or experimentation, the concrete compressive stress in the node regions of the strut shall not exceed: For node regions bounded by compressive struts and bearing areas: 0.85 fc For node regions anchoring a one-direction tension tie: 0.75 fc For node regions anchoring tension ties in more than one direction: 0.65 fc where: = 0.7 resistance factor for bearing on concrete The tension tie reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed over an effective area of concrete at least equal to the tension tie force divided by the stress limits specified herein. In addition to satisfying strength criteria for compression struts and tension ties, the node regions shall be designed to comply with the stress and anchorage limits.
6.
Crack Control Reinforcement Structures and components or regions thereof, except for slabs and footings, which have been designed in accordance with the provisions strut-and-tie model, shall contain an orthogonal grid of reinforcing bars near each face. The spacing of the bars in these grids shall not exceed 12.0 inches. The ratio of reinforcement area to gross concrete area shall not be less than 0.003 in each direction. Crack control reinforcement, located within the tension tie, may be considered as part of the tension tie reinforcement.
5.2-6
July 2000
Design Methods
July 2000
5.2-7
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures 5.2.2 Working Stress Design Method
Prior to the strength design method, introduced in the 1973, AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, the working stress design (WSD) method was used to design bridges. Many design aids were produced as a result. The ACI Publication SP-3, Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook Working Stress Method [9], is a publication that was widely used by designers and several textbooks have sections devoted to WSD [1,2]. Working Stress Design principles are used to compute the tensile stress, fs, and Mcr, which are used to check crack control and minimum flexural reinforcement respectively. Design aid for working stress design method for Class 3000 and 4000 concrete is provided in Appendix B4.
Design Methods
P65:DP/BDM5
5.2-8
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures 5.3 Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
A typical box girder bridge is comprised of top and bottom concrete slabs connected by a series of vertical girder stems. This section is a guide for designing: Top slab Bottom slab Girder stem (web) For design criteria not covered, see Section 2.4.1.C.
5.3.1
July 2000
5.3-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Changes in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness. Maximum T3 = T3+4.0 maximum Transition length = 12 x (T3) in inches
5.3-2
July 2000
Intermediate Diaphragm Thickness, T4 and Diaphragm Spacing a. For tangent and curved bridge with R > 800 feet T4 = 0 (Diaphragms are not required.) b. For curved bridge with R < 800 feet T4 = 8.0 Diaphragm spacing shall be as follows: For 600 < R < 800at 1/2 pt. of span. For 400 < R < 600 at 1/3 pt. of span. For R < 400 at 1/4 pt. of span.
C. Construction Considerations Review the following construction considerations to ensure that: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Construction joints at slab/stem interface or fillet/stem interface at top slab are appropriate. All construction joints to have roughened surfaces. Bottom slab is parallel to top slab (constant depth). Girder stems are vertical. Dead load deflection and camber to nearest 1/8. Skew and curvature effects have been considered. Thermal effects have been considered. The potential for falsework settlement is acceptable. This always requires added stirrup reinforcement in sloped outer webs.
D. Load Distribution 1. Unit Design According to the AASHTO specifications, the entire slab width shall be assumed effective for compression. It is both economical and desirable to design the entire superstructure as a unit rather than as individual girders. When a reinforced box girder bridge is designed as an individual girder with a deck overhang, the positive reinforcement is congested in the exterior cells. The unit design method permits distributing all girder reinforcement uniformly throughout the width of the structure. 2. Dead Loads a. b. c. d. Box dead loads. D.L. of top deck forms 5 lbs. per sq. ft. of the area. 10 lbs. per sq. ft. if web spacing > 100. Traffic barrier. Overlay, intermediate diaphragm, and utility weight if applicable.
July 2000
5.3-3
5.3.2
Reinforcement
This section discusses moment reinforcement for top slab, bottom slab, and intermediate diaphragms in box girders. A. Top Slab Reinforcement 1. Near Center of Span Figure 5.3.2-1 shows the reinforcement required near the center of the span and Figure 5.3.2-2 shows the overhang reinforcement. a. b. c. 2. Transverse reinforcing in the top and bottom layers to transfer the load to the main girder stems shall be equal in size and spacing. Bottom longitudinal distribution reinforcement in the middle half of the deck span (Seff) to aid in distributing the wheel loads. Top longitudinal temperature and shrinkage reinforcement.
Near Intermediate Piers Figure 5.3.2-3 illustrates the reinforcement requirement near intermediate piers. See Appendix 5.2-B2 for design of longitudinal deck reinforcement. a. b. c. Transverse reinforcing same as center of span. Longitudinal reinforcement to resist negative moment (see Figure 5.3.2-3). Distribution of flexure reinforcement to limit cracking (see Figure 5.3.2-3). Allowable fs = z/(dc x A)
1/ 3
3.
Bar Patterns a. Transverse Reinforcement It is preferable to place the transverse reinforcement parallel to the X-Beam and end diaphragm on skews up to 25 degrees or less. Where skew angles exceed 25 degrees, the transverse bars are normal to bridge center line and the areas near the expansion joint and bridge ends are reinforcement by partial length bars. The bottom transverse slab reinforcement is discontinued at the X-Beam (see Figure 5.3.2-4).
5.3-4
July 2000
July 2000
5.3-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
5.3-6
July 2000
Near Intermediate Piers Figure 5.3.2-6 shows the reinforcement required near intermediate piers. a. b. Minimum transverse reinforcement same as center of span. Minimum longitudinal temperature and shrinkage reinforcement. As=0.004 x flange area with 1/2 As distributed equally to each face. c. Add steel for construction load (sloped outer webs).
3.
Bar Patterns a. Transverse Reinforcement See top slab bar patterns, Figures 5.3.2-1, 5.3.2-2, and 5.3.2-3. All bottom slab transverse bars shall be bent at the outside face of the exterior web. For vertical web, the tail will be 1-0 and for sloping exterior web 2-0 minimum splice with the outside web stirrups. See Figure 5.3.2-7. b. Longitudinal Reinforcement For longitudinal reinforcing bar patterns, see Chapter 6.
C. Web Reinforcement 1. Vertical Stirrups (see Figure 5.3.2-8) The web reinforcement should be designed for the following requirements: Vertical shear requirements. Out of plane bending on outside web due to live load on cantilever overhang. Horizontal shear requirements for composite flexural members. A b Minimum v = 50 w (#5 bars @ 1-6), where bw = no. of girder stems (T3). s fy
July 2000
5.3-7
Web Longitudinal Reinforcement (see Figure 5.3.2-8) If the depth of the side face of a member exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed along both side faces of the member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement Ask per foot of height on each side face shall be 0.012 (d 30). The maximum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser of d/6 and 12 inches. Such freinforcement may be included in strength computations if a strain compatibility analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual bars or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin reinforcement in both faces need not exceed one half of the flexural tensile reinforcement. Where As = Total required area of longitudinal reinforcing steel. Reinforcing steel spacing < Web Thickness (T3) or 12. For cast-in-place sloped outer webs, increase inside stirrup reinforcement and bottom slab top transverse reinforcement as required for the web moment locked-in during construction of the top slab. This moment about the bottom corner of the web is due to tributary load from the top slab concrete placement plus 10 psf form dead load. See Figure 5.3.2-10 for typical top slab forming.
5.3-8
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Figure 5.3.2-7
July 2000
5.3-9
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Figure 5.3.2-8
5.3-10
July 2000
Figure 5.3.2-9 Intermediate diaphragms are not required for bridges on tangent alignment or curved bridges with an inside radius of 800 feet or greater. Notes: 1. 2. If the bar is not spliced, the horizontal dimension should be 4 shorter than the slab width. Stirrup hanger must be placed above longitudinal steel when diaphragm is skewed and slab reinforcement is placed normal to center of roadway. (Caution: Watch for the clearance with longitudinal steel). The reinforcement should have at least one splice to facilitate proper bar placement.
3.
Notes:
July 2000
5.3-11
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
1. 2.
The diagonal brace supports web forms during web pour. After cure, the web is stiffer than the brace, and the web attracts load from subsequent concrete placements. The tributary load includes half the overhang because the outer web form remains tied to and transfers load to the web which is considerably stiffer than the formwork. Increase Web Reinf. for Locked-In Construction Load
Due to Typical Top Slab Forming for Sloped Web Box Girder Figure 5.3.2-10
5.3-12
July 2000
July 2000
5.3-13
f c
d2
31.3725M fc
5.3.4
End Diaphragm
A. Basic Geometry Bearings at the end diaphragms are usually located under the girder stems and transfer loads directly to the pier (see Figure 5.3.3-3). In this case, the diaphragm width should be equal to or greater than bearing sole plate grout pads (see Figure 5.3.3-4). Designer should provide access space for maintenance and inspection of bearings. Allowance should be provided to remove and replace the bearings. Lift point locations, jack capacity, number of jacks, and maximum permitted lift should be shown in the plan details.
5.3-14
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Bearing Locations, Lift Points, Jack Capacity, and Maximum Lift Permitted at End Diaphragm Figure 5.3.3-3
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5.3-15
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
L Abutment End Diaphragm Figure 5.3.4-1 The end diaphragms should be wide enough to provide adequate reinforcing embedment length. When the structure is on a skew greater than 10 degrees and the deck steel is normal or radial to the center of the bridge, the width should be enough to accommodate the embedment length of the reinforcement. The most commonly used type of end diaphragm is shown in Figure 5.3.3-5. The dimensions shown here are used as a guideline and should be modified if necessary. This end diaphragm is used with a stub abutment and overhangs the stub abutment. It is used on bridges with an overall or out-to-out length less than 400 feet. If the overall length exceeds 400 feet, an L abutment should be used. B. Reinforcing Steel Details Typical reinforcement details for an end diaphragm are shown in Figure 5.3.3-6.
5.3.5
5.3-16
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Multipliers for Estimating Long-term Deflection and Camber of Concrete Members Table 5.3.5-1 Multiplier Coefficient Girder Adjacent to Existing/Stage Construction Deflection (downward) apply to the elastic deflection due to the weight of member Deflection (downward) apply to the elastic deflection due to superimposed dead load only Girder Away From Existing/Stage Construction Deflection (downward) apply to the elastic deflection due to the weight of member Deflection (downward) apply to the elastic deflection due to superimposed dead load only 2.70 3.00 1.90 2.20
In addition to dead load deflection, forms and falsework tend to settle and compress under the weight of freshly placed concrete. The amount of this takeup is dependent upon the type and design of the falsework, workmanship, type and quality of materials and support conditions. The camber should be modified to account for anticipated takeup in the falsework.
5.3.6
Thermal Effects
Concrete box girder bridges are subjected to stresses and/or movements resulting from temperature variation. Temperature effects result from time-dependent variations in the effective bridge temperature and from temperature differentials within the bridge superstructure. A. Effective Bridge Temperature and Movement Fluctuation in effective bridge temperature causes expansion and contraction of the structure. Proper temperature expansion provisions are essential in order to ensure that the structure will not be damaged by thermal movements. These movements, in turn, induce stresses in supporting elements such as columns or piers, and result in horizontal movement of the expansion joints and bearings. For more details, see Chapter 8. B. Differential Temperature Although time-dependent variations in the effective temperature have caused problems in both reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges, detrimental effects caused by temperature differential within the superstructure have occurred only in prestressed bridges. Therefore, computation of stresses and movements resulting from the vertical temperature gradients is not included in this chapter. For more details, see AASHTO Guide Specifications, Thermal Effects on Concrete Bridge Superstructures (1989).
July 2000
5.3-17
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
5.3-18
July 2000
5.3.8
Utility Openings
A. Confined Spaces A confined space is any place having a limited means of exit which is subject to the accumulation of toxic or flammable contaminants or an oxygen deficient environment. Confined spaces include but are not limited to pontoons, box girder bridges, storage tanks, ventilation or exhaust ducts, utility vaults, tunnels, pipelines, and open-topped spaces more than 4 feet in depth such as pits, tubes, vaults, and vessels. The designer should provide for the following: A sign with Confined Space Authorized Personnel Only. In the Special Provisions Check List, alert and/or indicate that a special provision might be needed to cover confined spaces. B. Drain Holes Drain holes should be placed in the bottom slab at the low point of each cell to drain curing water during construction and any rain water that leaks through the deck slab. Additional drains shall be provided as a safeguard against water accumulation in the cell (especially when waterlines are carried by the bridge). In some instances, drainage through the bottom slab is difficult and other means shall be provided (i.e., cells over large piers and where a sloping exterior web intersects a vertical web). In this case, a horizontal drain should be provided through the vertical web. Figure 5.3.8-1 shows drainage details for the bottom slab of concrete box girder bridges. C. Access Hole and Air Vent Holes Access holes with doors should be placed in the bottom slab if necessary to inspect utilities inside cells (i.e., waterline, conduits, E.Q. restrainers, etc.). Figure 5.3.8-2 and 5.3.8-3 shows access hole and air vent hole details. Air vents are required when access holes are used.
July 2000
5.3-19
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Figure 5.3.8-1
P65:DP/BDM5
5.3-20
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Figure 5.3.8-2
July 2000
5.3-21
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Figure 5.3.8-3
5.3-22
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures 5.4 Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps
Hinges and inverted T-beam pier caps require special design and detailing considerations. Continuous hinge shelves (both top and bottom projecting shelves) and continuous ledges of inverted T-beam pier caps, which support girders, are shown in Figures 5.4-1 and 5.4-2 respectively. In each case, vertical tensile forces (hanger tension) act at the intersection of the web and the horizontal hinge shelf or ledge. In the ledges of inverted T-beam pier caps, passage of live loads may also cause reversing torsional stresses which together with conventional longitudinal shear and bending produce complex stress distributions in the ledges [10,11]. Provide minimum shelf or ledge support lengths (N, N1, and N2) and provide positive longitudinal linkage (e.g., earthquake restrainers) [12] in accordance with the current AASHTO seismic design requirements. A. Local Failure Modes In addition to conventional longitudinal bending and shearing forces, there are several local modes of failure which should be addressed in the design [10,11]. These are: shear friction failure, flexural failure, hanger tension failure, punching shear failure of the horizontal hinge shelf or ledge, and spalling under the bearing. Figure 5.4-3 shows these local failure modes and potential cracks. For all conditions, except for the bearing strength check, use =0.85. For the bearing strength check, use =0.7 [13].
July 2000
5.4-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps
5.4-2
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps
The forces acting on the hinge shown in Figure 5.4-3 are: shear, Vu; horizontal tensile force, Nuc; and moment, Mu. Vu Nuc Mu where: af = Factored Shear (Dead Load + Live Load + Impact) 0.2Vu, but less than 1.0Vu = Vu(af) + Nuc(h-d) = Flexural moment arm is the distance from the reaction to the centerline of the hanger reinforcement, and shall include the thermal movement of the reaction, Vu. = Moment arm for the horizontal load, Nuc. (1) (2) (3)
h-d
The horizontal tensile load, Nuc, is due to indeterminate causes such as restrained shrinkage or temperature stresses and is considered a live load [13]. In addition, service load conditions should also be checked for deflections and crack control.
could lead to a flexural or shear friction failure mode. necessitates hanger reinforcement. could lead to a punching shear failure. can be avoided by reducing the bearing stress or allowing more edge distance. Failure Modes and Potential Cracks Figure 5.4-3
July 2000
5.4-3
When W+4av > S, check: Vu (0.2fc)(S)(d) 2. Bearing at End of Hinge or Ledge When S > 2c < (W+4av), check: Vu (0.2fc)(2c)(d) When S > (W+4av) < 2c, check: Vu (0.2fc)(W+4av)(d) When (W+4av) > S > 2c, check: Vu (0.2fc)(S)(d) In addition, equation (6) shall be satisfied. Avf is distributed over 2c, W+4av, or S, whichever is less. where c = Distance from the end of the hinge or ledge to the center of the exterior bearing. S = Center-to-center of girders or hinge seat bearings. (10) (9) (8) (7)
5.4-4
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps
Shear Friction Design Figure 5.4-4 C. Flexural Design (Figure 5.4-5) The primary reinforcement, As, for the shelf or ledge shall be determined from equations (11), (12), and (13), whichever is greater [13]: As Af + An As 2(Avf)/3 + An As min (W+5af)(d) where: min = 0.04(fc/fy) Af = Flexural reinforcement required for Mu Avf = Shear friction reinforcement An = Tensile reinforcement = Nuc/(fy) In addition, closed stirrups or ties parallel to As with a total area Ah of not less than 0.5(As-An) shall be uniformly distributed within two thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As [13]. If the effective width W+5afS place the reinforcement over distance S. At the ends of the hinge or ledge, distribute the reinforcement over distance 2c, S, or W+5af, whichever is less. (11) (12) (13)
July 2000
5.4-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps
Flexural Design Figure 5.4-5 D. Hanger Tension Design (Figure 5.4-6) The hanger tension reinforcement, Ahr, shall satisfy both of the following strength and serviceability equations: Vu Ahr/s)(fy)(S) V (Ahr/s)(0.5fy)(W+3av) where: Ahr = Hanger reinforcement in square inches s = Spacing of the hanger reinforcement V = Service load reaction W+3av = Effective width for hanger reinforcement-Serviceability Strength Serviceability (14) (15)
5.4-6
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps
In addition to equations (14) and (15), the following equation shall also be satisfied for inverted T-beam pier caps (see Figure 5.4-7): 2Vu 2[2 fc bfdf] + (ahr/s)(fy)(W+2df) where bf = Width of bottom flange of inverted T-beam df = Distance from top of ledge to center of longitudinal cap reinforcement near the bottom flange of the inverted T-beam W+2df = Effective width for hanger reinforcement for inverted T-beam. If S>(W+2df), it is not necessary to add the stirrup reinforcement for conventional shear and torsion to the hanger reinforcement. Ensure that the stirrup reinforcement satisfies either the conventional longitudinal shear and torsion reinforcement requirements or the hanger reinforcement requirement, whichever is greater. If S<(W+2df), it will be necessary to add the required hanger reinforcement to that required for shear and torsion [11]. (16)
Inverted T-Beam Hanger Reinforcement Figure 5.4-7 E. Punching Shear Check As shown in Figure 5.4-8, punching shear of the horizontal shelves of hinges and ledges of inverted T-beam pier caps should be checked. For an interior bearing, check: Vu (4 fc )(W + 2L + 2d)(d) For an exterior bearing at the end of a hinge or inverted T-beam cap, check: Vu (4 fc )(W + L + d)(d) where: 4 fc = Allowable tensile strength of concrete for punching shear W = Width of the rectangular bearing perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bridge (e.g., width parallel to the centerline of bearings) L = Length from face of hinge or ledge to back of bearing = L+c (18) (17)
July 2000
5.4-7
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps
Punching Shear at Interior Bearing Figure 5.4-8 F. Bearing Strength Check To prevent spalling under the bearing, the bearing stress should not exceed 0.85()(fc) [13]: Vu 0.85()(fc)(W)(L) where: = 0.70 L = Length of the rectangular bearing parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge (e.g., parallel to the direction of traffic). (19)
P65:DP/BDM5
5.4-8
July 2000
Widenings
5.5.1
3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
B. Original Contract Plans and Special Provisions Location and size of reinforcement, member sizes and geometry, location of construction joints, details, allowable design soil pressure, and test hole data are given on the plans. Original contract plans can be more legible than the microfilm copies. The special provisions may include pertinent information that is not covered on the plans or in the Standard Specifications. C. Original Calculations The original calculations should be reviewed for any special assumptions or office criteria used in the original design. The actual stresses in the structural members, which will be affected by the widening, should be reviewed. This may affect the structure type selected for the widening.
July 2000
5.5-1
Widenings
5.5.2
5.5-2
July 2000
Widenings
b.
c.
d.
July 2000
5.5-3
with the existing structure when traffic is on the existing structure. This causes the uncured concrete of the widening to crack where it joins the existing structure. Differential dead load deflection during construction should be given consideration. e. Precast members may be used to widen existing cast-in-place structures. This method is useful when the horizontal or vertical clearances during construction are insufficient to build cast-in-place members. The alignment for diaphragms for the widening shall generally coincide with the existing diaphragms. When using battered piles, estimate the pile tip elevations and ensure that they will have ample clearance from all existing piles, utilities, or other obstructions. Also check that there is sufficient clearance between the existing structure and the pile driving equipment.
f. g.
B. Seismic Design Criteria for Bridge Widenings 1. Adequacy of Existing Structure Early in the project, determine whether earthquake loading poses any problems for the structural adequacy of the existing structure (e.g., original unwidened structure). The amount of reinforcement and structural detailing of older structures may not meet the current AASHTO seismic design requirements. It is important that these deficiencies be determined as soon as possible so that remedial/retrofitting measures can be evaluated. It should be noted that for some structures, because of deterioration and/or inadequate details, the widening may not be structurally or economically feasible. In this case, the Bridge Design Engineer should be consulted for possible structure replacement instead of proceeding with widening the structure. 2. Superstructure Widening Without Adding Substructure No seismic analysis is necessary for this condition. Check the support shelf length required at all piers. Check the need for longitudinal earthquake restrainers and transverse earthquake stops. 3. Superstructure Widening by Adding Column(s) and Substructure Use the AASHTO/BDM seismic design criteria with appropriate R factors to design and detail the new columns and footings for the maximum required capacity. Analyze the widening and the existing structure as a combined unit. If the existing structure is supported by single column piers, and is located in SPC or C (LRFD Seismic Zone 2, 3, or 4), the existing columns should be retrofitted if the existing column does not have adequate ductility to meet current standards. If the existing structure is supported by multiple column piers, determine the need to retrofit the existing columns as part of the widening as follows: a. For existing bridges in SPC B or C (LRFD, Zone 2, 3, or 4) that are widened with additional columns and substructure, existing columns should be considered for retrofitting unless calculations or column details indicate that the existing columns have adequate ductility. Nonductile existing columns will likely not be able to carry vertical load if they experience the inelastic deflection that a new (ductile) column can tolerate.
5.5-4
July 2000
Widenings
Only the columns should be retrofitted. Retrofitting the foundations supporting existing columns is generally too expensive to consider for a widening project. Experience in past earthquakes in California has shown that bridges with columns (only) retrofitted have performed quite well. Approval for retrofitting existing multiple column piers is subject to available funding and approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
c. 4.
Other Criteria a. If recommended in the foundation report, the superstructure widening with new substructure shall also be checked for differential settlement between the existing structure and the new widened structure. All elements of the structure shall be analyzed and detailed to account for this differential settlement especially on spread footing foundations. Check support width requirements; if there is a need for earthquake restrainers on the existing structure as well as the widened portion, they shall be included in the widening design. The current AASHTO seismic design criteria may result in columns with more reinforcement and larger footings for the widened portion than those on the existing structure. If it is not possible to use larger footings because of limited space, an alternate design concept such as drilled shafts may be necessary. When modifications are made near or on the existing bridge, be careful to isolate any added potential stiffening elements (such as traffic barrier against colmuns). The relative stiffness of the new columns compared to the existing columns should be considered in the combined analysis. The typical column retrofit is steel jacketing with grouted annular space (between the existing column and the steel jacket). When strutted columns (horizontal strut between existing columsn) are encountered, remove the strut and analyze the existing columns for the new unbraced length and retrofit, if necessary. Refer to WSDOT Research Report on Strutted Columns (nearing completion).
b.
c.
d. e.
f.
C. Substructure 1. Selection of Foundation a. The type of foundation to be used to support the widening should generally be the same as that of the existing structure unless otherwise recommended by the Geotechnical Engineer. The effects of possible differential settlement between the new and the existing foundations shall be considered. Consider present bridge site conditions when determining new foundation locations. The conditions include: overhead clearance for pile driving equipment, horizontal clearance requirements, working room, pile batters, channel changes, utility locations, existing embankments, and other similar conditions.
b.
2.
Scour and Drift Added piles and columns for widenings at water crossings may alter stream flow characteristics at the bridge site. This may result in pier scouring to a greater depth than experienced with the existing configuration. Added substructure elements may also increase the possibility of trapping drift. The Hydraulics Engineer should be consulted concerning potential problems related to scour and drift on all widenings at water crossings.
July 2000
5.5-5
Widenings
5.5-6
July 2000
Widenings
5.5.3
5.5.4
July 2000
5.5-7
Widenings
5.5-8
July 2000
Widenings
The embedments shown in Table 5.5-1 and -2 are based on dowels embedded in concrete with fc=4,000 psi. Allowable Tensile Load for Dowels Set With Epoxy Resin fc=4,000 psi, Gr 60 Reinforcing Bars, Edge Clearance 3 in., and Spacing 6 in.[14] Table 5.5-1 Bar Size 4 5 6 7 8 9 Allowable Design Tensile Load, T* (kips) 12.0 18.6 26.4 36.0 47.4 60.0 Drill Hole Size (in)
5 3
Required Embedment, Le** Uncoated Epoxy Coated (in) (in) 7 8 9 11 13 16 8 9 10 12 141/2 171/2
/8 /4
*Allowable Tensile Load (Strength Design) = (fy)(As). **Based on removed cover. In cases where concrete cover is not removed, the designer should add the cover thickness to the required embedment. Allowable Tensile Load for Dowels Set With Epoxy Resin fc=4,000 psi, Gr 60 Reinforcing Bars, Edge Clearance 3 in., and Spacing < 6 in.[14] Table 5.5-2 Bar Size 4 5 6 7 8 9 Allowable Design Tensile Load, T* (kips) 12.0 18.6 26.4 36.0 47.4 60.0 Drill Hole Size (in)
5 3
Required Embedment, Le** Uncoated Epoxy Coated (in) (in) 91/2 101/2 111/2 131/2 161/2 20 101/2 111/2 121/2 15 18 22
*Allowable Tensile Load (Strength Design) = (fy)(As). **Based on removed cover. In cases where concrete cover is not removed, the designer should add the cover thickness to the required embedment. 5. Shear Transfer Across a Dowelled Joint Shear should be carried across the joint by shear friction on an intentionally roughened surface instead of depending on the dowels to transmit the shear force. Chipping shear keys in the existing concrete can also be used to transfer shear across a dowelled joint, but is expensive.
July 2000
5.5-9
Widenings
5.5-10
July 2000
Widenings
July 2000
5.5-11
Widenings
5.5-12
July 2000
Box Girder Section Through X-Beam See Box Girder Section in Span for additional details. Figure 5.5-3 Welding or mechanical butt splice are preferred over dowelling for the main reinforcement in crossbeams and columns when it can be done in the horizontal or flat position. It shall be allowed only when the bars to be welded are free from restraint at one end during the welding process. **If bars are to be dowelled, provide a sufficient embedment depth for moment connection bars into existing structure that will provide the required moment capacity in the existing structure. See Table 5.5-1 or 5.5-2.
July 2000
5.5-13
5.5-14
July 2000
July 2000
5.5-15
Widenings
Note: Falsework shall be maintained under pier crossbeams until closure pour is made and cured 10 days. Flat Slab Section through X-Beam Figure 5.5-6
5.5-16
July 2000
Widenings
July 2000
5.5-17
Widenings
5.5-18
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures 5.5.5 Expansion Joints
The designer should determine if existing expansion joints can be eliminated. It will be necessary to determine what modifications to the structure are required to provide an adequate functional system when existing joints are eliminated. For expansion joint design, see Section 8.4.1 Expansion Joints. Very often on widening projects it is necessary to chip out the existing concrete deck and rebuild the joint. Figures 5.5-9 and 5.5-10 show details for rebuilding joint openings for compression seal expansion joints. If a widening project includes an overlay, the expansion joint may have to be raised, modified or replaced. See the Joint Specialist for plan details that are currently being used to modify or retrofit existing expansion joints.
Widenings
Expansion Joint Detail Shown for Compression Seal Existing Reinforcing Steel Saved Figure 5.5-9
July 2000
5.5-19
Expansion Joint Detail shown for compression seal with new reinforcing steed added. Figure 5.5-10
5.5.6
5.5.7
5.5-20
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Reinforced Concrete Superstructures 5.5.8 Existing Bridge Widenings
The following listed bridge widenings are included as aid to the designer. These should not be construed as the only acceptable methods of widening; there is no substitute for the designers creativity or ingenuity in solving the challenges posed by bridge widenings.
Bridge NE 8th Street UXing Higgins Slough ER17 and AR17 O-Xing SR 538 O-Xing B-N OXing SR 405 536 5 5 5 Contract No. 9267 9353 9478 9548 9566 Type of Bridge Ps. Gir. Flat Slab Box Girder T-Beam Box Girder Middle and outside widening. Unbalanced widening section support at diaphragms until completion of closure pour. Widened with P.S. Girders, X-beams, and diaphragms not in line with existing jacking required to manipulate stresses, added enclusure walls. Post-tensioned X-beam, single web. Unusual Features Pier replacements
Widenings
Blakeslee Jct. E/W B-N OXing SR 536 LE Line over Yakima River SR 18 O-Xing Hamilton Road O-Xing Dillenbauch Creek Longview Wye SR 432 U-Xing Klickitat River Bridge Skagit River Bridge B-N O-Xing at Chehalis Bellevue Access EBCD Widening and Pier 16 Modification Totem Lake/NE 124th I/C Pacific Avenue I/C SR 705/SR 5 SB Added Lane Mercer Slough Bridge 90/43S Spring Street O-Xing No. 5/545SCD Fishtrap Creek Bridge 546/8 Columbia Drive O-Xing 395/16
5 18
T-Beam and Box Girder Box Girder T-Beam Box Girder P.S. Girder T-Beam Flat Slab P.S. Girder P.S. Girder Steel Truss
Similar to Contract 9548. Pier shaft. Lightweight concrete. Precast girder in one span.
90 90 5 5 5 142 5 5
Bridge lengthening. Bridge replacement. Rail modification. Replacement of thru steel girder span with stringer span.
90 405 5 5
Flat Slab and Box Girder T-Beam Box Girder Box Girder CIP Conc. Flat Slab CIP Conc. Box Girder P.C. Units Steel Girder
Deep, soft soil. Stradle best replacing single column. Skew = 55 degrees. Complex parallel skewed structures. Multiple widen structures. Tapered widening of flat slab outrigger pier, combined footings. Tapered widening of box girder with hingers, shafts. Widening of existing P.C. Units. Tight constraints on substructure. Widening/Deck replacement using standard rolled sections.
July 2000
5.5-21
Widenings
Bridge S 74th-72nd St. O-Xing No. 5/426 Pacific Avenue O-Xing No. 5/332 Tye River Bridges 2/126 and 2/127 SR 20 and BNRR O-Xing No. 5/714 NE 8th St. UXing No. 405/43 So. 212th St. UXing SR 167
SR
Unusual Features Haunched P.C. P.T. Bath Tub girder sections. Longitudinal joint between new and existing. Stage construction with crown shift. Widened with prestressed girders raised crossbeam. Pier replacement widening. Widening constructed as stand alone structure. Widening column designed as strong column for retrofit. Skew = 50 degree. Longitudinal link pin deck joint between new and existing to accommodate new creep. Sidewalk widening with pipe struts.
SE 232nd St. SR 18
5801
N/A 1999
P65:DP/BDM5
5.5-22
July 2000
Bibliography
10. Mirza, S.A., and Furlong, R.W., Design of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Inverted T Beams for Bridge Structures, PCI Journal, Vol. 30, No. 4, July-August 1985, pp. 112-136. 11. Rabbat, B.G., Reader Comments Design of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete inverted T Beams for Bridge Structures, PCI Journal, Vol. 31, No. 3, May-June 1986, pp. 157-163. 12. Supplement A, Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1991, pp. 14-16. 13. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16th Edition, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1996. 14. Babaei, K. and Hawkins, N. M., Bending/Straightening and Grouting Concrete Reinforcing Steel: Review of WSDOTs Specifications and Proposed Modifications, Final Report WA-RD 168.1, Washington State Transportation Center (TRAC), December 1988, 75 pp. 15. ACI Committee 345, Guide for Widening Highway Bridges, ACI Structural Journal, July/August, 1992, pp. 451-466. 16. AASHTO LRFD Specifications, 2nd Edition, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1998.
P65:DP/BDM5
July 2000
5.99-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Reinforcing Bar Properties
Size #3
/ 8 / 2 / 8 / 4 / 8
#4
0.668
0.56
0.20
40
40
#5
1.043
0.70
0.31
60
40
#6
1.502
0.83
0.44
60
60
#7
2.044
0.96
0.60
60
60
#8
2.670
1.10
0.79
72**
60
#9
3.400
1.13 (11/8) 1.27 (11/4) 1.41 (13/8) 1.69 (13/4) 2.26 (11/4)
1.24
1.00
72**
60
#10
4.303
1.40
1.27
72**
60
#11
5.313
1.55
1.56
90**
60
#14
7.650
1.86
2.25
90**
60
#18
13.600
2.48
4.00
90**
60
*Normally 1/8 per bar size number. **Requires large special order. Since these lengths may pose problems in transporting and handling, get your supervisors approval before using them. See Chapter 5, Section 5.1.2F. Note: For sizes > #9, area and weight are based on the decimal diameter. Table 5.1-A1
July 2000
5.1-A1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Bar Area vs. Bar Spacing
(Reinforcing Bars
AASHTO M31)
Bar Size
#3 Spacing 3 3 1 /4 3 1 /2 3 3 /4 4 4 1 /4 4 1 /2 4 3 /4 5 5 1 /4 5 1 /2 5 3 /4 6 6 1 /2 7 7 1 /2 8 8 1 /2 9 9 1 /2 10 101/2 11 111/2 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11
#4 0.80 0.74 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.51 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#14
#18
1.14 1.06 0.99 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.65 0.62 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.32 1.51 1.41 1.32 1.24 1.17 1.11 1.06 1.01 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.70 0.66 0.62 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.46 2.06 1.92 1.80 1.69 1.60 1.52 1.44 1.37 1.31 1.25 1.20 1.11 1.03 0.96 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.63 2.53 2.37 2.23 2.11 2.00 1.90 1.81 1.72 1.65 1.58 1.46 1.35 1.26 1.19 1.12 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.82 3.20 3.00 2.82 2.67 2.53 2.40 2.29 2.18 2.09 2.00 1.85 1.71 1.60 1.50 1.41 1.33 1.26 1.20 1.14 1.09 1.04 3.81 3.59 3.39 3.21 3.05 2.90 2.77 2.65 2.54 2.35 2.18 2.03 1.91 1.79 1.69 1.60 1.52 1.45 1.39 1.33 4.68 4.40 4.16 3.94 3.74 3.57 3.40 3.26 3.12 2.88 2.67 2.50 2.34 2.20 2.08 1.97 1.87 1.78 1.70 1.63 6.00 5.68 5.40 5.14 4.91 4.70 4.50 4.15 3.86 3.60 3.38 3.18 3.00 2.84 2.70 2.57 2.45 2.35 8.35 8.00 7.38 6.86 6.40 6.00 5.65 5.33 5.05 4.80 4.57 4.36 4.17
5.1-A2
July 2000
#3 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.21 1.32 1.43 1.54 1.65 1.76 1.87 1.98 2.09 2.20 2.31 2.42 2.53 2.64 2.75 2.86 2.97 3.08 3.19 3.30
#4 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 4.20 4.40 4.60 4.80 5.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.00
#5 0.31 0.62 0.93 1.24 1.55 1.86 2.17 2.48 2.79 3.10 3.41 3.72 4.03 4.34 4.65 4.96 5.27 5.58 5.89 6.20 6.51 6.82 7.13 7.44 7.75 8.06 8.37 8.68 8.99 9.30
#6 0.44 0.88 1.32 1.76 2.20 2.64 3.08 3.52 3.96 4.40 4.84 5.28 5.72 6.16 6.60 7.04 7.48 7.92 8.36 8.80 9.24 9.68 10.12 10.56 11.00 11.44 11.88 12.32 12.76 13.20
#7 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00 6.60 7.20 7.80 8.40 9.00 9.60 10.20 10.80 11.40 12.00 12.60 13.20 13.80 14.40 15.00 15.60 16.20 16.80 17.40 18.00
#8 0.79 1.58 2.37 3.16 3.95 4.74 5.53 6.32 7.11 7.90 8.69 9.48 10.27 11.06 11.85 12.64 13.43 14.22 15.01 15.80 16.59 17.38 18.17 18.96 19.75 20.54 21.33 22.12 22.91 23.70
#9 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 23.00 24.00 25.00 26.00 27.00 28.00 29.00 30.00
#10 1.27 2.54 3.81 5.08 6.35 7.62 8.89 10.16 11.43 12.70 13.97 15.24 16.51 17.78 19.05 20.32 21.59 22.86 24.13 25.40 26.67 27.94 29.21 30.48 31.75 33.02 34.29 35.56 36.83 38.10
#11 1.56 3.12 4.68 6.24 7.80 9.36 10.92 12.48 14.04 15.60 17.16 18.72 20.28 21.84 23.40 24.96 26.52 28.08 29.64 31.20 32.76 34.32 35.88 37.44 39.00 40.56 42.12 43.68 45.24 46.80
#14 2.25 4.50 6.75 9.00 11.25 13.50 15.75 18.00 20.25 22.50 24.75 27.00 29.25 31.50 33.75 36.00 38.25 40.50 42.75 45.00 47.25 49.50 51.75 54.00 56.25 58.50 60.75 63.00 65.25 67.50
#18 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00 40.00 44.00 48.00 52.00 56.00 60.00 64.00 68.00 72.00 76.00 80.00 84.00 88.00 92.00 96.00 100.00 104.00 108.00 112.00 116.00 120.00
Areas for Various Bar Sizes and Number of Bars Table 5.1-A3
July 2000
5.1-A3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Tension Development Length of Uncoated Deformed Bars
fc = 3,000 psi
Bar Size Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 4,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 5,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 6,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18
1-5 1-5 1-9 2-3 3-1 4-1 5-2 6-6 8-0 10-11 14-1
1-0 1-0 1-3 1-8 2-3 2-11 3-8 4-8 5-9 7-10 10-1
1-5 1-5 1-9 2-2 2-8 3-6 4-6 5-8 6-11 9-5 12-3
1-0 1-0 1-3 1-6 1-11 2-6 3-2 4-1 5-0 9-9 8-9
1-5 1-5 1-9 2-2 2-6 3-2 4-0 5-1 6-3 8-5 10-11
1-0 1-0 1-3 1-6 1-9 2-3 2-10 3-8 4-5 6-1 7-10
1-5 1-5 1-9 2-2 2-6 2-11 3-8 4-8 5-8 7-9 10-0
1-0 1-0 1-3 1-6 1-9 2-1 2-7 3-4 4-1 5-6 7-2
fc = 4,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 5,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 6,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18
1-9 1-9 2-2 2-9 3-9 4-11 6-3 7-11 9-9 13-3 17-1
1-6 1-6 1-11 2-5 3-4 4-4 5-6 7-0 8-7 11-8 15-1
1-9 1-9 2-2 2-7 3-3 4-3 5-5 6-10 8-5 11-6 14-10
1-6 1-6 1-11 2-3 2-11 3-9 4-9 6-1 7-5 10-1 13-1
1-9 1-9 2-2 2-7 3-0 3-10 4-10 6-2 7-6 10-3 13-3
1-6 1-6 1-11 2-3 2-8 3-5 4-3 5-5 6-8 9-1 11-8
1-9 1-9 2-2 2-7 3-0 3-6 4-5 5-7 6-11 9-4 12-1
1-6 1-6 1-11 2-3 2-8 3-1 3-11 4-11 6-1 8-3 10-8
Top Bars are so placed that more than 12 of concrete is cast below the reinforcement. Modification Factor for Spacing >=6 and side cover >=3 = 0.8. Minimum Development Length = 12. Modification Factor for Reinforcement Enclosed in Spiral = 0.75
Table 5.1-A4
fc = 6,000 psi
Bar Size
Side Cover Side Cover < 21/2 Cover >= 21/2 Cover on Tail < 2 on Tail >= 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18
0-9 0-11 1-2 1-5 1-8 1-10 2-1 2-4 2-7 3-1 4-2
0-6 0-8 0-10 1-0 1-2 1-4 1-6 1-8 1-10 3-1 4-2
0-8 0-10 1-0 1-3 1-5 1-7 1-10 2-1 2-3 2-9 3-7
0-6 0-7 0-9 0-10 1-0 1-2 1-3 1-5 1-7 2-9 3-7
0-7 0-9 0-11 1-1 1-3 1-5 1-8 1-10 2-0 2-5 3-3
0-6 0-7 0-8 0-9 0-11 1-0 1-2 1-3 1-5 2-5 3-3
0-6 0-8 0-10 1-0 1-2 1-4 1-6 1-8 1-10 2-3 2-11
0-6 0-7 0-7 0-8 0-10 0-11 1-1 1-2 1-4 2-3 2-11
Table 5.1-A5
5.1-A4
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Tension Lap Splice Lengths of Grade 60 Uncoated Bars Class B
fc = 3,000 psi
Bar Size Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 4,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 5,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 6,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18
2-0 2-0 2-0 2-0 2-4 2-0 2-11 2-1 4-0 2-11 5-3 3-9 6-8 4-9 8-6 6-1 10-5 7-5 Lap Splices Not Allowed
2-0 2-0 2-0 2-0 2-4 2-0 2-9 2-0 3-6 2-6 4-7 3-3 5-9 4-2 7-4 5-3 9-0 6-5 Lap Splices Not Allowed
2-0 2-0 2-0 2-0 2-4 2-0 2-9 2-0 3-3 2-4 4-11 2-11 5-2 3-9 6-7 4-8 8-1 5-9 Lap Splices Not Allowed
2-0 2-0 2-0 2-0 2-4 2-0 2-9 2-0 3-3 2-4 3-9 2-8 4-9 3-5 6-0 4-4 7-4 5-3 Lap Splices Not Allowed
fc = 4,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 5,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
fc = 6,000 psi
Top Bars ft-in Others ft-in
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18
2-3 2-0 2-3 2-0 2-10 2-6 3-7 3-2 4-11 4-4 6-5 5-8 8-1 7-2 10-3 9-1 12-8 11-2 Lap Splices Not Allowed
2-3 2-0 2-3 2-0 2-10 2-6 3-4 3-0 4-3 3-9 5-7 4-11 7-0 6-2 8-11 7-10 10-11 9-8 Lap Splices Not Allowed
2-3 2-0 2-3 2-0 2-10 2-6 3-4 3-0 3-11 3-5 5-0 4-5 6-3 5-7 8-0 7-0 9-9 8-0 Lap Splices Not Allowed
2-3 2-0 2-3 2-0 2-10 2-6 3-4 3-0 3-11 3-5 4-6 4-0 5-9 5-1 7-3 6-5 8-11 7-11 Lap Splices Not Allowed
Top Bars are so placed that more than 12 of concrete is cast below the reinforcement. Definition of Splice Classes: Class A: Class B: Class C: Low stressed bars 75% or less are spliced Low stressed bars more than 75% are spliced High stressed bars 1/2 or less are spliced High stressed bars more than 50% are spliced
Class B Lap splice is the preferred and most commonly used by bridge office. Modification Factor for Class A: 0.77 Modification Factor for Class C: 1.31 Modification Factor for 3-bar Bundle = 1.2
Table 5.1-A6
July 2000
5.1-A5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Minimum Development Length and Minimum Lap Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression
Development Length of Deformed Bars in Compression and Minimum Compression Lap Splice Per AASHTO Standard Specifications, 1991, 16th Edition Articles 8.26, 8.32.4 Concrete Reinf. Bar Size 3&4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18 1-0* 1-2 1-5 1-8 1-10 2-1 2-4 2-7 3-1 4-2 fc = 3,000 psi fc = 4,000 psi fc = 5,000 psi fc = 6,000 psi fc > 3,000 psi Grade 60 Grade 60 Grade 60 Grade 60 Grade 60 Minimum Lap Splice 1-0* 1-0* 1-2 1-4 1-6 1-9 1-11 2-2 2-7 3-5 2-04 2-04 2-04 2-3 2-6 2-10 3-3 3-7 4-3 5-8
Development Length, ld 1-0* 1-0 1-3 1-5 1-7 1-10 2-1 2-3 2-9 3-7 1-0* 1-0* 1-2 1-4 1-6 1-9 1-11 2-2 2-7 3-5
Note: 1. Where excess bar area is provided, ld may be reduced by the ratio of required area to area provided. 2. *1-0 minimum (office practice). 3. ld (compression) must be developed with straight bar extension. Reduced length noted in (1) shall also be straight bar extension. 4. 2-0 minimum (office practice). 5. When splicing smaller bars to larger bars, the lap splice shall be the larger of the minimum compression lap splice or the development length of the larger bar in compression, AASHTO Art. 8.32.4.1. Table 5.1-A7
5.1-A6
July 2000
0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0020 0.0021 0.0022 0.0023 0.0024 0.0025 0.0026 0.0027 0.0028 0.0029 0.0030 0.0031 0.0032 0.0033 0.0034 0.0035 0.0036 0.0037 0.0038 0.0039 0.0040 0.0041 0.0042 0.0043 0.0044 0.0045 0.0046 0.0047 0.0048 0.0049 0.0050 0.0051 0.0052
0.0053 0.0054 0.0055 0.0056 0.0057 0.0058 0.0059 0.0060 0.0061 0.0062 0.0063 0.0064 0.0065 0.0066 0.0067 0.0068 0.0069 0.0070 0.0071 0.0072 0.0073 0.0074 0.0075 0.0076 0.0077 0.0078 0.0079 0.0080 0.0081 0.0082 0.0083 0.0084 0.0085 0.0086 0.0087 0.0088 0.0089 0.0090 0.0091 0.0092 0.0093 0.0094 0.0095 0.0096
0.0097 0.0098 0.0099 0.0100 0.0101 0.0102 0.0103 0.0104 0.0105 0.0106 0.0107 0.0108 0.0109 0.0110 0.0111 0.0112 0.0113 0.0114 0.0115 0.0116 0.0117 0.0118 0.0119 0.0120 0.0121 0.0122 0.0123 0.0124 0.0125 0.0126 0.0127 0.0128 0.0129 0.0130 0.0131 0.0132 0.0133 0.0134 0.0135 0.0136 0.0137 0.0138 0.0139 0.0140
515.4 0.0141 520.0 0.0142 524.6 0.0143 529.2 0.0144 533.8 0.0145 538.3 0.0146 542.9 0.0147 547.4 0.0148 551.9 0.0149 556.4 0.0150 560.9 0.0151 565.4 0.0152 569.9 0.0153 574.3 0.0154 578.8 0.0155 583.2 0.0156 587.6 0.0157 592.0 0.0158 596.4 0.0159 600.7 0.0160 605.1 max 0.0161 609.4 613.7 618.0 622.3 626.6 630.9 635.1 639.4 643.6 647.8 652.0 656.2 660.3 664.5 668.6 672.8 676.9 681.0 685.0 689.1 693.2 697.2 701.2
Notes: Mu 1. Units of bd2 are in psi. 2. min should be based on 1.2 Mcr or 1.33 analysis, whichever is smaller. 3. max = 0.75b = 0.0161 based on 1 = 0.85.
Table 5.2-A1
July 2000
5.2-A1
0.0148 0.0149 0.0150 0.0151 0.0152 0.0153 0.0154 0.0155 0.0156 0.0157 0.0158 0.0159 0.0160 0.0161 0.0162 0.0163 0.0164 0.0165 0.0166 0.0167 0.0168 0.0169 0.0170 0.0171 0.0172 0.0173 0.0174 0.0175 0.0176 0.0177 0.0178 0.0179 0.0180 0.0181 0.0182 0.0183 0.0184 0.0185 0.0186 0.0187 0.0188 0.0189 0.0190 0.0191 0.0192 0.0193
Notes: Mu 1. Units of bd2 are in psi. 2. min should be based on 1.2 Mcr or 1.33 analysis, whichever is smaller. 3. max = 0.75b = 0.0214 based on 1 = 0.85.
Table 5.2-A2
5.2-A2
July 2000
0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 0.0016 0.0017 0.0018 0.0019 0.0020 0.0021 0.0022 0.0023 0.0024 0.0025 0.0026 0.0027 0.0028 0.0029 0.0030 0.0031 0.0032 0.0033 0.0034 0.0035 0.0036 0.0037 0.0038 0.0039 0.0040 0.0041 0.0042 0.0043 0.0044 0.0045 0.0046 0.0047 0.0048 0.0049 0.0050 0.0051 0.0052 0.0053 0.0054 0.0055 0.0056 0.0057 0.0058 0.0059 0.0060
Mu bd2
59.6 65.5 71.4 77.3 83.2 89.0 94.9 100.8 106.6 112.5 118.3 124.1 129.9 135.8 141.6 147.3 153.1 158.9 164.7 170.4 176.2 181.9 187.7 193.4 199.1 204.8 210.5 216.2 221.9 227.5 233.2 238.9 244.5 250.1 255.8 261.4 267.0 272.6 278.2 283.8 289.4 295.0 300.5 306.1 311.6 317.1 322.7 328.2 333.7 339.2 344.7
0.0061 0.0062 0.0063 0.0064 0.0065 0.0066 0.0067 0.0068 0.0069 0.0070 0.0071 0.0072 0.0073 0.0074 0.0075 0.0076 0.0077 0.0078 0.0079 0.0080 0.0081 0.0082 0.0083 0.0084 0.0085 0.0086 0.0087 0.0088 0.0089 0.0090 0.0091 0.0092 0.0093 0.0094 0.0095 0.0096 0.0097 0.0098 0.0099 0.0100 0.0101 0.0102 0.0103 0.0104 0.0105 0.0106 0.0107 0.0108 0.0109 0.0110 0.0111 0.0112
Mu bd2
350.2 355.7 361.1 366.6 372.1 377.5 382.9 388.4 393.8 399.2 404.6 410.0 415.4 420.7 426.1 431.5 436.8 442.2 447.5 452.8 458.1 463.4 468.7 474.0 479.3 484.6 489.8 495.1 500.4 505.6 510.8 516.0 521.3 526.5 531.7 536.9 542.0 547.2 552.4 557.5 562.7 567.8 572.9 578.1 583.2 588.3 593.4 598.5 603.5 608.6 613.7 618.7
0.0113 0.0114 0.0115 0.0116 0.0117 0.0118 0.0119 0.0120 0.0121 0.0122 0.0123 0.0124 0.0125 0.0126 0.0127 0.0128 0.0129 0.0130 0.0131 0.0132 0.0133 0.0134 0.0135 0.0136 0.0137 0.0138 0.0139 0.0140 0.0141 0.0142 0.0143 0.0144 0.0145 0.0146 0.0147 0.0148 0.0149 0.0150 0.0151 0.0152 0.0153 0.0154 0.0155 0.0156 0.0157 0.0158 0.0159 0.0160 0.0161 0.0162 0.0163 0.0164
Mu bd2
623.8 628.8 633.8 638.8 643.8 648.9 653.8 658.8 663.8 668.8 673.7 678.7 683.6 688.6 693.5 698.4 703.3 708.2 713.1 718.0 722.9 727.7 732.6 737.4 742.3 747.1 751.9 756.7 761.5 766.3 771.1 775.9 780.7 785.4 790.2 795.0 799.7 804.4 809.1 813.9 818.6 823.3 827.9 832.6 837.3 842.0 846.6 851.3 855.9 860.5 865.1 869.7
0.0217 0.0218 0.0219 0.0220 0.0221 0.0222 0.0223 0.0224 0.0225 0.0226 0.0227 0.0228 0.0229 0.0230 0.0231 0.0232 0.0233 0.0234 0.0235 0.0236 0.0237 0.0238 0.0239 0.0240 0.0241 0.0242 0.0243 0.0244 0.0245 0.0246 0.0247 0.0248 0.0249 0.0250 0.0251 0.0252
Mu bd2
1102.0 1106.1 1110.3 1114.4 1118.5 1122.6 1126.8 1130.9 1134.9 1139.0 1143.1 1147.2 1151.2 1155.3 1159.3 1163.4 1167.4 1171.4 1175.4 1179.4 1183.4 1187.4 1191.4 1195.3 1199.3 1203.2 1207.2 1211.1 1215.0 1218.9 1222.8 1226.7 1230.6 1234.5 1238.4 1242.2
0.0165 0.0166 0.0167 0.0168 0.0169 0.0170 0.0171 0.0172 0.0173 0.0174 0.0175 0.0176 0.0177 0.0178 0.0179 0.0180 0.0181 0.0182 0.0183 0.0184 0.0185 0.0186 0.0187 0.0188 0.0189 0.0190 0.0191 0.0192 0.0193 0.0194 0.0195 0.0196 0.0197 0.0198 0.0199 0.0200 0.0201 0.0202 0.0203 0.0204 0.0205 0.0206 0.0207 0.0208 0.0209 0.0210 0.0211 0.0212 0.0213 0.0214 0.0215 0.0216
Notes: Mu 1. Units of bd2 are in psi. 2. min should be based on 1.2 Mcr or 1.33 analysis, whichever is smaller. 3. max = 0.75b = 0.0252 based on 1 = 0.80.
Table 5.2-A3
July 2000
5.2-A3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Positive Moment Reinforcement
Figure 5.3-A1
July 2000
5.3-A1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Negative Moment Reinforcement
Figure 5.3-A2
5.3-A2
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Adjusted Negative Moment Case I (Design for M @ Face of Effective Support)
Figure 5.3-A3
July 2000
5.3-A3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Adjusted Negative Moment Case II (Design for M @ 1/4 Point)
Figure 5.3-A4
5.3-A4
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Load Factor Slab Design fc = 4,000 psi
Figure 5.3-A5
July 2000
5.3-A5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Load Factor Slab Design fc = 5,000 psi
Figure 5.3-A6
5.3-A6
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Slab Design Traffic Barrier Load
Notes: 1. 2. 3. 4. Section A-A is taken to be the critical section. Other sections ordinarily do not need to be investigated. Provide enough extension to the left of A-A to develop the As required (usually will require hooking bars). Service Load fs = 20,000, Load Factor = (1.3D + 2.17L). For Load Factor design, check distribution of flexural reinforcement AASHTO 8.16-8.4. If #5 or #6 bars are used to furnish the As from this chart, then this requirement will not have to be checked.
Figure 5.3-A7
July 2000
5.3-A7
Slab Design
Determine Deck Thickness Seff = 12.25 2 (18) / (4) (12) = 11.50 Minimum thickness, tmin = (Seff + 10) (12) / 30 = (11.50 + 10) (12) / 30 = 8.60 Use 83/4 thick slab
2.
Determine Transverse Deck Reinforcement Top Slab Reinforcement Dead Load Moment, MDL: MDL = (1/10) [ (8.75 / 12) (0.160 kcf) ] (11.50)2 = 1.55 kip-ft/ft Live Load Moment + Impact, MLL+I: MLL+I = (S + 2) (Pwheel) (0.8) (1.30) 32 AASHTO, 1989, Section 3.24.3.1
where: Pwheel = 1.25 (16 kips/wheel) = 20.0 kips/wheel (HS25 Truck) continuity factory = 0.8 impact factor = 1.30 (11.50 + 2) MLL+I = (20.0) (0.8) (1.30) = 8.78 kip-ft/ft 32 Factored Design Moment, Mu: Mu = 1.3 [ 1.55 + (5/3) (8.78) ] = 21.04 kip-ft/ft Determine As reqd: dtop bars = 8.75 2.5 (0.75) / 2 = 5.875 Mu / () (b) (d)2 = 21.04 (12,000) / (0.9) (12) (5.875)2 = 677.3 psi Interpolating from Table 5.2-A2, Appendix A: = 0.01272 As reqd = (b) (d) = 0.01272 (12) (5.875) = 0.90 in2/ft Use #6 bars at 5 ctrs, As = 1.06 in2/ft > 0.90 in2/ft ok AASHTO, 1989, Section 3.24.3.1
Use same bar size and spacing for bottom slab reinforcement. An alternate approach is to solve directly for As reqd from Eq (5), BDM Section 5.2.1B: As reqd = 0.85 (fc / fy) (b) [ d
(5)
July 2000
5.2-B1-1
Slab Design
As min =
( (
d d2 5.875 fc fy
0.124 h2
f c
)
0.124 (8.75)2
(6)
(5.875)2
)
(7)
As max = 0.0214 (12) (5.875) = 1.51 in2/ft Check As max using Eq (7), BDM Section 5.2.1B: As max = 0.6375 1 (b) (d) As max 3.
1.51 in2/ft
ok
Check Crack Control Requirements Calculate fs due to Service Load: M service load = 1.55 + 8.78 = 10.33 kip-ft/ft fs calc = M(12,000) / Asjd Where j = l k/3 = 0.884 Agrees with Table 1, page 81, ACI Publication SP-3 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook Working Stress Design, 1965 k = 1 / 1 [ 1 + fs/nfc] = 1 / [ 1 + 24,000 / (8) (1,600) ] = 0.348 fs = 24,000 psi Grade 60 bars per AASHTO, Section 8.15.2.2 fc = 0.40 fc = 1,600 psi for Conc Cl 4000 n = Es / Ec = 29,000,000 / 3,620,000 = 8.0
fs calc = 10.33 (12,000) / (1.06) (0.884) (5.875) = 22,517 psi Using Eq (21), BDM Section 5.2.1G, Calculate allowable fs: fs allowable = z / [ (dc) (A) ]1/3 = 130 / [ (2.875) (5) (5.75) ]1/3 = 29.63 ksi > 22.52 ksi ok Eq (21)
5.2-B1-2
July 2000
Slab Design
July 2000
5.2-B1-3
Determine Deck Thickness Minimum slab thickness = 7.5 no overlay, per BDM, Chapter 6. This thickness permits the use of #6 transverse and #5 longitudinal bars. Seff = clear span per AASHTO 3.24.1.2(a) Width of top flange/average flange thick = 4.16 Close enough to 4.0, use clear span for Seff Seff = Sg W2 = 8.0 2.083 = 5.92 Check Minimum Slab Thickness, tmin: tmin = (Seff + 10) (12) / 30 = (5.92 + 10) (12) / 30 = 6.37 < 7.5 ok
2.
Determine Transverse Deck Reinforcement Top Slab Reinforcement Dead Load Moment, MDL: MDL = (1/10) [ (7.5 / 12) (0.160 kcf) ] (5.92)2 = 0.43 kip-ft/ft Live Load Moment + Impact, MLL+I: MLL+I = MLL+I (S + 2) (6.54 + 2) (Pwheel) (0.8) (1.30) = (20.0) (0.8) (1.30) 32 32 = 5.15 kip-ft/ft
Factored Design Moment, Mu: Mu = 1.3 [ 0.35 + (5/3) (5.15) ] = 11.61 kip-ft/ft Determine As reqd: dtop bars = 7.5 2.5 (0.75) / 2 = 4.625 Mu / () (b) (d)2 = 12.54 (12,000) / (0.9) (12) (4.625)2 = 651.4 psi Interpolating from Table 5.2-A3, Appendix A: = 0.01089 As reqd = (b) (d) = 0.01089 (12) (4.625) = 0.61 in2/ft Use #6 bars at 8 ctrs, As = 0.66 in2/ft ok
Use same bar size and spacing for bottom slab reinforcement.
July 2000
5.2-B2-1
fs calc = 5.50 (12,000) / (0.66) (0.875) (4.625) = 24,710 psi top bar Calculate fs allowable = z / (Adc)1/3: A = (7.5) (2.875) (2) / 1 bar = 43.125 dc = 2.5 + 0.75 / 2 = 2.875 ok
fs allow = 130 / [ (43.125) (2.875) ]1/3 = 26.07 ksi > 24.71 ksi 4. Determine Longitudinal Deck Reinforcement Moments at Pier, Negative Reinforcement: MDL = 187.6 kip-ft/girder MLL+I = 780.0 kip-ft/girder
Mu = 1.3 [ 187.6 + (5/3) (780.0) ] = 1,933.8 kip-ft/girder Determine As reqd assume two layers of #5 with davg = 64.0: Mu / () (b) (d)2 = 1,933.8 (12,000) / (0.9) (25) (64)2 = 251.8 psi Interpolating from Table 5.2-A3, Appendix A: = 0.00433 As reqd = 0.00433 (25) (64.0) = 6.93 in2 Use 24-#5 (12-#5 in each layer) As = 7.44 in2 > 6.93 in2 Spacing is approximately 8.0, As/ft = 0.47 in2/ft Check longitudinal distribution reinforcement so that spacing can be coordinated with the reinforcement required for negative pier girder moment: P = 220 / S = 220 / 6.54 = 86.0 percent but not to exceed 67 percent Distribution Reinforcement = 0.67 (As actual) = 0.67 (0.70) = 0.47 in2/ft As provided = 0.47 in2/ft
ok
ok
5.2-B2-2
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Slab Design for Prestressed Girders
5. Check Crack Control Requirement Longitudinal Reinforcement 24-#5 k = k = As = 7.44 in2 n = Es/Ec = 29,000,000 / 4,769,000 = 6.0
j = l k/3 = 0.93 fs calc = M (12,000) / Asjd = 967.6 (12,000) / (7.44) (0.93) (64.0) = 26,220 psi fs allowable = z / [ (dc) (A) ]1/3 Use actual girder spacing = (8.0) (12) = 96.0 to compute A A = (96) (7.5) / 24 bars = 30.0 in2/bar fs allowable = 130 / [ 30.0 (3.56) ]1/3 dc = 2.5 + 0.75 + 0.625/2 = 3.56 ok
Deck Reinforcement at Intermediate Pier Prestressed Girder Bridge Longitutdinal Deck Reinforcement is designed for the negative moment at an intermediate pier. Otherwise, the longitudinal deck reinforcement will be similar to that shown in Example 5.2-B1-1.
July 2000
5.2-B2-3
Strut-and-Tie Design
Design Loads Group I: Pu = 1600k H=0 k Group VII: Pu = 1500 H = 400k Assume crossbeam dead load is included with bearing loads. Use Section 12.4 of AASHTOs Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges, 1989.
July 2000
5.2-B3-1
Strut-and-Tie Design
Estimate node size at top of column: b (fcn Acn) Su Assuming spiral reinforcement provides confinement, use b = 0.75 and fcn = 0.85 fc: 0.75 (0.85 5) Acn 2,400 Acn 753 in2 Use the following node size at the top of column:
5.2-B3-2
July 2000
Strut-and-Tie Design
Determine Minimum Size of Node Regions: b (fcn Acn) Su where: b = 0.70 for bearing
fcn = 0.85 fc in regions with compression only fcn = 0.70 fc in regions with one tension tie At base of inclined strut, 0.75 (0.85 5) Acn 2,596 Acn 873 in2 depth of node = 873 = 12.1 72 (72 12.1)
where width of crossbeam = 72 2,596 At top of inclined strut, Acn = 1,060 in2 0.70 (0.70 5) 1,060 depth of node = = 14.7 (72 14.7) 72 For 1,600k chord: Acn 1,600 = 538 in2 0.70 (0.85 5)
538 = 7.5 72 915 For 915k chord: Acn (538) = 308 in2 1,600 308 depth of node = = 4.3 72 depth of node =
July 2000
5.2-B3-3
Strut-and-Tie Design
f (0.85 fc Acc + As fs) Su For 2,596k inclined compressive strut: 0.85 (0.45 5) Acs 2,596k 2,596 = 1,357 in2 0.85 (0.45) (5) 1,357 and depth of strut = = 18.9 in 72 Acs For 915k inclined compressive strut: 915 Acs (1,357) = 478 in2 2,596 478 and depth of strut = = 6.6 in 72 For 1,600k compression chord: Acs 1,600 0.9 (0.85) (5) = 418 in2 418 = 5.8 in 72
5.2-B3-4
July 2000
Strut-and-Tie Design
Group I Strut Loads Design Tie Member: f (As fsy + A*s f*su) Su without prestress: As 41.5 in2 Try using 12 bundles of #14 top and #11 bot (As = 45.7 in2) Check development length of tie bars: For #14 bars with fc = 5,000 psi, ldh = 2 5 Development length available = 2 4 < 2 5 For #11 bars, ldh = 1 5 ok 0.90 (As) (60) 2,240
Therefore, total developed steel As = 12 (1.56) + 12 (2.25) As = 44.8 in2 > 41.5 in2 ok
( 28 ) 29
Partial Elevation-Tension Tie at Top of Pier Cap 12 (2.25) (3.26) + 12 (1.56) (5.97) = 4.37 = 4 estimate x = ok 45.7
July 2000
5.2-B3-5
Determine Minimum Vertical and Horizontal Steel Using Sections 12.5.3.2 and 12.5.3.3: For vertical reinforcing: As fy 120 bw s d where s < or 12 4 120 bw s Therefore, As = 0.002 bw s 60,000 Assume 4 legs of #6 stirrups: As = 1.76 in2 s 1.76 As = 0.002 (72) 0.002 bw d 72 4.37 = = 16.9 4 4 As fy 120 bw s
s 12.2 in Check:
Therefore, use 4 #6 legs at 12 maximum spacing. For horizontal reinforcing: where s < d or 12 3
For s = 12, As 0.002 (72) (12) = 1.73 in2 Try 2 #8 bars: s As = 1.58 in2 1.58 = 11.0 0.002 (72)
(2 #9 bars)
Use #8 bars at 11 maximum spacing on side faces. For bottom bars, use #6 at approximately 12 (7 #6 bars)
5.2-B3-6
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Example 5.2-B4 Service Load Concrete Stresses and Constants Working Stress Design
July 2000
5.2-B4-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Working Stress Design
5.2-B4-2
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Reinforced Concrete Superstructures Working Stress Design
July 2000
5.2-B4-3
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.2.4
July 2000
6.0-i
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.3.5
6.3.6
6.4 6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3 6.99
6.0-ii
July 2000
Contents
July 2000
6.0-iii
Contents
Appendix B Design Examples 6.1-B1 Post-Tensioning Anchorages 6.2-B1 Notes to Designers Post-Tensioning 6.3-B1 P.T. Box Girder Bridges Single Span 6.3-B2 P.T. Box Girder Bridges Two Span 6.3-B3 P.T. Box Girder Bridges Multiple Span
P65:DP/BDM6
6.0-iv
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures 6.0 6.1 Prestressed Concrete Superstructures General
WSDOT uses three types of prestressed concrete bridges. They are (1) prestressed precast concrete girder or slab bridges, (2) cast-in-place post-tensioned bridges, and (3) combination prestressed/post-tensioned bridges. WSDOT utilizes prestressed concrete in special structures such as segmental cast-in-place or precast construction. This section provides criteria for these structure types and provides general guidance for other designs using prestressed concrete.
General
6.1.1
Criteria
A. General AASHTO specifications shall be used to design prestressed concrete bridges, except as modified in this section. Prestressed concrete bridges shall be designed using working stress design and checked for ultimate load capacity. Refer to portions of Chapter 5 for information relating to concrete reinforcement and design methods used for prestressed structures. B. Allowable Stresses AASHTO standard specifications list the allowable stresses to be used in design except as noted below. 1. Concrete Stresses at Service Load Under working stress conditions, tensile stresses in the precompressed tensile zone shall be limited to zero. This prevents cracking of the concrete during service life of the structure and provides more allowance for overloads during the life of the bridge. 2. Shear Capacity Shear in webs of prestressed bridges shall be in accordance with AASHTO specifications. Where additional guidance is needed, the latest ACI Code should be consulted. For special considerations used for design of Washington State standard prestressed girders, see Subsection 6.3.
6.1.2
Concrete Properties
A. Strength of Concrete Pacific NW aggregates have consistently resulted in excellent concrete strengths, to as much as 10,000 psi in 28 days. The following strengths are normally used for design. 1. Precast Girders Nominal 28-day concrete strength (fc) for precast girders with a cast-in-place deck is 7,000 psi. Where higher strengths would eliminate a line of girders, this strength can be specified, preferably at 8,500 psi, to a maximum of 10,000 psi. The final strength of concrete shall be specified as required by design and shall be shown on the plans. The minimum concrete compressive strength at release (fci) for each prestressed girder in a bridge is to be calculated and shown in the plans. For a 28-day concrete compressive strength of 7,000 psi, a concrete compressive strength (at release) of between 3,500 and 6,000 psi shall be specified. For high strength concrete, the compressive strength at release shall be limited to
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7,500 psi. Release strengths of up to 8,500 psi can be achieved with extended curing for special circumstances. The specified concrete strength at release should be rounded to the next highest 100 psi. 2. Cast-in-Place Post-tensioned Bridges Since conditions for placing and curing concrete on cast-in-place bridges are not controlled, as they are for precast bridge sections, a lower figure is used for concrete strength. Normally, use class 4000 concrete for post-tensioned cast-in-place bridges. Where significant economy can be gained and structural requirements dictate, the structure could be designed for class 5000 concrete. 3. Cast-in-Place Slabs Concrete class 4000D shall be used for all cast-in-place bridge decks unless otherwise approved by the Bridge Design Engineer. B. Modulus of Elasticity The modulus of elasticity for concrete strength up to 10 ksi is normally 33w3/2 fc, where w is the weight of concrete in lbs/ft3. Normal weight concretes used in Washington generally have weights close to 160 lbs/ft3. With this value, the modules of elasticity equation simplifies to E = 66,800 fc. C. Creep Rate The creep coefficient for standard conditions may be taken as follows: Standard conditions are relative humidity 40 percent and average thickness of section 6 inches. 1. Cast-in-Place Girders For most designs, the creep coefficient for loading at 7 days for moist-cured concrete and 1-3 days for steam-cured concrete is: 22 . t0.60.6 Ct = 6 + fc 10 + t The final deflection is a combination of the elastic deflection and the creep effect associated with given loads shown by the equation below. total = elastic (1+ Ct) For other factors affecting this equation, see Reference 6.99.2 and 6.99.4. Reference to 6.99.4 discusses methods for calculating creep effects. 2. Standard Prestressed Girders The creep coefficient for standard prestressed girders may be taken as: 3.95 . Ct = Ln (t + 1) 6 + f c Ct = creep coefficient t = time in days fc = ultimate strength of concrete in ksi
6.1-2
July 2000
General
6.1.3
Prestressing Steel
A. General Three types of high-tensile steel are used for producing prestress. They are: 1. 2. 3. Strands: ASTM A 416 Grade 270, low relaxation or stress relieved. Bars: ASTM A 722 Grade 150, Type 2. Parallel wires: ASTM A 421 Grade 240.
All WSDOT designs are based on low relaxation strands using either 1/2 or 0.6 diameter strands. B. Allowable Stresses Allowable stresses for design are as listed in AASHTO specifications.
6.1.4
Prestressing Systems
A. General There are numerous prestressing systems. Most systems combine a method of stressing the prestressing strands with a method of anchoring it to concrete. B. Anchorages WSDOT requires approval of all multi-strand and/or bar anchorages used in prestressed concrete bridges by testing or by a certified report, stating that the anchorage assembly will develop the yield strength of post-tensioning steel. Manufacturers whose anchorages have been approved are. 1. 2. 3. V.S.L. Corporation Avar Construction System Dywidag Systems International
6.1.5
Losses
AASHTO specifications outline the method of predicting prestress losses for usual prestressed concrete bridges which may be used in design except as noted below. The following sources of prestress loss can influence the effective stress in the strand.
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6.1-3
General
3.
For normal design in lieu of more accurate methods, time dependent losses may be taken as given in Table 6.1.5-1. Type of Section Rectangular Beam Box Girder I-Girder Single/Double T, Hollow Core Voided Slab Low-relaxation Strands 33 ksi 21 ksi 33 [1- 0.15 (fc - 6) / 6 ] 37 [ 1- 0.15 (fc - 6) / 6 ] Bars 25 ksi 15 ksi 19 ksi 29 [ 1- 0.15 (fc - 6) / 6 ]
Time Dependent Prestress Losses Table 6.1.5-1 Prestress losses due to instantaneous sources shall be added to the time dependent losses to determine the total losses. The loss due to elastic shortening in pretensioned members shall be taken as: PLES = (Ep / Eci ) fcgp The loss due to elastic shortening in post-tensioned members shall be taken as: PLES = [(N-1)/2N x Ep / Eci ] fcgp where: Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel, ksi Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer, ksi N = number of identical prestressing tendons
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to the prestressing force at transfer (after jacking for posttensioned members) and the self-weight of the member at the section of maximum moment, ksi For pretensioned member and low-relaxation strands, fcgp may be calculated on the basis of 0.7fpu. For post-tensioned members with bonded tendons, fcgp may be calculated on the basis of prestressing force after jacking at the section of maximum moment. For preliminary design of pretensioned prestressed girders with normal strength concrete limited to 7,000 psi, the total prestress loss may be taken as 48 ksi.
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July 2000
General
6.1.7
Connections (Joints)
The connections or joints must divide the structure into a logical pattern of separate elements which also permit ease of manufacture and assembly. The connection or joint surfaces should be oriented perpendicular to the centroidal axis of the precast element. Types of Connections (Joints): Connections or joints are either wide or match cast. Depending on their width, they may be filled with cast-in-place concrete or grouted. Match cast joints are normally bonded with an epoxy bonding agent. Dry match cast joints are not recommended. Shear and Alignment Keys: In order to assist shear transmission in wide joints, use a suitable system of keys. The shape of the keys may be chosen to suit a particular application and they can be either single keys or multiple keys. Single keys are generally large and localized whereas multiple keys generally cover as much of the joint surface area as is practical.
Single Key
Multiple Keys
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Single keys provide an excellent guide for erection of elements. Single keys are preferred for all match cast joints. For all types of joints, the surfaces must be clean, free from grease and oil, etc. When using epoxy for bonding, the joints should be lightly sand-blasted to remove laitance. For cast-in-place or other types of wide joints, the adjacent concrete surfaces should be roughened and kept thoroughly wet, prior to construction of the joint. Cast-in-place joints are generally preferred.
6.1.8
Deflection at Erection
Apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight at release of prestress Apply to the elastic deflection due to prestressing at release of prestress 1.85 1.80 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.70 1.75 1.70
Deflection at Final
Apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight at release of prestress Apply to the elastic deflection due to prestressing at release of prestress Apply to the elastic deflection due to the Super Imposed Dead Loads Apply to the elastic deflection due to weight of slab release of prestress 2.70 2.45 3.00 ---2.40 2.20 3.00 2.30 2.50 2.25 2.75 ---2.20 2.10 2.75 2.15
P65:DP/BDM6
6.1-6
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures 6.2 Precast Sections
Precast sections are generally cast in a permanent plant or somewhere near the construction site and then erected. Precasting permits better material quality control and is often more economical than cast-in-place concrete. The precast U sections are commonly called bathtubs which can be joined together with wet joint.
Precast Sections
6.2.1
Pre-Tensioning
Pre-tensioning is accomplished by stressing high strength steel strands to a predetermined tension and then placing concrete around the strands, while the stress is maintained. After the concrete has hardened, the strands are released and the concrete, which has become bonded to the tendon, is prestressed as a result of the strands attempting to relax to their original length. The strand stress is maintained during placing and curing of the concrete by anchoring the ends of strands to abutments that may be as much as 500 feet apart. The abutments and appurtenances used in this procedure are referred to as pre-tensioning bed or bench.
6.2.2
Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning consists of installing steel tendons into a hollow metalic duct in a structure after the concrete sections are cast. These tendons are usually anchored at each end of the structure and stressed to a design strength using a hydraulic jacking system. Commonly the tendons are encased in a tight metal tube. This tube is referred to as a sheath or duct and remains in the structure. After the tendon has been stressed, the duct is filled with grout which bonds the tendon to the concrete section and prevents corrosion of the strand. Finally, closure pours are made at the anchor heads to provide corrosion protection.
6.2.3
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6.2-1
6.2-2
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Precast Sections
Typical Prestressed Girder Configuration Figure 6.2.3-2 Figure 6.2.3-3 and Appendix 6.5-A1 through A7 show the standard strand positions in these girders.
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6.2-3
Precast Sections
As = the area of one strand, in2 fs = the ultimate strength in ksi PL = indicates total prestress losses in ksi in pretensioned members. For checking of stresses during release, lifting, transportation, and erection of prestressed girders, the elastic and time dependent losses shall be as follows: Release 1 day (lifting of girders from casting beds) 1 month 4 months (transportation and erection of girders) After 4 months 2. Strand Patterns Standard strand patterns are shown in Appendix 6.5-A1 through A7. D. Design Procedure 1. General The WSDOT Prestressed Girder Design computer program uses a trial and error method to arrive at solution for stress requirement and is the preferred method for final design of length and spacing. Some publications suggest various direct means for determining stress and position, but the procedures are generally quite complex. 2. Stress Conditions The stress limits as described in Table 6.2.3-2 must be met for the girder and its prestress. One or more of the conditions described below may govern design. Each condition is the result of the summation of stresses with each load acting on its appropriate section (such as girder only, composite section). Precast girders shall also be checked during lifting, transportation, and erection stages by the designer to assure that girder delivery is feasible. Impact during the lifting stage shall be 0 percent and during transportation shall be 20 percent of the dead load of the girder. Impact shall be applied either upward or downward to produce maximum stresses. computed losses 35 ksi computed losses
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Prestressed Girder Strand Locations Figure 6.2.3-3 Note: Fo may be increased in 1-inch increments to keep slope of harped strands below the slope limit. Fb may be increased in 1-inch increments in order to reduce tension at the top of the girder at harping point at time of strand release.
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Precast Sections
Allowable Stress 3 fci <=0.2 psi
6 fci
6 fci
6 fci
Compression
0.4 fc
0.6 fc
6.2-6
July 2000
Precast Sections
d is the distance from the extreme compressive fiber to the centroid of the prestressing force. For precast girders made continuous for live load, d shall be the distance from the extreme compressive fiber to the centroid of the negative moment reinforcement, i.e., d = h + A - 4.5", where h = height of the girder; A as defined in Subsection 6.3.4 A(3). Shear reinforcement are furnished by two vertical bars. Maximum spacing is taken to be 1 foot 6 inches The point where 1-foot 6-inch spacing starts is found by interpolating between the point 1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder and the harping point to find the location where the portion of the shear carried by the stirrups (Vs) yields 1 foot 6 inches Vs for 1-foot 6-inch Avfy(dmin) stirrup spacing can be found by using Vs (18) = where dmin is the smallest of the 18 d values found for the point 1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder and the harping point. The 1-foot 6-inch stirrup spacing is used throughout the rest of the girder. If the stirrup spacing at the point 1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder is smaller than about 1 foot 2 inches, further interpolation may be done to obtain a multiple step increment of stirrup spacing. 4. End Section Reinforcement The Washington State Standard Prestressed Concrete Girders are not provided with a thickened end block section, but have constant thickness webs. The end section reinforcement is detailed on the Office Standard Plans. This reinforcement is based on the requirement to resist bursting forces due to strand force development in this area. If the stirrup spacing required at the end of
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the girder is less than shown on the Office Standard Plans, end section stirrups spacing on the Standard Plans should be altered to show this spacing. For a distance of 1.5d from the end of the girder, reinforcement shall be placed to confine the p/s steel in bottom flange. The spacing of confinement reinforcement shall not exceed 6 inch and shall be shaped to enclose the strands. F. Development of Prestressing Strand 1. General In determining the resistance of pretensioned concrete components in their end zones, the gradual buildup of the strand force in the transfer and development lengths shall be taken into account. The prestress force may be assumed to vary linearly from 0.0 at the point where bonding commences to a maximum at the transfer length. Between the transfer length and the development length, the strand force may be assumed to increase in a parabolic manner, reaching the tensile strength of the strand at the end of development length. For the purpose of this article, the transfer length may be taken as 60 strand diameters and the development length shall be taken as specified in Article 6.2.3F2. The effects of debonding shall be considered as specified in Article 6.2.3F3. 2. Bonded Strand Pretensioning strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for development length, in inches, taken as: Ld where: D = nominal strand diameter (in)
(f*
su
2 3
fse D
fse = effective stress in prestressing steel after all losses (ksi) fsu = in the prestressing steel at nominal strength (ksi) * 3. Partially Debonded Strands Where a portion or portions of a pretensioning strand are not bonded and where tension exists in the precompressed tensile zone, the development length specified in Article 6.2.3F2 shall be doubled. The number of partially debonded strands should not exceed 25 percent of the total number of strands. The number of debonded strands in any horizontal row shall not exceed 40 percent of the strands in that row. Debonded strands shall be symmetrically distributed about the centerline of the member. Debonded lengths of pairs of strands that are symmetrically positioned about the centerline of the member shall be equal. Exterior strands in each horizontal row shall be fully bonded.
6.2-8
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Precast Sections
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6.2-9
Precast Sections
6.2-10
July 2000
The WSDOT prestressed girder sections are relatively wide and stiff about their weak axes and, as a result, exhibit good stability, even at their longer pretentioned lengths. The simplest method of improving stability is to move the lifting devices away from the ends. This invariably increases the required concrete release strength, because decreasing the distance between lifting devices increases the concrete stresses at the harp point. Stresses at the support may also govern, depending on the exit location of the harped strands. Alternatively, the girder sections may be braced to provide adequate stability. Temporary prestressing in the top flange can also be used to provide a larger factor of safety against cracking. Other types of bracing have also been used successfully for many years. These systems are generally based on experience rather than theory. Other methods of improving lateral stability, such as raising the roll axis of the girder, are also an option. For stability analysis of prestressed girder during in-plant handling in absence of more accurate information, the following parameters shall be used: Height of pick point above top of girder = 0.0 in Lifting loop or lifting bars placement tolerance = 0.25 in Maximum girder sweep tolerance = 0.00052 in/in c. Pick Up Points The office standard plans show pick-up points for the girders. These points are critical since the girder is in its most highly stressed condition just after strand release. In some cases, fabricators may request to move the pick-up points toward the center of the girder. The request must be reviewed carefully since a decrease in girder dead load moment near centerline span may cause overstressing of the girder. Similarly, the girders must never be supported at any point other than the centerline of bearing during storage. The girders are also very sensitive to lateral loads and accordingly must be stored in a true vertical position. d. Girder Lateral Bending Long prestressed girders are very flexible and highly susceptible to lateral bending. Lateral bending failures are sudden, catastrophic, costly, pose a serious threat to workers and surroundings, and therefore must be guarded against. The office standard plans state that girders over certain given lengths must be laterally braced and that all girders must be handled carefully. It is the fabricators responsibility to provide adequate bracing and provide suitable handling facilities. On unusually long girders, however, the designer should give this matter additional consideration. Published material on girder lateral bending should be consulted and used to assure the constructability of the girder design chosen (14, 17, 18, 19). e. Shipping The ability to ship deep girder sections can be influenced by a large number of variables, including mode of transportation, weight, length, height, and lateral stability. Some variables have more influence than others. As such, the feasibility of shipping deep girders is strongly site-dependent. It is recommended that routes to the site be investigated during the preliminary design phase. To this end, on projects using long, heavy girders, WSDOT can place an advisory in their special provisions including shipping routes, estimated permit fees, escort vehicle requirements, Washington State Patrol requirements, and permit approval time.
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Precast Sections
6.2-12
July 2000
Expectations are that, in some cases, overhead clearance will not accommodate the vertical stirrup projection on deeper WSDOT standard girder sections. Alternate stirrup configurations can be used to attain adequate clearance, depending on the route from the plant to the jobsite. j. Lateral Stability During Shipping Long, slender members can become unstable when supported near the ends. However, the stability of girders sitting on flexible supports is governed by the rotational stiffness of the support rather than the girder. Recommended factors of safety 1.0 against cracking, and 1.5 against failure (rollover of the truck) should be used. The control against cracking the top flange is obtained by introducing the number of temporary top strands, jacked to the same load as the permanent strands, required to provide a factor of safety of 1.0. This variable depends on the combination of girder dead load, prestressing, and tension in the top flange induced by the girder tilt. The calculated tilt includes both the superelevation and its magnification based on the trucks rotational stiffness. For stability analysis of prestressed girders during shipping, in absence of more accurate information, the following parameters shall be used: k. Roll stiffness of truck/trailer = 40500 kip-in/rad Height of girder bottom above roadway = 72 in Height of truck roll center above road = 24 in Center to center distance between truck tires = 72 in Maximum expected roadway superelevation = 0.06 Maximum girder sweep tolerance = 0.001042 in/in Support placement lateral tolerance = 1 in Increase girder C.G. height for camber by 2%
Erection A variety of methods are used to erect precast concrete girders, depending on the weight, length, available crane capacity, and site access. Lifting long girders during erection is not as critical as when they are stripped from the forms, particularly when the same lifting devices are used for both. However, if a separate set of erection devices are used, the girder should be checked for stresses and lateral stability. In addition, once the girder is set in place, the free span between supports is usually increased. Wind can also pose a problem. Consequently, when long girders are erected, they should immediately be braced at the ends. Generally, the temporary support of the girders is the contractors responsibility.
l.
Construction Sequence for Muli-Span Prestressed Girder Bridges For multi-span prestressed girder bridges, the sequence and timing of the superstructure construction has a significant impact on the performance and durability of the bridge. In order to maximize the performance and durability, the construction sequence details shown on the attached sheets shall be followed for all new WSDOT multi-span prestressed girder bridges. Particular attention shall be paid to the timing of casting the lower portion of the pier diaphragms/crossbeams (30 days minimum after release of prestress) and the upper portion of the diaphragms/crossbeams (10 days minimum after placement of the roadway slab). The requirements apply to multi-span prestressed girder bridges with monolithic and hinge diaphragms/crossbeams.
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Precast Sections
6.2.4
Layout, end abutment, and Intermediate Pier standards have been developed for use with the slab sections noted above (see Appendix 6.6-A4 through A6). B. Precast Prestressed Tri-Beam Tri-Beam sections are available as an option to the slab spans. Low relaxation prestressing strands are utilized which enable these sections to span 25 to 70 feet. Two standards have been developed; one for a 4 foot 0 inch minimum to 6 foot 0 inch maximum wide section (see Appendix 6.7-A1-1 and 2). Standard sheets for abutment and Intermediate pier for tri-beam sections are shown in Appendix 6.7-A3.
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Precast Sections
6.2.5
P65:DP/BDM6
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures 6.3 Precast Girder Bridges
The precast prestressed girder bridge is an economical and rapid type of bridge construction. This section discusses the design of precast prestressed girder bridges.
6.3.1
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6.3-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
AASHTO Standard Specifications and WSDOT Bridge Design Manual Prestressed girder are designed for service load stresses and checked for the requirements of load factor design. All other elements are designed in accordance with the requirements of load factor design.
Design Assumption
Prestressed girders are designed as simple span for both simple and continuous span superstructures. BDM Articles 4.2 and 4.3 Service load Load factor design BDM Table 6.2.3-2 BDM Article 6.1.5 and Table 6.1.5-1 Shear Design may be based on one of the following: Shear design per AASHTO Standard Specifications 9.20 Predesigned for shear Standard Prestressed Girder plans
Group I Group I
Design Criteria for Prestressed Girder Superstructures Table 6.3.1-1 3. Composite Section Properties Minimum deck slab thickness is specified as 7 1/2 inches by office practice, but may be thicker if girder spacing dictates. This slab forms the top flange of the composite girder in prestressed girder bridge construction. The properties of this slab-girder composite section are affected by specification and by physical considerations. Figure 6.3.1-1 shows some standard values to be used for design and detailing. a. Flange Width The effective width of slab on each side of the girder centerline which can be considered to act as a compressive flange shall not exceed any of the following: One-eighth of the span length. Six times the thickness of slab plus one-fourth of the girder flange width. One-half the distance to the next girder. The actual distance to the edge of slab. For effective tension flange widths, see AASHTO.
6.3-2
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
6.3-4
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
Shear in Simple Girder Figure 6.3.1-2 The design composite section slab modulus is used for this shear calculation However, a full slab width should be used to compute force. As an alternate and for a more accurate analysis, a composite section can be calculated using the full slab width, but this is usually not necessary. Further explanation of this calculation and a solved example are available in reference 5.99.4, PCA Notes on Load Factor Design. This shear is resisted by the girder stirrups which extend up through the interface between the girder and the slab. The top surface of the girder top flange must be roughened. The force may be assumed to be carried uniformly over the entire girder top surface from centerline of bearing to centerline of span. All stirrups in this area can be assumed to be acting in accordance with the shear friction theory as described in Subsection 5.2.1 C. For continuous girders, the span, shear, and moment relationships are shown in Figure 6.3.1-3. Similar methods are used to analyze slab to girder shear. For positive moment resistance, only those stirrups within length Lc are considered effective in resisting the slab force due to moment. Likewise, only those stirrups within one continuous length Le are used to resist the negative moment slab force (tension) in that area.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
For illustrative purposes, a single concentrated load has been shown. In actual practice, the point of factored maximum moment of the actual moment diagram would be used. Other flange shear problems are described in Section 5.4. These problems also need to be considered for prestressed girder bridges.
Shear in Continuous Girder Figure 6.3.1-3 b. Shear at Girder End A continuous prestressed girder will nearly always be required to carry end reaction shears at the surface of the end of the girder. An exception to this is girders with notched crossbeams where loads must be carried across the connections which act as hinges. See Chapter 5.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
End Connection for a Continuous Prestressed Girder Figure 6.3.1-4 The usual end condition is similar to that shown in Figure 6.3.1-4. The shear which must be carried along the interface A-A is the actual factored dead load and live load shear acting on the section. The girder end is required by the plans to be roughened. The sawtoothed shear key shown on the office standard girder plans may be assumed to provide a friction factor of 1.0. Shear resistance must be developed using shear friction theory and assuming the G5 bars and the extended strands to be actively participating. The main longitudinal slab reinforcement is already fully stressed by girder bending moments and thus cannot be considered for shear requirements. All bars, including the extended strands, must be properly anchored in order to be considered effective. This anchorage requirement must be clearly shown on the plans. Note that similar requirements exist for connecting the end diaphragm at bridge ends where the diaphragm is cast on the girders. In this case, however, loads consist only of the factored diaphragm dead load, approach slab dead load, and those wheel loads which can distribute to the interface. C. Prestressed Girder Camber 1. General The computer program PGSDEF is used to determine the amount of girder camber for prestressed girder bridges. This program computes the deflections due to prestress, girder dead load, slab dead load, and live load.
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6.3-8
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
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Note that the small marginal cost factors between series tends to make the larger series more economical. The wider spacings expected when using larger series girders may result in extra reinforcement and concrete but less forming cost. These items must also be considered. 2. Girder Concrete Strength Higher girder concrete strengths should be specified where that strength can be effectively used to reduce the number of girder lines. See Subsection 6.1.2 A.1. When the bridge consists of a large number of spans, consideration should be given to using a more exact analysis than the usual design program in an attempt to reduce the number of girder lines. This analysis should take into account actual live load, creep, and shrinkage stresses in the girders. 3. Girder Spacing Consideration must be given to the slab cantilever length to determine the most economical girder spacing. This matter is discussed in Subsection 6.3.2.B. The slab cantilever length should be made a maximum if a line of girders can be saved. The spacing of the interior girders must be considered at the same time. Once the positions of the exterior girders have been set, the positions and lengths of interior girders can be established. The following guidance is suggested. a. Straight Spans On straight constant width roadways, all girders should be parallel to bridge centerline and girder spacings should be equal.
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6.3-12
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6.3.3
Reinforcement
This section discusses reinforcement requirements for resistance of longitudinal moments in continuous multi-span precast girder bridges and is limited to reinforcement in the top slab since capacity for resisting positive moment is provided by the prestressing of the girders. A. Simple Spans For simple span bridges, longitudinal slab reinforcement is not required to resist negative moments and therefore the reinforcement requirements are nominal. Figure 6.3.3-1 defines longitudinal reinforcement requirements for these slabs. The bottom longitudinal reinforcement is defined by AASHTO requirements for distribution reinforcement. The top longitudinal reinforcement is based on current office practice. The requirements of Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement do not apply to these bars.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
Nominal Longitudinal Slab Reinforcement for Prestressed Girder Bridges With Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic Figure 6.3.3-1 B. Continuous Spans 1. General Longitudinal reinforcement of continuous spans at intermediate support is dominated by the moment requirement. Where these bars are cut off, they are lapped by the nominal top longitudinal reinforcement described in Subsection 6.3.3A. Typical arrangement of transverse and longitudinal reinforcement is shown in Figure 6.3.3-1. 2. Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement The provision of AASHTO specifications dealing with this subject is provided to limit crack width. At service load, the value of z for the equation fs = z/ (dc A)1/3 shall be taken as 130 k/inch regardless of whether or not a deck seal or overlay is used. Figure 6.3.3-2 shows the area to be used for computing A. For unevenly spaced bars, this area can be computed as: Total Flange Area/Number of Bars. 3. Distribution Reinforcement Figure 6.3.3-3 shows typical arrangement of main reinforcement in the slab. Distribution reinforcement shall be accounted for in the bottom longitudinal layer as follows: a. Prestressed Girder Bridges with Girders Designed as Simple Spans For bridges designed using the Prestressed Girder Design program, distribution reinforcement need not be added to the area of steel required to resist the negative moments. The bars in the bottom layer, however, shall provide an area not less than that required for distribution reinforcement.
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
Placement of Longitudinal Reinforcement for Negative Moment Over Piers Figure 6.3.3-2 b. Other Prestressed Girder Bridges On bridges where the effect of continuity is taken into account to reduce moments for girder design, additional longitudinal steel shall be provided as distribution reinforcement. The sum of the areas in both layers of longitudinal bars shall be equal to the area required to resist negative moments plus the area required by the AASHTO specification for distribution reinforcement. Equal area of reinforcement shall be used in the top and bottom layers throughout the negative moment region. See Figure 6.3.3-2. The total area of steel required in the bottom longitudinal layer shall not be less than that required for distribution reinforcement. (For distribution reinforcement, see Figure 6.3.3-1.)
July 2000
6.3-15
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
The minimum clearance between top and bottom bars should be 1-inch . Table 6.3.3-1 shows required slab thickness for various bar combinations. Minimum Slab Thickness = 7 Inches Slab Thickness (Inches) Transv. Bar Longit. Bar #4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18 #5 7 /2 1 7 /2 1 7 /2 3 7 /4 8 1 8 /2 3 8 /4 ---1
#6 -1 7 /2 3 7 /4 8 1 8 /2 3 8 /4 -----
#7 -3 7 /4 8 1 8 /4 3 8 /4 9 -----
Minimum Slab Thickness for Various Bar Sizes (Slab Without Overlay) Table 6.3.3-1 Note: Deduct 1/2-inch from slab thickness shown in table when asphalt overlay is used and 1 inch when concrete overlay is used. However, the minimum slab thickness shall be 7 inches when overlay is used. 3. Bar Patterns Figure 6.3.3-3 shows two typical top longitudinal reinforcing bar patterns. Care must be taken that bar lengths conform to the requirements of Chapter 5. Note that the reinforcement is distributed over a width equal to the girder spacing according to office practice and does not conform to AASHTO.
6.3-16
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
Staggered Bar Pattern Figure 6.3.3-3 The symmetrical bar pattern shown should normally not be used when required bar lengths exceed 60 feet. If the staggered bar pattern will not result in bar lengths within the limits specified in Chapter 5, the method shown in Figure 6.3.3-4 may be used to provide an adequate splice. All bars shall be extended development length beyond the point where the bar is required.
July 2000
6.3-17
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
In all bar patterns, the reinforcement shall be well distributed between webs. Where this cannot be done without exceeding the 1-foot 0-inch maximum spacing requirement, the nominal longitudinal bars may be extended through to provide the 1-foot 0-inch maximum. Normally, no more than 20 percent of the main reinforcing bars shall be cut off at one point. Where limiting this value to 20 percent leads to severe restrictions on the reinforcement pattern, an increase in this figure may be considered. Two main reinforcement bars shall be carried through the positive moment area as stirrup hangers.
6.3.4
Roadway Slab
Requirements for longitudinal reinforcement of roadway slabs for prestressed girder bridges have been given in Subsection 6.3.3. The following information is intended to provide guidance for slab thickness and transverse reinforcement. Information on deck deterioration prevention systems is provided in Chapter 8. A. Slab Thickness 1. General Slab thickness for prestressed girder bridges shall be controlled by the following limitations: a. b. c. Seven inches minimum thickness when overlay is used; Seven and one-half inches minimum without overlay. The requirements for proper reinforcement clearances. The requirements of strength.
The 7-inch or 71/2 inch minimum thickness is established in order to ensure that overloads on the bridge will not result in premature slab cracking. The requirement of adequate reinforcement clearances: 2 inches clear to top transverse reinforcement for slabs with overlay and 21/2 inches clear to top transverse reinforcement for slabs without overlay; 1-inch clear to bottom transverse reinforcement. 2. Computation of Slab Strength The thickness and reinforcement requirements for usual slabs are shown in Chapter 5. The slab design span is defined Figure 6.3.1-1 (Composite Prestressed Girder Section). The thickness of the slab and reinforcement in the area of the cantilever may be governed by traffic barrier loading. See appendix sheet in Chapter 5. Wheel loads plus dead load shall be resisted by the sections shown in Figure 6.3.4-1. Cantilever loads may govern the slab thickness just inside the exterior girder as shown by Z in Figure 6.3.4-1. Design of the cantilever is normally based on the expected depth of slab at centerline of girder span. This is less than the dimensions at the girder ends. See Subsection 6.3.4A.3.
6.3-18
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
Depths for Slab Design at Centerline of Girder Span Figure 6.3.4-1 3. Computation of A Dimension The distance from the top of the slab to the top of the girder at centerline bearing (A dimension) is calculated in accordance with the guidance of Appendix 6.1-A1. This ensures that adequate allowance will be made for effects of excess camber, superelevation vertical curve, and horizontal curvature. Ideally the section at centerline of span will have the final geometry shown in Figure 6.3.4-2. This must be modified to account for excess camber which may be present in the girders when the slab is poured. Where temporary prestressing strands at top of girder are used to control the girder stresses due to shipping and handling, the A dimension shall be adjusted accordingly.
July 2000
6.3-19
6.3-20
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures 6.3.5 Crossbeam Design
A. General Crossbeam shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of Load Factor Design, LFD, and shall satisfy the serviceability requirements for crack control. B. Loads For concrete box girders, prestressed giders with hinged or fixed diaphragms, the superstructure dead load shall be considered as uniformly distributed over the crossbeam. For prestressed girders or other type of girders sitting on the bearings, the superstructure dead load shall be considered as concentrated loads to the crossbeam at girder on web locations. For concrete box girders, prestressed girders with hinged or fixed diaphragms, the live load shall be considered as the truck load directly to the crossbeam from the wheel axles. Truck axles shall be moved transversely over the crossbeam to obtain the maximum design forces for the crossbeam and supporting colums. For prestressed girders or other type of girders sitting on the bearings, the live load shall be considered as concentrated loads to the crossbeam at girder locations. C. Geometry and Construction Requirement The crossbeam section consists of rectangular section with overhanging deck and bottom slab if applicable. The overhang length of the crossbeam shall be taken as the lesser of 6 times slab thickness, 1/10 of column spacing, or 1/20 of crossbeam cantilever. The rectangular section of the crossbeam shall have a minimum width of column dimension plus 6 inches.
July 2000
6.3-21
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
Crossbeam is usually cast to the fillet below the top slab. To avoid cracking of concrete on top of the crossbeam, construction reinforcement shall be provided at approximately 3 inches below the construction joint. The design moment for construction reinforcement shall be the factored negative dead load moment due to the weight of crossbeam and adjacent 10 feet of superstructure. The total amount of construction reinforcement shall be adequate to develop an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times the cracking moment Mcr. Ig Where, Mcr = 7.5 fc Yt Mu > = 1.2 Mcr D. Skin Reinforcement If the depth of crossbeam exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be provided on both sides of the member for a distance of d/2 nearest the flexural reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement per foot of height on each side shall be Ask >= 0.012 (d-30) The maximum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed d/6 or 12 inches whichever is less.
6.3.6
6.3-22
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Precast Girder Bridges
structure until the repair has been completed. If the strand loss is so great that AASHTO prestress requirements cannot be met with the remaining strands, consideration should be given to replacing the girder. b. Restore Prestress If Needed If it is determined that prestress must be restored, determine the stress in the bottom fiber of the girder as originally designed due to DL + LL + I + Prestress. (This will normally be about zero psi). Determine the additional load (P) that, when applied to the damaged girder in its existing condition, will result in this same stress. Take into account the reduced girder section, the effective composite section, and any reduced prestress due to strand loss. Should the damage occur outside of the middle one-third of the span length, the shear stress with the load (P) applied should also be computed. Where strands are broken, consideration should be given to coupling and jacking them to restore their prestress. c. Prepare a Repair Plan Draw a sketch to show how the above load is to be applied and specify that the damaged area is to be thoroughly prepared, coated with epoxy, and repaired with grout equal in strength to the original concrete. Specify that this load is to remain in place until the grout has obtained sufficient strength. The effect of this load is to restore lost prestress to the strands which have been exposed. d. Test Load Consideration should be given to testing the repaired girder with a load equivalent to 1.0DL + 1.5(LL + I). 3. Severe Damage Where the damage to the girder is considered to be irreparable due to loss of many strands, extreme cracking, etc., the girder may need to be replaced. This has been done several times, but involves some care in determining a proper repair sequence. In general, the procedure consists of cutting through the existing slab and diaphragms and removing the damaged girder. Adequate exposed reinforcement steel must remain to allow splicing of the new bars. The new girder and new reinforcement is placed and previously cut concrete surfaces are cleaned and coated with epoxy. New slab and diaphragm portions are then poured. It is important that the camber of the new girder be matched with that in the old girders. Excessive camber in the new girder can result in inadequate slab thickness. Girder camber can be controlled by prestress, curing time, or dimensional changes. Pouring the new slab and diaphragms simultaneously in order to avoid overloading the existing girders in the structure should be considered. Extra bracing of the girder at the time of slab pour should be required. Methods of construction should be specified in the plans that will minimize inconvenience and dangers to the public while achieving a satisfactory structural result. High early strength grouts and concretes should be considered.
July 2000
6.3-23
P65:DP/BDM6
6.3-24
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures 6.4 6.4.1 Cast-in-Place Bridges Design Parameters
A. General Post-tensioning is generally used for cast-in-place construction since pretensioning is generally practical only for fabricator-produced structural members. The Post-Tensioned Box Girder Bridge Manual published by the Post-Tensioning Institute in 1978 is recommended as the guide for design. This manual discusses longitudinal post-tensioning of box girder webs and transverse post-tensioning of box girder slabs, but the methods apply equally well to other types of bridges. The following recommendations are intended to augment the PTI Manual and the AASHTO Code and point out where current WSDOT practice departs from practices followed elsewhere. The AASHTO criteria for reinforced concrete apply equally to bridges with or without posttensioning steel. However, designers should note certain requirements unique to prestressed concrete such as special f-factors, load factors (see Chapters 4 and 9 of this manual), and shear provisions. B. Bridge Types Post-tensioning has been used in various types of cast-in-place bridges in this state with box girders predominating. See Appendix 6.4-B1 for a comprehensive list of box girder designs. The following are some examples of other bridge types: Kitsap County Multi-Span Slab C-9788 Covington Way to 180th Avenue SE Widening Two-Span Box Girder Longitudinal Post-Tensioning C-4919 Snohomish River Bridge Multi-Span Box Girder Longitudinal Post-Tensioning C-4444 Chapter 2 of this manual should be consulted when selecting the structure type. In general, a prestressed cast-in-place bridge can have a smaller depth-to-span ratio than the same bridge with conventional reinforcement. This is an important advantage where minimum structure depth is desirable. 1. Slab Bridge Structure depth can be quite shallow in the positive moment region when post-tensioning is combined with haunching in the negative moment region. However, post-tensioned cast-in-place slabs are usually more expensive than when reinforced conventionally. Designers should proceed with caution when considering post-tensioned slab bridges because severe cracking in the decks of bridges of this type has occurred. See reference 6.99.9 of the Bibliography.
Cast-in-Place Bridges
July 2000
6.4-1
Cast-in-Place Bridges
6.4-2
July 2000
Cast-in-Place Bridges
July 2000
6.4-3
6.4-4
July 2000
July 2000
6.4-5
6.4-6
July 2000
July 2000
6.4-7
Figure 6.4.1-5
6.4-8
July 2000
July 2000
6.4-9
Sufficient room must be allowed inside the member for mild steel and concrete placement and outside the member for jacking equipment. The size of the anchorage block in the plane of the anchor plates should be large enough to provide a minimum of 1-inch clearance from the plates to any free edge. In general, the end block dimensions must meet the requirements of the AASHTO Code. Note that in long-span box girder superstructures requiring large bearing pads, the end block should be somewhat wider than the bearing pad beneath to avoid subjecting the relatively thin bottom slab to high bearing stresses. When the piers of box girder or T-beam bridges are severely skewed, the layout of end blocks, bearing pads, and curtain walls at exterior girders become extremely difficult (see Figure 6.4.1-6). Note that if the exterior face of the exterior girder is in the same plane throughout its entire length, all the end block widening must be on the inside. To lessen the risk of tendon break-out through the side of a thin web, the end block should be long enough to accommodate a horizontal tendon curve of 200 feet minimum radius. For a discussion of the radial component of force in a curved cable, see Chapter 4-7 of reference 6.99.1. F. Superstructure Shortening Whenever members such as columns, crossbeams, and diaphragms in bridges without prestressing steel are appreciably affected by post-tensioning of the main girders, those effects should be included in the design. This will generally be true in structures containing rigid frame elements. For further discussion, see Chapter 2.6 of reference 6.99.8 and Subsection 9.3.2. Past practice in the state of Washington regarding control of superstructure shortening in posttensioned bridges with rigid piers can be illustrated by a few examples. Single-span bridges have been provided with a hinge at one pier and longitudinal slide bearings at the other pier. Two-span bridges have been detailed with longitudinal slide bearings at the end piers and a monolithic middle pier. On the six-span Evergreen Parkway Undercrossing structure, the center pier (pier 4) was built monolithic with the superstructure, and all the other piers were constructed with slide bearings. After posttensioning, the bearings at piers 3 and 5 were converted into fixed bearings to help resist large horizontal loads such as earthquakes. Superstructures which are allowed to move longitudinally at certain piers are typically restrained against motion in the transverse direction at those piers. This can be accomplished with suitable transverse shear corbels or bearings allowing motion parallel to the bridge only. See Subsection 9.3.2E of this manual. The casting length for box girder bridges shall be slightly longer than the actual bridge layout length to account for the elastic shortening of the concrete due to prestress.
6.4.2
Analysis
The procedures outlined in Section 2.1 through 2.5 of reference 6.99.8 for computation of stress in single and multispan box girders can be followed for the analysis of T-beams and slab bridges, as well. The BDS program available on the WSDOT system will quickly perform a complete stress analysis of a box girder, T-beam, or slab bridge, provided the structure can be idealized as a plane frame. For further information, see the program user instructions. The STRUDL program is recommended for complex structures which are more accurately idealized as space frames. Examples are bridges with sharp curvature, varying superstructure width, severe skew, or slope-leg intermediate piers. An analysis method in Chapter 10 of reference 6.99.1 for continuous prestressed beams is particularly well adapted to the loading input format in STRUDL. In the method, the forces exerted by cables of parabolic or other configurations are converted into equivalent vertical linear or concentrated loads applied to members and joints of the superstructure. The vertical loads are
6.4-10
July 2000
considered positive when acting up toward the center of tendon curvature and negative when acting down toward the center of tendon curvature. Forces exerted by anchor plates at the cable ends are coded in as axial and vertical concentrated forces combined with a concentrated moment if the anchor plate group is eccentric. Since the prestress force varies along the spans due to the effects of friction, the difference between the external forces applied at the end anchors at opposite ends of the bridge must be coded in at various points along the spans in order for the summation of horizontal forces to equal zero. With correct input (check thoroughly before submitting for computation), the effects of elastic shortening and secondary moments are properly reflected in all output listings, and the prestress moments printed out are the actual resultant (total) moments acting on the structure. For examples of the application of STRUDL to post-tensioning design, see the calculations for SR 90 West Sunset Way Ramp (simple), SR 5 Nalley Valley Viaduct (complex), and the STRUDL manuals. A. Section Properties As in other types of bridges, the design normally begins with a preliminary estimate of the superstructure cross-section and the amount of prestress needed at points of maximum stress and at points of cross-section change. For box girders, See Figure 2.0 through 2.5 of Reference 6.99.8. For T-beam and slab bridges, previous designs are a useful guide in making a good first choice. For frame analysis, use the properties of the entire superstructure regardless of the type of bridge being designed. For stress analysis of slab bridges, calculate loads and steel requirements for a 1-foot wide strip. For stress analysis of T-beam bridges, use the procedures outlined in the AASHTO specifications. Note that when different concrete strengths are used in different portions of the same member, the equivalent section properties should be calculated in terms of either the stronger or weaker material. In general, the concrete strength should be limited to the values indicated in Subsection 6.1.2A of this manual. B. Preliminary Stress Check In accordance with AASHTO, flexural stresses in prestressed members are calculated at service load levels. Shear stresses, stirrups, moment capacities vs. applied moments are calculated at ultimate load levels. During preliminary design, the first objective should be to satisfy the allowable flexural stresses in the concrete at the critical points in the structure with the chosen cross-section and amount of prestressing steel, then the requirements for shear stress, stirrups, and ultimate moment capacity can be readily met with minor or no modifications in the cross-section. For example, girder webs can be thickened locally near piers to reduce excessive shear stress. In the AASHTO formulas for allowable tensile stress in concrete, bonded reinforcement should be interpreted to mean bonded auxiliary (nonprestressed) reinforcement in conformity with Article 8.6 of the 1995 ACI Code for Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures. Normal practice is to use the time-dependent prestress loss from Table 6.1.5-1. The long-hand formulas for computing time-dependent losses in steel stress given in the code should be used only when a more thorough investigation is deemed necessary. To minimize concrete cracking and protect reinforcing steel against corrosion for bridges, the allowable concrete stress under final conditions in the precompressed tensile zone should be limited to zero in the top and bottom fibers.
July 2000
6.4-11
In all cases where tension is allowed in the concrete under initial or final conditions, extra mild steel (auxiliary reinforcement) should be added to carry the total tension present. This steel can be computed as in the following example (also see Chapter 9-5 of Reference 6.99.1):
Figure 6.4.2-1 In case of overstress, try one or more of the following remedies: Adjust tendon profiles, add or subtract prestress steel, thicken slabs, revise strength of concrete of top slab, add more short tendons locally, etc. Then repeat calculations as necessary. C. Tendon Layout After a preliminary estimate has been made of the concrete section and the amount of prestressing needed at points of maximum applied load, it may be advantageous in multispan bridges to draw a tendon profile to a convenient scale superimposed on a plot of the center of gravity of concrete (c.g.c.) line. The most efficient tendon profile from the standpoint of steel stress loss will normally be a series of rather long interconnected parabolas, but other configurations are possible. For continuous bridges with unequal span lengths, the tendon profile (eccentricity) shall be based on the span requirement. This results in an efficient post-tensioning design. The tendon profile and c.g.c. line plot is strongly recommended for superstructures of variable cross-section and/or multiple unsymmetrical span arrangements, but is not necessary for superstructures having constant cross- section and symmetrical spans. The main advantages of the tendon profile and c.g.c. plot are:
6.4-12
July 2000
Cast-in-Place Bridges
The primary prestress moment curves (prestress force times distance from c.g.c. line to center of gravity of steel (c.g.s.) lines) at all points throughout all spans are quickly obtained from this plot and will be used to develop the secondary moment curves (if present) and, ultimately, to develop the resultant total prestress moment curve. Possible conflicts between prestressing steel and mild steel near end regions, crossbeams, and diaphragms may become apparent. Possible design revisions may be indicated. For example, camber in bridges with unequal spans can be balanced by adjusting tendon profiles. The tendon profile and c.g.c. line diagram should also contain a sketch of how the end bearing plates or anchors are to be arranged at the ends of the bridge. Such a sketch can be useful in determining how large the end block in a girder bridge will have to be and how much space will be required for mild steel in the end region. In general, the arrangement of anchor plates should be the same as the arrangement of the ducts to which they belong to avoid problems with duct cross-overs and to keep end blocks of reasonable width.
2. 3.
D. Prestress Losses Friction losses occurring during jacking and prior to anchoring, depend on the system and materials used. For purposes of design, this office has specified a rigid spiral galvanized ferrous metal duct system for which shall be 0.20 and K = 0.0002. This system is at present available from several large suppliers. To avoid the substantial friction loss caused by sharp tendon curvature in the end regions where the tendons flare out from a stacked arrangement towards the bearing plates, use 0.10 times the span length or 20 feet as the minimum flare zone length. The recommended minimum radius (horizontal or vertical) of flared tendons is 200 feet. In the special cases where sharp curvature cannot be avoided, extra horizontal and vertical ties should be added along the concave side of the curve to resist the tendency to break through the web. See stirrup calculations for SR 2, EU-Line OXing, for a suggested method of calculating this additional steel. When summing the angles for total friction loss along the structure, horizontal curvature of the tendons as well as horizontal and vertical roadway curvature should be included in the summation. All other losses (those due to shrinkage, elastic shortening, creep, and relaxation of steel) shall be as indicated in Subsection 6.1.5. E. Steel Stress Curve Steel stresses may be plotted either as the actual values or as a percentage of the jacking stresses. A steel stress diagram for a typical two-span bridge is shown below. Spans are symmetrical about pier 2 and the bridge is jacked from both ends. All values are in ksi and pertain to 270 ksi either stress relieved or low relaxation strands. Fs denotes ultimate strength of strands in ksi.
July 2000
6.4-13
Losses due to creep, shrinkage, and relaxation of prestressing steel are 33.30 ksi for structures of usual design and normal weight concrete. Yield Stress for Stress-Releive Strands = 0.85 Yield Stress for Low-Relaxation Strands = 0.90 Figure 6.4.2-2 Accurate plotting of steel stress variation due to local curvature is normally not necessary, and straight lines between intersection points on the diagram are usually sufficient. When tendons are continuous through the length of the bridge, the stress for design purposes at the jacked end should be limited to 0.75 x fs or 202 ksi for 270 ksi stress relieved strands or 0.79 x fs or 213 ksi for 270 ksi low relaxation strands. This would permit the post-tensioning contractor to jack to the slightly higher value of 0.77 x fs for stress relieved strands or 0.81 x fs for low relaxation strands as allowed by the AASHTO Code in case friction values encountered in the field turn out somewhat greater than the standard values used in design. Stress loss at jacked end should be calculated from the assumed anchor set of 1/4 inch, the normal slippage during anchoring in most systems. At the high points on the initial stress curve, the stress should not exceed 0.70 x fs for stress relieved strands or 0.75 x fs low relaxation strands after sealing of anchorage. If these values are exceeded, the jacking stress can be lowered or alternately the specified amount of anchor set can be increased. When the total tendon length (L) is less than the length of cable influenced by anchor set (x) and the friction loss is small, as in short straight tendons, the 0.70 x fs value governs. In these cases, the maximum allowable jacking stress value of 0.75 x fs for stress relieved or 0.78 x fs for low relaxation strands cannot be used and a slightly lower value should be specified. See the following sketch:
6.4-14
July 2000
Figure 6.4.2-3 In single-span, simply supported superstructures friction losses are so small that jacking from both ends is normally not warranted. In the longer multispan bridges where the tendons experience greater friction losses, jacking from both ends will usually be necessary. Jacking at both ends need not be done simultaneously, since final results are virtually the same whether or not the jacking is simultaneous. If unsymmetrical two-span structures are to be jacked from one end only, the jacking must be done from the end of the longest span. F. Prestress Moment Curves 1. Single-Span Bridges, Simply Supported The primary prestress moment curve is developed by multiplying the initial steel stress curve ordinates by the area of prestressing steel times the eccentricity of steel from the center of gravity of the concrete section at every tenth point in the span. The primary prestress moment curve is not necessary for calculating concrete stresses in single-span simply supported bridges. Since there is no secondary prestress moment developed in the span of a single span, simply supported bridge which is free to shorten, the primary prestress moment curve is equal to the total prestress moment curve in the span. However, if the single span is rigidly framed to supporting piers, the effect of elastic shortening should be calculated. The same would be true when unexpected high friction is developed in bearings during or after construction. 2. Multispan Continuous Bridges The primary prestress moment curve for all spans is developed as in 1. above for single span bridges. With the exception of T.Y. Lins equivalent vertical load method used in conjunction with the STRUDL program, none of the methods described in the following take into account the elastic shortening of the superstructure due to prestressing. To obtain the total prestress moment curve used to check concrete stresses, the primary and secondary prestress moment curves must be added algebraically at all points in the spans. As the secondary moment can have a large absolute value in some structures, it is very important to obtain the proper sign for this moment, or a serious error could result.
July 2000
6.4-15
A discussion of methods for calculating secondary prestress moments follows: WSDOT BEAMDEF Program If the primary prestress moment values at tenth points are coded into this program, span stiffness factors, carry-overs, and fixed-end moments will be obtained. Distribution of the fixed-end moments in all spans will yield the secondary moments at all piers. The secondary moments will be zero at simply supported span ends and cantilevers. Equivalent Vertical Load See discussion in Subsection 6.4.2 of this manual. Table of Influence Lines See Appendix A.1 of Reference 6.99.8 for a discussion. This method is similar to T. Y. Lins equivalent vertical load method and is a relatively quick way to manually compute prestress moments in bridges of up to five spans. Since the secondary moment effect due to vertical support reactions is included in the coefficients listed in the tables, the support moment computed is the total moment at that point. Slope Deflection See Section 2.5 of Reference 6.99.8 for a discussion. The method, though straightforward, is time consuming. G. Flexural Stress in Concrete Stress at service load levels in the top and bottom fibers of prestressed members should be checked for at least two conditions that will occur in the lifetime of the members. The initial condition occurs just after the transfer of prestress when the concrete is relatively fresh and the member is carrying its own dead load. The final condition occurs after all the prestress losses when the concrete has gained its full ultimate strength and the member is carrying dead load and live load. For certain bridges, other intermediate loading conditions may have to be checked, such as when prestressing and falsework release are done in stages and when special construction loads have to be carried, etc. The concrete stresses shall be within the AASHTO allowables except as amended in Subsection 6.4.2.B of this manual. In single-span simply supported superstructures with parabolic tendon paths, flexural stresses at service load levels need to be investigated at the span midpoint where moments are maximum, at points where the cross-section changes, and near the span ends where shear stress is likely to be maximum (see Subsection 6.4.2.I, Shear). For tendon paths other than parabolic, flexural stress should be investigated at other points in the span as well. In multispan continuous superstructures, investigate flexural stress at service load should be at points of maximum moment (in the negative moment region of box girders, check at the quarter point of the crossbeam), at points where the cross section changes, and at points where shear is likely to be maximum. At points of maximum moment, the ultimate moment capacity of the section should exceed or equal the applied ultimate moment. Normally, mild steel should not be used to supplement the ultimate moment capacity. It may be necessary, however, to determine the partial temperature and shrinkage stresses that occur prior to post-tensioning and supply mild steel reinforcing for this condition. In addition, maximum and minimum steel percentages and cracking moment should be checked. See Subsection 2.3.8 of Reference 6.99.8.
6.4-16
July 2000
Cast-in-Place Bridges
3.
*From Conclusions Drawn from Distress of Prestressed Concrete Bridges by Dr. Fritz Leonardt.
July 2000
6.4-17
Cast-in-Place Bridges
6.4-18
July 2000
The total stirrup quantity required is the sum of the minimum 50 bv s/Fy and the additional required amount to mobilize shear friction. In load factor notation, these relationships can be expressed as follows: Vu Vnh = Vnh-c + Vnh-s Vnh-s Vu/ - Vnh-c Vnh-c = (350 psi)bvd Vnh-s = 0.4AvFyd/s (Av/s)total 50bv/Fy + Vnh-s/(0.4Fyd) 50bv/Fy + 2.5Vnh-s/(Fyd) 50bv/Fy + 2.5(Vu/ - Vnh-c)/(Fyd) The horizontal shear requirements of the AASHTO specifications can be satisfied using either of two methods: (1) Stirrup spacing is designed to satisfy the shear capacity requirement at each and every point along the span (AASHTO Section 9.20.4.3), or (2) Stirrup spacing is designed to transfer the change in flange axial force over a segment length not exceeding one tenth of the span (AASHTO Section 9.20.4.4). The second method permits the designer to average the stirrup spacing over one tenth the span, resulting in an increased minimum stirrup spacing. Again, the use of an electronic spreadsheet can simplify these repetitive computations. For cast-in-place sloped outer webs, increase inside stirrup reinforcement and bottom slab top transverse reinforcement as required for the web moment locked-in during construction of the top slab. This moment about the bottom corner of the web is due to tributary load from the top slab concrete placement plus 10 psf form dead load. See Figure 5.3.2 for typical top slab forming. For precast tub outer webs, increase the stirrup and bottom slab steel as required by moment induced by falsework overhang brackets supporting concrete plus 10 psf overhang deck load. J. End Block Stresses The highly concentrated forces at the end anchorages cause bursting and spalling stresses in the concrete which must be resisted by vertical and horizontal reinforcement. For a better understanding of this subject, see Chapter 7 of Reference 6.99.1, 6.99.3, and Section 2.82 of Reference 6.99.8. Note that the procedures for computing horizontal bursting and spalling steel in the slabs of box girders and T-beams are similar to those required for computing vertical steel in girder webs, except that the slab steel is figured in a horizontal instead of a vertical plane. In box girders, this slab steel should be placed half in the top slab and half in the bottom slab. See Appendix 6.4-A1 for typical box girder end block reinforcement details. The anchorage zones of slab bridges will require vertical stirrups as well as additional horizontal transverse bars extending across the width of the bridge. The horizontal spalling and bursting steel in slab bridges shall be placed half in a top layer and half in a bottom layer.
July 2000
6.4-19
Cast-in-Place Bridges
Sidewalks and traffic barriers are normally cast after post-tensioning. See Appendix 6.2-B1 for typical post-tensioning notes for plans.
6.4-20
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Prestressed Concrete Superstructures 6.4.3 Review of Shop Plans
See also section on Review of Shop Plans in Chapter 1 of this manual as well as Section 6.2.8 of the Construction Manual. A. Check that the manufacturer provides a lift off force as required in Standard Specifications. B. Check that the number of PT strands in a tendon proposed by the contractor do not exceed the number allowed by the contract (i.e., 31-1/2 inch diameter or 22-0.6 in diameter). C. Check that the allowable tendon stress at anchorages and along the tendon are not exceeded. D. The maximum size of a post-tensioned tendon should be 31-1/2 inch strands or 22-0.6 inch strands. Use of a larger tendon requires the approval of the Bridge Design Engineer and the Design Unit Supervisor. E. If the post-tensioning shop drawings show a PT tendon larger than the size specified in contract plans, review should mark Not Approved with a note indicating that the tendon size exceeds the maximum tendon size specified in the contract plans. F. Temporary strands may be required for shipping, reducing camber, and lower the release strength. These strands may be pretensioned or post-tensioned and are bonded only for the end 10 feet of the girder, or may be post-tensioned prior to lifting the girder from the form. These strands must be cut before the deck slab concrete is placed, and preferably after the diaphragms are cast and cured.
Cast-in-Place Bridges
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.4-21
Bibliography
6.
7. 8.
9.
10. Design of Concrete Bridges for Temperature Gradients ACI Journal, May 1978 11. Transportation Research Board Report No. 226 titled, Damage Evaluation and Repair Methods for Prestressed Concrete Bridge Members. 12. Transportation Research Board Report No. 280 titled, Guidelines for Evaluation and Repair of Prestressed Concrete Bridge Members. 13. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. 14. Seguirant, S.J., New Deep WSDOT Standard Sections Extend Spans of Prestressed Concrete Girders, PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 4, July-August 1998, pp. 92-119. 15. PCI Bridge Design Manual, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1997. 16. PCI Design Handbook, Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Fifth Edition, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1999. 17. Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams, Part 1, PCI JOURNAL, V. 34, No. 1, January-February 1989, pp. 34-53.
July 2000
6.99-1
18. Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams, Part 2, PCI JOURNAL, V. 38, No. 1, January-February 1993, pp. 70-88. 19. Imper, R.R., and Laszlo, G., Handling and Shipping of Long Span Bridge Beams, PCI JOURNAL, V. 32, No. 6, November-December 1987, pp. 86-101. 20. Standardization of Shear Reinf. for WSDOT Standard Prestressed Girders. 21. AASHTO LRFD Specifications. Second Edition 1998.
P65:DP/BDM6
6.99-2
July 2000
Definitions:
S = L = G = R = W= m = Span length (ft.) Vertical curve length (ft.) Algebraic diff. in profile tangent grades (%) Horizontal curve radius to girder per next sheet (ft.) Girder top flange width (inches) Deck crown or super slope (ft./ft.)
Note: The following assumes that sag breaks in curb line profiles due to super transitions will occur @ Piers so as not to require any increase A.
(See minimums below) May make shorter span critical. + / Flange Width { Use A = (Slab thicknessDrain) + Topcrosses girder. Effect) Min. Use A = 9 Min. where Type 5
3 4
The basic attempt is to have the top of girder not higher than 3/4 below the bottom of slab at the center of the span. This provides that the actual girder camber could exceed the calculated value by 13/4 before the top of the girder would start interfering with the slab steel. 1 Allowance for the amount the girder camber, at time of slab pour, exceeds the screed camber.
* Use 2.50 @ preliminary plan stage to determine vertical clearance. Note in left margin of Layout: A Dimen. = X (not for design). Use value from deflection program results to determine A Dimen. to use for design.
July 2000
6.1-A1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Horizontal Curve Effect: A Dimension for P.S. Concrete Bridges
= 5,730 S m 400 R
tan 1
H = 573Sm 0.01746 S 12 4R 2
1.5 S2 R (approx.) H
m (inches)
K = 100G 2L
a=K
S2 12 = G S2 12 400 2L 40,000
a = 1.5
G S2 (inches) 100 L
6.1-A1-2
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Check for excess pad at C span L
For bridges which are on sharp crowned vertical curves, the pad at C span can become excessive to the point L where the girder and diaphragm stirrups (based on the A dimension) are too short to bend into the proper position. This is a problem on bridges with spans in excess of 100 feet and a total grade change of 10 percent on a 900-foot vertical curve. The effect of girder cambers which are less than the calculated values tends to add to this error.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.1-A1-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures W95G and W83G
Notes to Designer for Pretensioned Deep Standard Girders W95G and W83G Section Dimensions and Properties
1. Girder section dimensions and properties of the W95G and W83G are based on hard metric units as shown on the metric version of the Washington Standard Girders sheet in Appendix A. The U.S. Customary unit dimensions of the W95G and W83G are conversions from metric units. Girder section dimensions and properties of other standard girders are based on U.S. Customary units as shown on the U.S. Customary version of the Washington State Girder sheet in Appendix A. Metric versions of other standard girders are conversions from U.S. Customary units.
2.
July 2000
6.2-A1-1
At Release:
For flexural strength, it has been determined14 that AASHTO LRFD Article 5.7.3 underestimates the strength of the composite deck-girder system. The strain compatibility method given in Section 8.2.2.5 of the PCI Bridge Design Manual15 is recommended for this analysis. In addition to the effective area of the deck, the top flange of the girder and the mild reinforcement in the deck and the top flange of the girder should be included in the analysis. Simple spans shall be assumed for positive moment flexural design. The W83G and W95G girders shall not be used for bridges with skew angles that exceed 30o. 3. The W95G and W83G sections are high performance girders. They generally rely on high strength concrete to be effective for the spans expected as a single piece. Maximum girder length is based on a single piece weight not to exceed 200 kips. The approximate range of maximum span lengths for practical minimum and maximum girder spacings are as follows: Girder W83G W83G W95G W95G Spacing (ft) 5 10 5 10 Span (ft) 155 164 Girder Length (ft)* 185 (maximum) 172 (maximum)
6.2-A1-2
July 2000
Shipping
1. The designer shall assure that the girders can be reasonably delivered to the site as part of the preliminary design. The girder weight shall not exceed 200 kips. Vertical and horizontal clearances along the selected delivery route shall be verified. The designer shall check the lateral stability of the girder during shipping14,18,19. Temporary top strands shall be used to provide a minimum factor of safety against cracking of 1.0. In the absence of more accurate information on the properties of the truck, the following may be used: 1) the truck rotational spring stiffness Kq = 41,000 kip-in./radian, 2) the height of the roll center above the road hr = 24 in., 3) the height of the top of the truck support above the road = 6 ft, 4) the distance from the center of truck to the center of dual tires zmax = 36 in. and, 5) the maximum distance between truck supports = 130 ft. The maximum superelevation along the selected route shall be used in the analysis.
2.
3.
July 2000
6.2-A1-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures W95G and W83G
2.
Girder Sheets
1. There are four end types shown on the girder sheets. Due to the extreme depth of the W83G and W95G girders, and possible end of girder tilt at the piers for profile grades, the designer will need to pay particular attention to details to assure the girders will fit and perform as intended. The four end types are identified with pertinent detailing dimensions as follows: End Type A is for cantilever end piers with an end diaphragm cast on the end of the girders. End Type A has a recess at the bottom of the girder near the end for an elastomeric bearing pad. The maximum bearing pad size expected for the W95G and W83G girders is 18 inches long x 35 inches wide. The recess at the centerline of bearing is 3/4 inch deep to accommodate an elastomeric pad length of 18 inches. This recess is to be used for profile grades up to and including 4 percent. The recess is to be replaced by an embedded steel plate flush with the bottom of the girder for grades over 4 percent. A tapered bearing plate, with stops at the edges to contain the elastomeric pad, can be welded or bolted to the embedded plate to provide a level bearing surface.
6.2-A1-4
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures W95G and W83G
Reinforcing bars and pretensioned strands project from the end of the girder. The designer shall assure that these bars and strands fit into the end diaphragm. Embedment of the girder end into the end diaphragm shall be a minimum of 3 inches and a maximum of 6 inches. For girder ends where the tilt would exceed 6 inches of embedment, the girder ends shall be tilted to attain a plumb surface when the girder is erected to the profile grade. Embedment into the end wall shall be 3 inches. The gap between the end diaphragm and the stem wall shall be a minimum of 21/2 inches or 1/2 inch greater than required for longitudinal direction.
July 2000
6.2-A1-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures W95G and W83G
End Type B is for L type abutments. End Type B also has a recess at the bottom of the girder for an elastomeric bearing pad. Notes regarding the bearing recess on End Type A also apply to End Type B. End Type B is the only end type that does not have reinforcing or strand projecting from the girder end. Note that the centerline of the bearing is not coincident with the centerline of the diaphragm. For girders on a grade, dimensions for each bearing, P1 and P2, from the ends of the girder will be different. Typically the centerline of bearing will be 1-3 minimum from the end of the girder to fit the bearing and provide adequate edge distance. The designer may want to locate the diaphragm such that it is equal distance from the centerline of the bearing, and the centerline of the bearing is equal distance from the face of the back wall of both abutments. This should create consistency in dimensions and make it easier to calculate girder lengths.
6.2-A1-6
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures W95G and W83G
End Type C is for continuous spans and an intermediate hinge diaphragm at an intermediate pier. There is no bearing recess and the girder is temporarily supported on oak bunking blocks. This detail is generally used only in low seismic areas. This end type is generally used for bridges east of the Cascade Mountains. The designer shall check the edge distance and provide a dimension that prevents edge failure, or spalling, at the top corner of the supporting cross beam for load from the oak bunking block.
July 2000
6.2-A1-7
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures W95G and W83G
End Type D is for continuous spans fully fixed to columns at intermediate piers. There is no bearing recess and the girder is temporarily supported on oak bunking blocks. The designer shall check the edge distance and provide a dimension that prevents edge failure, or spalling, at the top corner of the supporting cross beam for load from the oak bunking block.
6.2-A1-8
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Summary of Checks Required by Designer
1. 2. Shear reinforcing size and spacing beyond the end region of the girder shall be determined by the designer. It is uneconomical to provide a standard pattern to cover all span and girder spacing arrangements. Determine lifting location and required concrete transfer strength to provide adequate stability during handling. The lifting bar location, concrete release strength, and A dimension should be based on six (6) temporary strands in the top flange. Generally the temporary strands provide additional stability for lifting and transportation, and reduce the camber. Less camber allows for less A dimension and concrete pad dead weight on the structure. Temporary strands are assumed to be cut after all intermediate diaphragms are cast and cured, but before the cast-in-place deck is placed. Attention to detail: Due to the extreme depth of the W83G and W95G girders, and possible tilt at the piers for profile grades, the designer will need to pay particular attention to details to assure the girders will fit and perform as intended. Girder data required to be placed in the table on Girder Details 2 of 2 include the girder identifiers, A dimension, end types, girder geometric data, and strand forces and pattern required. Check edge distance of supporting cross beam. For continuous bridges, design girders as simple spans for live load (Do not deduct negative moments from maximum simple beam positive moments). Provide reinforcement for negative moments at intermediate piers due to live loads and superimposed dead loads from traffic barrier, pedestrian walkway, utilities, etc.
3.
4. 5. 6.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.2-A1-9
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Prestressed Girder Intermediate Hinge Diaphragm
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.3-A1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Prestressed Concrete Superstructures Preapproved Anchorages for Post-Tensioning
The following are the anchorages approved by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT). (Note: The majority of these anchorages have been approved and accepted by WSDOT on the bases of tests done by suppliers for various state and local jurisdictions outside the state of Washington.
Post-Tensioning Anchorages
July 2000
6.1-B1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Prestressed Concrete Superstructures AVAR Post-tensioning Systems
Anchorage SP 12.5 SP 19.5 SP 27.5 MP 12.5 MP 22.5 C 12.5 C 19.5 C 27.5 Type Single Plane System Single Plane System Single Plane System Multiple Plane System Single Plane System Single Plane System Single Plane System Single Plane System Minimum Number of Strands 12 1/2-inch strands 19 1/2-inch strands 27 1/2-inch strands 12 1/2-inch strands 22 1/2-inch strands 12 1/2-inch strands 19 1/2-inch strands 27 1/2-inch strands
Post-Tensioning Anchorages
Bar Anchorages
DYWIDAG Systems International 1-inch thread bars through 13/8 at fu of 150 ksi only.
P65:DP/BDM6
6.1-B1-2
July 2000
4. 5.
Note to Designers: 1. 2. 3. 4. Small changes in thickness of web (up to 1 inch) shall not require redesign of structure on the part of the contractor. Commonly used stress levels in note number 1 are 3000 psi and 3500 psi. Use of a tendon with more strands than the maximum noted above requires the approval of the Bridge Design Engineer and the Design Unit Supervisor. Post-tensioning shop drawings detailing a tendon with more strands than the maximum specified by the contract shall be returned Not Approved with a note stating the number of strands per tendon exceeds the maximum specified in the contract.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.2-B1
County Spokane
Span 112
9150 9664
8/71 12/73
150 130
38 59
21.4 21.7
9900
0839
10/77 158 158 38 50 19.8 19.8 Curved 2200R Curved 2200F Curved 3274R Curved 625R
0902
Cowlitz
2/78
132
52
22.0
2156
Clark
11/81
112
26
21.3
*Twin bridges.
July 2000
6.3-B1
County King
Span 137 155 124 124 130 130 141 133 138 138 167 172 178 158 151 151 156 161 142 155 168 157 131 131
Skew Deg. 45
Remarks
9122
Clark
7/71
44
24.8
12
9122
Clark
7/71
84
23.6
9289
King
3/72
55
23.5
51
9448
Clark
1/73
44
22.8
17
9737
Clark
5/74
84
22.2
0862
Yakima
10/77
40
23.0
44
0862
Yakima
10/77
30
22.6
37
1219
8/78
34
22.7
45
1366
12/78
55
23.8
45
1764
King
12/79
60
21.9
41
1788
Yakima
1/80
30
22.1
37
July 2000
6.3-B2-1
County Clark
Skew Deg. 0
Remarks
2156
Clark
11/81
26
21.8
Curbed 600R 0
2217
SR 12 Uxing
Benton
2/82
55
23.3
2217
Benton
2/82
34
21.4
Curved 11,459R
25 counterweighted cantilever spans at each end. Transv. P.T. 30 counterweighted cantilever spans at each end. Transv. P.T.
2207
G Line Uxing
Benton
4/82
162.4 180.6
Varies 78.6-84.6
20.5
2207
Benton
4/82
38
22.1
2207
Benton
4/82
72
20.4
2236
Franklin
4/82
64
23.2
35
2236
Franklin
4/82
55
21.5
15
2236
Franklin
4/82
26
22.4
2236
Franklin
4/82
38
21.8
6.3-B2-2
July 2000
County Cowlitz
Award Date
Span 40 200 200 40 40 200 200 40 88 170 88 190 260 190 100.5 145 145 114 114 87.5 160 159 100
Span/ Depth
Skew Deg.
2/70
NB
2/70
Varies 46.5
Varies
8761
Snohomish
2/70
38
25.2
9102
7/71
74
Varies
9749
Evergreen Parkway
Thurston
26
Varies
47
Hourglass columns.
9840
King
12/74
26
22.9
1193
Clark
8/78
26
Varies
3794
5/90
77
Varies
12
July 2000
6.3-B3-1
County
Award Date
Span 63.5 133 63.5 167 5@172 167 137 6@172 166
Span/ Depth
Skew Deg.
Remarks
1439
SR 516 Oxing
King
3/79
42
24.2
40
1580
Yakima 8/79
26
25.1
Curved 1200R
NB
8/79
38
25.1
Curved 1200R
1950
Benton
10/80 140+ 161 161 215 147 140+ 161 161 215 147 Varies 48-100 Varies Curved 6000R Transverse posttentioning.
South Bridge
38
Varies
Curved 5900R
2156
14-I Line
Clark
11/81
38
22.2
Curved 600R
2156
14 D Line (South)
Clark
11/81
26
24.4
Curved 625R
2207
Benton
4/82
38
23.5
Curved 1400R
6.3-B3-2
July 2000
County Benton
Span 47 104 47 49 159 49 43 125 43 175 255 175 118 150 99 126 182 126
Skew Deg. 20
2245
Pierce
4/82
54
22.7
Curved 1400R
2245
Pierce
4/82
Varies 87.4102 76
22.7
2327
Spokane
6/82
Varies
***
King
74
Varies
22
3794
5/90
77
12
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.3-B3-3
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5 7.99
July 2000
7.0-i
Contents
Steel Plate Girder Design Flow Chart Girder Framing Plan and Elevation View Part Longitudinal Girder Elevation Primary Stiffeners Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners Splices Optional Web Splices Fillet Weld Termination Detail Field Splice Detail Drip Plate Details Crossframes Crossframe Attachment Details Lateral Plate Detail Camber Curve and Bearing Stiffener Camber Details Roadway Slab-Plan View Roadway Slab-Section View Safety Cable Details
P65:DP/BDM7
7.0-ii
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel 7.0 7.0.1 Structural Steel Introduction
The most common type of steel superstructure used on bridges in Washington State is the built-up steel I girder. Rolled beams have been used on a very limited basis but much of the following is applicable. Because of their uniqueness and limited application, other types of steel superstructures (box girders, trusses, arches, suspension, etc.) are not addressed. Use English units for all widening and rehabilitation on existing English designed and detailed steel bridge projects. Metric units are acceptable for new previously designed steel bridge projects.
Structural Steel
P65:DP/BDM7
July 2000
7.0-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel 7.1 7.1.1 Design Considerations General
Use the Strength Design Method Load Factor Design of Section 10 Structural Steel of AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges to design steel girders. Bridges on horizontal curves shall also meet the requirements of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges, as applicable. The information provided in this chapter is intended to help apply these AASHTO specifications and to define office practice. Typical construction is nonshored steel girders acting compositely with a reinforced concrete roadway slab. This is discussed in more detail in Section 7.3.2. Since plate stock of M 270 grade 50W and M 270 grade 50 are close in price, office practice is to specify grade 50W for plate girders. The use of nonredundant load path structures should be avoided. Nonredundant loadpath structures are structures where the failure of a single load carrying member, or a component thereof, could cause a total collapse. An example would be a twin plate girder structure. Nonredundant structures are generally not used because of the extensive ongoing annual maintenance inspections required by FHWA. Also, nonredundant structures increase fabrication costs and require greater attention to detail during design. Even so, the use of nonredundant structures may be approved by the Bridge Design Engineer, however, approval shall be obtained by the designer prior to beginning the design. Steel girder bridges typically require a paint system to provide protection against corrosion. The paint system for girder bridges is defined in the Special Provisions and is a three-part system. The first coat is an inorganic zinc shop primer. This is a sacrificial protection system. The second coat is an epoxy seal normally applied after the slab has been placed. This is a barrier protective system but in combination with the zinc primer, is considered a composite protective system. The third and final coat is a urethane which protects the epoxy from UV attack and provides color for the bridge. The color is specified in the Special Provisions. This paint system will normally require repainting in approximately 30 years. Unpainted weathering steel should be considered for locations deemed appropriate. See NCHRP Report 314. Approval for its use must be obtained from the Bridge Design Engineer. Careful attention to details is required for proper weathering. Accumulation of debris, staining of substructure, and water from expansion joints can pose considerable problems and add to life cycle costs. Provisions to sand blast erected steel and apply controlled wet-dry cycles are required to produce a sound protective coating with good appearance. Recommendations for using weathering steel are contained in Uncoated Weathering Steel Bridges, Vol. I, Chapter 9 of AISCs Highway Structures Design Handbook. A more comprehensive treatment is found in NCHRP Report 314 Guidelines for the Use of Weathering Steel in Bridges. Surfaces to be embedded in concrete, such as top flanges, should be shop painted.
Design Considerations
7.1.2
Girder Depth
The superstructure depth is initially determined during preliminary plan development and is based upon the span/depth ratios provided in Chapter 2 of this manual. The designer will have to verify this depth by meeting live load deflection requirements and by meeting stress requirements. It is office practice to limit live load deflections to L/800 for HS-25 or L/1000 for HS-20. Live load deflection is calculated on a per bridge basis with reduction for multiple lanes. The superstructure depth is typically the distance from the top of the concrete roadway slab to the bottom of the web. This distance is in multiples of 6 inches for shorter span bridges, and 1 foot 0 inches for longer span bridges, and should be consistent throughout the length of the bridge.
July 2000
7.1-1
Other features such as notching at hinges (combined with notching for expansion joint system), vertical clearances, etc., should be considered in selecting the superstructure depth.
7.1.3
Girder Spacing
For simplicity of design, girders should be spaced such that each is designed for the same load; that is basically, girders will be identical. Spacing should be such that slab dead load is equally distributed on all girders and the distribution of wheel loads on the exterior girder is close to that of the interior girder. Barrier weights shall be equally distributed to a maximum of two I girders. The least number of girders should be used that is consistent with a reasonable deck design. In general, live load distribution to girders shall be in accordance with AASHTO Section 3, Part C for I girders. When these bounds are exceeded, a rational live load distribution method should be used.
7.1.4
7.1.5
Types of Steel
The most common types of steel used for bridges are now grouped in ASTM A 709 or AASHTO M 270 specifications. The following table shows equivalent designations. Grades of steel are based on minimum yield points. ASTM A 36 A 572 gr 50 A 588 A 852 A 514 ASTM A 709 Grade 36 Grade 50 Grade 50W Grade 70W Grade 100 Grade l00W AASHTO M 183 M 223 gr 50 M 222 M 313 M 244 AASHTO M 270 Grade 36 Grade 50 Grade 50W Grade 70W Grade 100 Grade l00W
Plates and rolled sections are available is these specifications and grades. Rolled sections include beams (W, S, and M shapes), H-piles, tees, channels, and angles. These materials are prequalified under the Bridge Welding Code. Use AASHTO M 270 grade 50W for plate girders. The fabricated costs of structural carbon and structural low alloy steel plate girders are about equal. The use of M 270 grade 100, 100W requires approval by the Bridge Design Engineer. Availability of weathering steel can be a problem for some sections. For example, steel suppliers do not stock angles or channels in weathering steel. Weathering steel wide flange and tee sections are available but difficult to locate. Also, AASHTO M 270 steels are not stocked by local suppliers. The use of M 270 steel should be restricted to large quantities such as found in typical plate girder projects.
7.1-2
July 2000
Structural tubes and pipes are covered by other specifications. See Table 1-4 of AISC Manual of Steel Construction for selection and availability. These materials are not considered prequalified under the Bridge Welding Code. They are covered under the Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1. Structural tubing ASTM A 500 is not recommended for dynamic loading applications.
7.1.6
7.1.7
7.1.8
Computer Programs
The designer should consult the design supervisor to determine the computer program currently being used for analyses. Instruction manuals for the programs are available in the Bridge Office Computer Section. Office practice and good engineering principles require that the results of any computer program should be independently verified for accuracy. Verification is necessary to identify input errors which renders erroneous output. Also, programs with built-in code checks must be checked for default settings. Default settings may reflect old code or office practice may supercede the code that the program was written for.
July 2000
7.1-3
Design Considerations
Material AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A325) ASTM A 449 (No AASHTO equivalent) AASHTO M 314 ASTM F 1554 Grade 105 AASHTO M253 (ASTM A 490) ASTM A 354 Grade BD (No AASHTO equivalent)
Bolt Diameter /2 - 1 inc. 11/8 - 1 inc. Over 11/2 /4 - 1 inc. 11/8 - 11/2 inc. 13/4 -3 inc. Over 3
1 1 1
/4 - 3 inc.
125-150
/2 - 11/2 inc.
150-170
130
Over 11/2
1
/2 - 21/2 inc.
3 - 4 inc. Over 4
7.1-4
July 2000
Design Considerations
2.
A449
3.
M 314 (F1554)
4.
M 253 (A490)
5.
A354
July 2000
7.1-5
7.1-6
July 2000
July 2000
Composite Welded Steel Plate I Girder Two Continuous Spans Figure 7.1.4-2 7.1-7
7.1-8 Composite Welded Steel Plate I Girder Three or More Continuous Spans Figure 7.1.4-3
Design Considerations
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel Equivalent ASTM and AASHTO Specifications
ASTM Designations AASHTO Designations ASTM Designations AASHTO Designations
Design Considerations
A 6/A 6M ............................................ M 160/M 160M A 27/A 27M ....................................... M 103/M 103M A 36/A 36M ....................................... M 183/M 183M A 48 ................................................................... M 105 A 53 ...................................................... No Equivalent A 108 ................................................................. M 169 A 109 .................................................... No Equivalent A 109M ................................................. No Equivalent A 123 ................................................................. M 111 A 153 ................................................................. M 232 A 252 .................................................... No Equivalent A 307 .................................................... No Equivalent A 325 ................................................................. M 164 A 325M .......................................................... M 164M A 328/A 328M ................................... M 202/M 202M A 354 .................................................... No Equivalent A 370 .................................................................. T 244 A 435/A 435M ..................................... No Equivalent A 446/A 446M ..................................... No Equivalent A 449 .................................................... No Equivalent A 486/A 486M ................................... M 192/M 192M A 490 ................................................................. M 253 A 490M .......................................................... M 253M
A 500 ...................................................... No Equivalent A 501 ...................................................... No Equivalent A 502 ...................................................... No Equivalent A 514/A 514M .................................... M 244/M 244M A 525 ...................................................... No Equivalent A 525M .................................................. No Equivalent A 536 ...................................................... No Equivalent A 563 ................................................................... M 291 A 563M ........................................................... M 291M A 572/A 572M .................................... M 223/M 223M A 588/A 588M .................................... M 222/M 222M A 618 ...................................................... No Equivalent A 668 ................................................................... M 102 A 673/A 673M ....................................... T 243/T 243M A 709/A 709M .................................... M 270/M 270M A 852/A 852M .................................... M 313/M 313M A 898/A 898M ....................................... No Equivalent B 695 ................................................................... M 298 F436 .................................................................... M 293 F436M .................................................... No Equivalent F606 ....................................................... No Equivalent F 606M ................................................... No Equivalent F 959M ................................................... No Equivalent F 1554 ................................................................. M 314
Figure 7.1.5-1
July 2000
7.1-9
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel 7.2 7.2.1 Girder Bridges General
Once the material of choice, steel has been eclipsed by concrete. Numerous graphs and charts are available to demonstrate the falling percentage of steel bridges and the rising percentage of concrete bridges being constructed. Corrosion and fatigue cracking have contributed to unanticipated life cycle costs. Fabrication and material costs have also contributed to steels relative cost disadvantage. These trends may be compensated for by simplification of fabrication details, elimination of expansion joints and hinges, and the lowering of steel prices due to the advent of mills that recycle scrap iron. The specifications allow a combination of plastic design in positive moment regions and elastic design in negative moment regions. Plate girders, of the depths typically built in this state, have traditionally been designed to elastic limits or lower. Newer design methods may help reduce steel weight and narrow the cost gap between steel and concrete bridges. Steel girders can also be shallower than the same span prestressed girders.
Girder Bridges
7.2.2
I Girders
As stated in the introduction, welded plate I girders constitute the majority of steel girders designed by WSDOT. The I girder represents an efficient use of material for maximizing stiffness. Its shortcoming is inefficiency in resisting shear. Office practice is to maintain constant web thickness for short to medium span girders. Weight savings is achieved by minimizing the number of webs used for a given bridge. This also helps minimize fabrication, handling, and painting costs. Current office practice is to use a minimum of three girders to provide redundant load path structures. Two girder superstructures are considered non-redundant and hence, fracture critical. Steel plate girder design is complicated by buckling behavior of relatively thin elements. Most strength calculations involve buckling in some form. Either a minimum thickness condition must be met to achieve a given stress state, or strength is reduced by some amount to account for buckling. Buckling can be a problem in flanges as well as webs if compression is present. Also, stability needs to be insured for all stages of construction, with or without a roadway deck. The art of designing these girders is to minimize material and fabrication expense while ensuring adequate strength and stiffness. I girders are an excellent shape for welding. All welds for the main components are easily accessible and visible for welding and inspection. The plates are oriented in line with the rolling direction so as to make good use of strength, ductility, and toughness of the structural steel. The web is attached to the top and bottom flanges with continuous fillet welds. Usually, they are made with automatic submerged arc welders. These welds are loaded parallel to the longitudinal axis and resist horizontal shear between the flanges and web. Minimum size welds based on plate thickness controls design in most cases. The flanges and webs are fabricated to full segment length with full penetration groove welds. These welds are inspected by ultrasound (UT) 100 percent. Tension welds, as designated in the plans, are also radiographed (RT) 100 percent. Office practice is to have flanges and webs fabricated full length before they are welded into the I shape. Weld splicing built-up sections results in poor fatigue strength and zones that are difficult or impossible to inspect.
P65:DP/BDM7
July 2000
7.2-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel 7.3 7.3.1 Design I Girders General
Composite girders may be used for continuous and simple spans. As mentioned in Section 7.1.1, office practice is to use nonshored girders. The girder section must carry the weight of the fluid (wet) concrete deck as well as its own dead load. After the concrete has cured, the composite section becomes effective in carrying all superimposed loads. Shear connectors are provided over the full length of the top flange of the structure or continuous portions of the structure. The stiffness analysis is performed for superimposed dead loads and live load plus impact, assuming the section acts compositely over the total length of the structure or continuous portion thereof. The fatigue truck shall be HS-20 for LFD design. When designing by the LRFD method, the fatigue truck shall be applied without neglecting axles that do not contribute to the extreme force effect. Assume Case I road type when determining the number of stress cycles for design.
Design I Girders
7.3.2
Composite Section
Short-term primary loading live load plus impact is applied to the composite section transformed using ES/EC, commonly denoted n. Long-term loading (dead load of barriers, signs, luminaries, overlays, etc.) is applied to the composite section transformed using 3 ES/EC. The moments resulting from the stiffness analysis are applied to the composite section in the positive moment region. The negative moments from the analysis are applied to the steel girder section including longitudinal reinforcing (negative moment composite section). Longitudinal reinforcing steel shall be used in negative moment regions of composite, continuous spans. Refer to AASHTO Section 10.38.4.3.
7.3.3
Flanges
When determining girder section at locations of maximum positive and negative moment, try to use a constant top and bottom flange width throughout the length of the bridge. If a width change in the top flange is necessary, it is best made at a field splice. The cross sectional areas of the top and bottom flanges may be varied by changing thickness. Generally two changes in girder section located within the negative moment region, one each side of maximum moment and between field splices, will be most economical. Flange thickness changes at field splices are easily accomplished. One girder section change in end spans between maximum positive moment and end bearing may be justified. As a general rule, a welded splice may be justified if more than 500 pounds of steel can be saved.
7.3.4
Webs
Maintain constant web thickness throughout the structure. Except for extremely deep superstructures, maintain webs full depth without longitudinal splices. Vertical web splices for girders should be shown on the plans in an elevation view with additional splices made optional to the fabricator. All welded web splices on exterior faces of exterior girders and in tension zones elsewhere shall be ground smooth. Like splices on interior girders need not be ground in compression zones.
7.3.5
July 2000
7.3-1
side of the web, welded to the compression flange, and cut short of the tension flange. Stiffeners located between crossframes in regions of stress reversal shall be welded to one side of the web and cut short of both flanges. Alternatively, they may be welded to both flanges if fatigue Category C is checked.
7.3.6
Longitudinal Stiffeners
On long spans where web depths exceed 12 feet, comparative web evaluations shall be made to determine whether the use of longitudinal stiffeners will be more economical. Fabrication costs indicate the use of longitudinal stiffeners is not economical on webs 12 feet deep or less.
7.3.7
Bearing Stiffeners
Stiffeners are required at all bearings to enable the reaction to be transmitted from the web to the bearing. These stiffeners are designated as columns, therefore, must be vertical under total dead load. The connection of the bearing stiffener to the girder consists of full penetration groove welds to the bottom flange and fillet welding to the top flange and web. These connection details limit the design stress to Category C for all girder sections at points of maximum negative moment. In the case of severe horizontal curvature on structures where girders and crossframes are subjected to large transverse forces resulting in considerable lateral flange bending, full penetration welds at top and bottom flanges may be necessary. Full penetration welds are expensive and should be used only where necessary.
7.3.8
Crossframes
The primary function of intermediate crossframes is to distribute vertical loads transversely and give torsional rigidity to the superstructure. Together with the bottom laterals they stabilize the superstructure during erection, pouring, and curing of the roadway slab. On curved bridges, the crossframes also resist lateral flange bending. Pier crossframes are subjected to lateral loads that originate primarily from wind, earthquake, and curvature and are transmitted from the roadway slab to the bearings. Crossframes are generally patterned as K-frames or as X-frames. Typically the configuration selected is based on the most efficient geometry. The members should closely approach a slope of 1:1 or 45. Avoid conflicts with utilities passing through the girders. On K-frames like the following, avoid connection congestion at bottom laterals:
K-frames like the following may be better for utilities, however, create some congestion at the bottom lateral connection:
7.3-2
July 2000
X-frames like the following, where girder depth approaches girder spacing, are more efficient geometrically:
Intermediate crossframes for straight girders with little or no skew should be designed as secondary members. Choose a section which satisfies AASHTO specifications. In general, crossframes should be installed parallel to piers for skew angles of 0 to 10. For greater skew angles, other arrangements may be used. Consult with the design unit supervisor or the steel specialist for special requirements. Intermediate crossframes for curved I-girders require special consideration. Curved girder systems should be designed according to AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges. Use Table 1.4A of the guide specifications to distinguish between straight and curved girders. Crossframes at piers must be designed to transmit transverse loads due to wind or earthquake from the roadway slab to the bearings or transverse stops. Design and detail pier crossframes separately from intermediate crossframes. Bolted connections for crossframes are favored because they allow adjustment during fit up and erection. Connections of crossframes to web stiffeners require careful attention to detailing to minimize fabrication difficulties and most importantly increase fatigue resistance. Web stiffeners at crossframes shall be welded to top and bottom flanges. This practice minimizes out-of-plane bending of the girder web. The resulting detail must be checked for Category C stress range.
kL 140 and design connections only for anticipated loads, r
not for 75 percent strength of member. This should result in greater economy but still meet the intent of
7.3.9
Bottom Laterals
The primary function of a bottom lateral system is to stabilize the girders against lateral loads before the deck hardens and stabilize the steel portion of the superstructure while the roadway slab is placed. On straight bridges, office practice is to design the diagonal members in bottom laterals as secondary members. X-framing may be designed in tension only. K-framing must be designed as compression and tension members. One hundred fifty percent of the allowable service load design stress is permitted in the laterals for the temporary construction condition. Consult AASHTO for further guidance. Determine one size of diagonal member to be used throughout the structure. Partial loading (total panels less one-half of the end panel) yields maximum shear in the end panel. Also, on curved structures, the bottom laterals are effective in resisting live load plus impact thereby becoming primary members and must be modeled in the structure to determine the actual forces the members experience. Lateral patterns are formed depending on number of girder lines, girder spacing, and crossframe spacing. Cost considerations should include geometry, repetition, number, and size of connections. See Figure 5.1.2-1. Consideration should be given to limiting bottom laterals to one or two bays on straight bridges.
July 2000
7.3-3
7.3-4
July 2000
Note: Where lateral gusset plates are welded to girder webs, the design stress level in the girder, at the web, is governed by the Category E detail. For widening projects, bottom laterals are not needed since new can be braced against existing construction. Framing which is adequately braced should not require bottom laterals.
Web splice bolts are designed to resist a shear force due to: 1. 2. Total factored shear force plus; Shear force due to moment resulting from the above shear force times the eccentricity of the distances from the centerline of the splice to the center of gravity of the bolt group on one side of the centerline of the splice plus; Shear force due to the portion of the design moment resisted by the web, which is:
I WEB design moment at centerline of splice I SECTION
3.
The outer most bolt in the bolt group is the most highly stressed. The shear force can be determined by using the elastic moment of inertia method. The flange splice is designed to resist the portion of the design moment not resisted by the web. Split splice plates are used at the bottom of the bottom flange to allow moisture to pass through the splice. Fill plates are used to maintain constant flange splice plate thickness across the splice. Allow fabricators to use steel sheet (ASTM A 715) for fill plates less than
1 4
inch thick.
Fill plates are not subject to tension and therefore a charpy V-notch toughness test should not be required for them. Mark splice plates that carry tensile stress. Allow fill plates to be fabricated from AASHTO M183, if steel is painted.
7.3.11 Camber
Permanent girder deflections shall be shown in the contract plans in the form of camber diagrams. The traditional format for detailing these diagrams should be adhered to for the benefit of construction. Camber curves are used by shop plan detailers, girder fabricators at the shop assembly stage, girder erectors, and field personnel. Most, if not all, phases of girder fabrication and erection involve potential sources of error in camber. Also, the Standard Specifications provide for adjustments at the time of slab forming. Therefore, the slab design should reflect the possibility of reduced slab depths.
July 2000
7.3-5
Girder camber is accomplished at three stages of construction. First, girder webs are cut from plates so that the completed girder segment will assume the shape of camber superimposed on profile grade. The fabricated girder segment will incorporate the as-cut web shape and some degree of welding distortion. Next, the girder segments are brought together for shop assembly. Field splices are drilled as the segments are placed in position to fit profile grade plus total dead load camber. Finally, the segments are erected, sometimes with supports at field splices. There may be slight angle changes at field splices, resulting in altered girder profiles. Errors at mid-span can be between one to two inches at this stage. The following is a general outline for calculating camber and is based on girders having shear studs the full length of the bridge. Two curves will be required, one for total dead load plus slab shrinkage and one for girder self-weight (steel only). Girder dead load deflection is determined by using various computer programs. Girder self-weight is assumed to include the basic section plus stiffeners, crossframes, welds, shear studs, etc. These items may be accounted for by adding an appropriate percentage of basic section weight. Fifteen percent of total girder weight, distributed evenly along the bridge, should suffice. This loading is applied to the steel section only. Total dead load camber shall consist of: 1. 2. 3. 4. Steel weight. Slab weight. Traffic barriers and overlays. Slab shrinkage.
Slab dead load deflection will require the designer to exercise some judgment concerning degree of analysis. A two-span bridge of regular proportions, for example, should not require a rigorous analysis. The slab may be assumed to act instantaneously on the steel section only. Therefore, the calculation would be performed as above. For long structures, unusual girder arrangements, and especially structures with hinges, an analysis coupled with a slab pour sequence may be justified. This would require an incremental analysis where previous slab pours are treated as composite sections and successive slab pours are added on noncomposite sections. Each slab pour requires a separate deflection analysis. The total effect of slab construction is the superposition of each slab pour. A note must accompany the camber diagram explaining the relation between camber and the slab pour sequence. The contractor should be required to submit a new camber diagram if a different slab pour sequence is proposed. Traffic barriers, overlays, and other items constructed after the slab pour should be analyzed as if applied to a composite section full length of the bridge. The modulus of elasticity of the slab concrete should be reduced to one third of its short term value. For example, if fc = 5000 psi, then use a value of n = 21. Slab shrinkage has a varying degree of effect on superstructure deflections. Again, the designer must use some judgment in evaluating this effect on camber. Slab shrinkage should be the smallest portion of the total camber (approximately 20 percent). In addition to girder deflections, show girder rotations at bearing stiffeners. This will allow shop plan detailers to compensate for rotations so that bearing stiffeners will be vertical in their final position. Camber tolerance is governed by the Bridge Widening Code AWS D1.5. A note of clarification is added to the plan camber diagram: For the purpose of measuring camber tolerance during shop assembly, assume top flanges are embedded in concrete without a designed haunch. This allows a high or low deviation from the theoretical curve. In the past, no negative camber tolerance was allowed.
7.3-6
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel 7.3.12 Roadway Slab Placement Sequence
The roadway slab is placed in a prescribed sequence allowing the concrete in each sequence to shrink freely. This minimizes cracking of the slab due to shrinkage. Furthermore, placing the slab sequentially allows the contractor to place manageable volumes of concrete at a time. For the first sequence, concrete is placed on the dead load positive moment region of end spans and in the positive moment regions of alternate interior spans. For the second sequence, concrete is placed on the dead load positive moment region of the remaining spans after the concrete in the first sequence has attained a minimum specified tensile strength. Check tensile stresses in the first sequence slab pour due to the second sequence slab pour. For the third sequence, concrete is placed on the dead load negative moment region over each interior pier. Generally, slab placement in negative moment regions does not cause cracking in previously placed concrete.
Design I Girders
July 2000
7.3-7
7.3-8
July 2000
Design I Girders
(6 mm) (8 mm)
Over
(20 mm)
3 16
16
In general, the maximum size fillet weld which may be made with a single pass is 5 16 inch for submerged arc, gas metal arc, and flux-cored arc welding processes. The maximum size fillet weld made in a single pass is 1 4 inch for the shield metal arc welding process. The major difference between AWS D1.1 and D1.5 is the welding process qualification. The only process deemed prequalified in D1.5 is shielded metal arc. All others must be qualified by test. Qualification of M 270 grade 50W (A709 grade 50W) in Section 5 of D1.5 qualifies the welding of all AASHTO approved steels with a minimum specified yield of 50 Ksi or less. Bridge fabricators generally qualify to M 270 grade 50W (A709 grade 50W). All welding procedure specifications (WPS) submitted for approval must be accompanied by a procedure qualification record (PQR), a record of test specimens examination and approval except for SMAW prequalified. Some handy reference aids in checking WPS in addition to PQR are: Matching filler metal requirements are found in BWC Section 4. Prequalified joints are found in BWC Section 2. AWS electrode specifications and classifications are obtained from the structural steel specialist. Lincoln Electric Arc Welding Handbook. Many of Lincoln Electrics published materials and literature are available through those designers and supervisors who have attended their seminars.
July 2000
7.3-9
Design I Girders
7.3.16 Fabrication
In most cases, a one girder line progressive longitudinal shop assembly is sufficient to assure proper fit of subsections, field splices, and crossframe connections, etc., in the field. Due to geometric complexity of some structures, progressive transverse assembly, in combination with progressive longitudinal assembly may be desirable. The designer shall consult with the supervisor and the steel specialist to determine the extent of shop assembly and clarification of the Standard Specifications. The desired method of assembly shown in the Standard Specifications will then be required in the special provisions.
P65:DP/BDM7
7.3-10
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel 7.4 7.4.1 Plan Details General
Detailing practice should follow industry standards. Designations for structural steel can be found in Table 2-1 of AISC Detailing for Steel Construction. Old plans are a good reference for traditional detailing practices. Radical or even modest changes in detailing practice can result in misinterpretation of plans. Innovation is best reserved for content, not presentation of steel detailing. Actual details for plate girders are continually being revised or improved. Cost benefits for individual details vary from shop to shop and even from time to time. For these reasons, previous plan details can be guides but should not be considered standards. In general, office practice is to favor field bolted as opposed to field welded connections. In addition, members of cross frames are shop bolted to give some degree of field adjustment. Welded assemblies tend to be less adjustable when it comes time to install them.
Plan Details
7.4.2
7.4.3
Framing Plan
Define girders and component parts not shown on the girder elevation view such as jacking stiffeners. Locate panel points (crossframe locations). Show general arrangement of bottom laterals. Provide geometry, bearing lines, and transverse intermediate stiffener locations. Show field splices and detail the general configuration of crossframes in a section through framing plan. For geometrically complicated structures, a rather detailed framing plan should be made to help guide the shop detailer and the shop plan reviewer.
7.4.4
Girder Elevation
Define flanges, webs, and components thereof. Show shear connector spacing, location, and number across the flange. Show shear connectors in the girder details also. Locate transverse intermediate stiffeners and show requirements for clearance from tension flange. Define those components of the girder subject to the Charpy V-notch requirements shown in the Standard Specifications. Define full penetration welds X or portions thereof subject to tension for which Radiographic (x-ray) examination is required. See Standard Specifications. V and X are mentioned also in the Structural Steel Notes, Section 7.4.2. Permissible welded web splices may show, however, the optional welded web splice shown elsewhere in the plans permits the fabricator to add splices subject to the approval of the engineer.
7.4.5
August 1998
7.4-1
Plan Details
7.4.7
7.4.8
Roadway Slab
The roadway slab is detailed in section and plan views. For continuous spans, add a section showing negative moment longitudinal reinforcing to the typical section shown at mid-span. If possible, continue the positive moment region reinforcing pattern from end-to-end of the slab with the negative moment region reinforcing superimposed on it. The plan views should detail typical reinforcing and cutoff locations for negative moment steel. Avoid termination of all negative moment steel at one location. See Appendix 7.4-A14 and A15. The pad dimension for steel girders is treated somewhat differently than for prestressed girders. The pad dimension is assumed to be constant throughout the span length. Ideally, the girder is cambered to compensate for dead loads and vertical curves. However, fabrication and erection tolerances result in considerable deviation from theoretical elevations. The pad dimension is therefore considered only a nominal value and is adjusted as needed along the span once the steel has been erected and profiled. The screed for the slab is to be set to produce correct roadway profile. The plans should reference this procedure contained in Standard Specification 6-03.3(39). The pad dimension is to be noted as nominal. As a general rule of thumb, use 11 for short span rolled beam bridges, 12 for short span plate girder bridges (150 to 180), 13 for medium spans (180 to 220) and 14 to 15 for long spans (over 220). These figures are only approximate. Use good engineering judgment when detailing this dimension.
7.4.9
P65:DP/BDM7
7.4-2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel 7.5 Shop Plan Review
Shop plans must be checked for agreement with the Contract Plans, Standard Specifications, and the special Provisions. The review procedure is described in Section 1.3.5 of this manual. Welding procedure specifications and procedure qualification records should be submitted with shop plans. If not, they should be requested and received before shop plans are approved. Most shop plans may be stamped: GEOMETRY NOT REVIEWED BY THE BRIDGE & STRUCTURES OFFICE However, the reviewer should verify that lengths, radii, and sizes shown on shop plans are in general agreement with the contract. The effects of profile grade and camber would make exact verification difficult. Some differences in lengths, between top and bottom flange plates for example, are to be expected. The procedures to follow in the event changes are required or requested by the fabricator can be found in Section 1.3.6 of this manual. In the past, shop plans with acceptable changes have been so noted and stamped. STRUCTURALLY ACCEPTABLE, BUT DOES NOT CONFORM TO THE CONTRACT REQUIREMENTS
P:DP/BDM7
August 1998
7.5-1
Bibliography
P:DP/BDM7
August 1998
7.99-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel Girder Framing Plan and Elevation View
August 1998
7.4-A1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel Part Longitudinal Girder Elevation
August 1998
7.4-A2
August 1998
7.4-A3
August 1998
7.4-A4
August 1998
7.4-A5
August 1998
7.4-A6
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel Fillet Weld Termination Detail
August 1998
7.4-A7
August 1998
7.4-A8
August 1998
7.4-A9
August 1998
7.4-A10
August 1998
7.4-A11-1
7.4-A11-2
August 1998
August 1998
7.4-A11-3
August 1998
7.4-A12
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Structural Steel Camber Curve and Bearing Stiffener Camber Details
August 1998
7.4-A13
8.2.2
8.2.3
August 1998
8.0-i
8.3.3
8.3.4 8.3.5
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.0-ii
August 1998
Appendix A Design Aids 8.2-A1 Sign Structure Foundation Material Quantities 8.2-A2 Vacant 8.2-A3 Notes to Designers for Truss Sign Bridge Foundations 8.2-A4 Double Faced Barrier Foundation Types 1, 2, and 3 for Truss Sign Bridge 8.2-A5 Notes to Designers for Monotube Sign Bridge Foundations 8.2-A6 Doubled Faced Barrier Foundation Types 1, 2, and 3 for Monotube Sign Bridge 8.2-A7 Notes to Designers for Monotube Sign Structures 8.2-A8 Monotube Sign Structures Member and Sign Criteria 8.2-A9 Monotube Sign Structures Sign Bridge Layouts 8.2-A10 Monotube Sign Structures Cantilever Layouts 8.2-A11 Monotube Sign Structures Structure Details 8.2-A12 Monotube Sign Structures Structure Details 8.2-A13 Monotube Sign Structures Foundation Details Types 1, 2, and 3 8.3-A1 General Notes and Design Criteria for Utility Installation to Existing Bridges 8.3-A2 Guide for Utility Installations Existing Bridges 8.3-A3 Bridge Railing Type BP 8.3-A4 Bridge Railing Type BP-B 8.3-A5 Notes to Designers for Bridge Railing 8.3-A6 Traffic Barrier 8.3-A7 Traffic Barrier w/Fractured Fin Finish 8.3-A8 Pedestrian Barrier 8.3-A9 Pedestrian Barrier w/Fractured Fin Finish 8.3-A10 Notes to Designers for Traffic Barrier 8.3-A11 Utility Hanger Details 8.3-A12 Utility Hanger Details *Indicates sections not issued to date.
August 1998
8.0-iii
Contents
Appendix B Examples 8-B1 Notes to Designers Pin Bearings 8-B2 Notes to Designers Spherical Bearings 8-B3 Notes to Designers General 8-B4 Notes to Designers Post-Tensioning 8-B5 Notes to Designers Structural Steel (Box Girder) 8-B6 Notes to Designers Structural Steel (Plate Girder) 8-B7 Notes to Designers Strip Seal Expansion Joint 8-B8 Notes to Designers Modular Expansion Joint 8-B9 Notes to Designers Rail Rehabilitation 8.4-B1 Compression Seal Design Example 8.4-B2 Strip Seal Design Example 1 8.4-B3 Strip Seal Design Example 2 8.4-B4 Strip Seal Design Example 3 8.4-B5 Gmin and Gmax for Modular Joints 8.4-B6 Modular Joint Design Example 1 8.4-B7 Modular Joint Design Example 2 8.4-B8 Modular Joint Design Example 3 8.4-B9 Elastomeric Bearing Pad Example for P.S. Girder (Prestressed) 8.4-B10 Vacant 8.4-B11 Vacant 8.4-B12 Girder Stop Bearing Pads Example 8.4-B13 Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Chart 8.4-B14 Girder Stop Bearing Pads Spacing Chart 8.4-B15 Girder Stop Bearing Pads Pad Thickness Chart
P:DP/BDM8 9807-0802
8.0-iv
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Miscellaneous Design 8.2 8.2.1 Sign and Luminaire Supports Loads
A. General The reference used in developing the following office criteria is the 1975 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals, and shall be the basis for analysis and design. B. Deadloads Sign (incl. stiffeners) Luminaire Fluorescent Lighting Standard Signal Head Mercury Vapor Lighting Sign Brackets (No Maintenance Walkway) Structural Members 5-foot-wide maintenance walkway (incl. sign mounting brackets) 11/2-foot-wide maintenance walkway between signs C. Wind Loads Mean Recurrance Interval 10 10 10 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 25 Velocity (MPH)* 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 Drag Coeff (Cd) 1.10 1.45 1.20 1.20 1.10 .45 1.45 1.30 1.20 .50 1.20 3.25 lbs./ft.2 60 lbs./each 3.0 lbs./ln. ft 60 lbs./each 6.0 lbs./ln. ft Calc. Calc. 60 lbs./ln. ft. 28 lbs./ln. ft.
Type of Structure Roadside Sign Support Round Roadside Sign Support Square Roadside Sign Support Octagonal Standard Plan G-2 Standard Plan G-3 Chords Standard Plan G-3 Post Monotube Signs Square Luminaires Round Luminaires Signal Heads
*When designing structures on the Olympic Peninsula or south of Olympia and west of Interstate 5 consideration should be given to using a wind velocity between 80 mph and 100 mph, see Isotach figure (Appendix A). Local topography may also dictate the use of higher wind velocities.
April 1991
8.2 - 1
Height above Ground (FT) 0 14 29 49 99 149 199 < < < < < < < H H H H H H H < < < < < < < 14 29 49 99 149 199 299
**Values in this table were computed using Cd = 1.00; design pressures must be corrected by using the specified value for Cd. Wind Combination 1 2 Normal Comp. 1.0 BL .6 BL Trans. Comp. 0.2 BL 0.3 BL
BL is a wind force and is equal to P times the exposed area of the sign and support system. BL is then applied to the centroid. D. Live Load 500 lbs. applied as a concentrated load at 3 feet from sign face (only where maintenance walkways are used). E. Ice Loads 3 psf applied around all the surfaces of structural supports, horizontal members, and luminaires, but applied to only one face of sign panels. F. Snow Loads The above stated ice load shall be considered to include any snow load for the commonly used structural support systems. G. Load Groups Sign, luminaire, and signal structures are designed using the maximum of the following three load groups: Loads Group I DL Group II DL + W Group III DL + Ice + 1/2 (W**) Percent of * Allowable Stress 100 140 140
*No load reduction factors shall be applied in conjunction with these increased allowable stresses. **W to be computed on the basis of the wind pressure formula, 25 psf minimum for W Group III.
8.2 - 2
April 1991
April 1991
8.2 - 3
8.2 - 4
April 1991
For structures located on or just beyond a horizontal curve of the lower roadway, signs may be installed parallel to the structure provided the structure chord-skew does not exceed 10. If the structure chord-skew exceeds 10, support brackets should be designed to provide a sign chordskew of no more than 10 from perpendicular to the chord-point determined by the approach speed (see Figure 8.2.2-3). The top of the sign shall be level.
3.
April 1991
8.2 - 5
Sign Vertical Location Figure 8.2.2-4 D. Sign Placement 1. Whenever possible, the designer should avoid locating signs under bridge overhangs. This causes partial shading or partial exposure to the elements. Also avoid placing the sign directly under the drip-line of the structure. These conditions may result in uneven fading, discoloring, and difficulty in reading (see Figure 8.2.2-5). Whenever it is necessary to place a sign under a bridge due to structural or height requirements, the installation should be reviewed by Roadway Development.
2.
8.2 - 6
April 1991
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3.
8.2.3
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April 1991
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Miscellaneous Design 8.3 8.3.1 Miscellaneous Highway Structures Design Impact Attenuator Supports
A. General Concept This criteria is concerned with the support design of the Hi-Dro Cushion attenuator (liquid-filled cells with cable guides and side panels), which is one of the two FHWA qualified energy-absorbing systems to protect occupants of highway vehicles from fixed objects within the highway system. For other systems, similar design procedures should be followed. B. Push Force on Back-Up Wall 1. Vehicle Force Limitation G loads for varying speeds and number of bay units can be found on page 2 of the Design Data Hi-Dro Cushion Reusable Systems brochure. These values have good correlation with calculated deceleration. It is desirable that the average vehicle deceleration be limited to a maximum of 10 Gs. If this value is higher than 10 Gs, we should recommend to the district that more units should be used. 2. Design Speed Design speed shall be per highway Design Manual. 3. Design Force The design force shall be determined from other values given in the above-mentioned table or 1.8 x 4k x G, whichever is greater. The table is based on the results of full scale tests. C. Pulling Force from Restraining Cables If the attenuator is impacted at an angle, the restraining cables will exert a pulling force on the back-up wall and the front cable anchorage. The ultimate strength of the 7/8-inch restraining cables is 56 kips each. To avoid a complicated dynamic analysis, design the back-up wall and front cable anchorage for a symmetrical load of 112 kips and also for unsymmetrical load of 56 kips acting through one restraining cable only. Provide flexure, shear and torsion reinforcement in the back-up wall as required by these two loading conditions. D. Ground-Mounted Units It is recommended that the back-up wall and anchor block foundations for ground-mounting units be combined into an integral unit. By this means, the stability of the structure in enhanced. Sliding and overturning should be checked. The service loads should be used in establishing factors of safety. A minimum of 1.5 for overturning and W + Pp > 1.3 for sliding, where: = H W = Weight of Support = Friction Coefficient H = Horizontal Force h2 (1 + Sin ) Pp = Passive Pressure = 2 (1 - Sin ) = Angle of Internal Friction = Unit Weight of Soil
April 1991
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8.3 - 2
October 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Miscellaneous Design 8.3.2 Bridge Traffic Barriers
A. Guidelines 1. 2. The design criteria for bridge traffic barriers on structures shall be in accordance with Section 2 of the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges adopted by AASHTO. The standard approach for new bridge rails is a 32 inch high safety shape (F Shape) concrete barrier on all interstate and major highway routes. Use a Single Slope concrete bridge rail when there are Single Slope concrete barriers on grade in the median for approaches to bridges or for continuity within a corridor. (See Design Manual Section 710 for additional background and criteria.) The Standard Single Slope bridge rail is 34 inches high to be consistent with the heights being used on grade applications. Use taller 42 inch high safety shape or single slope bridge rails on interstate or freeway routes in the following circumstances: When accident history suggests a need. When roadway geometrics increase the possibility of larger trucks hitting the barriers at a high angle (such as on ramps for freeway to freeway connections with sharp curvature in the alignment). 4. In addition, the Guide Specifications for Bridge Railings have been adopted by AASHTO to give specific requirements for crash testing of bridge barriers prior to their use on all new bridge structures. The AASHTO Guide Specifications differentiate crash test criteria for various performance levels depending upon in part traffic volume, design speed, vehicle mix, and other factors that produce a vast variation in traffic railing performance needs from one site to another. Guardrail approach transitions to bridge railing shall also be crash tested and consistent with the performance level dictated by the bridge site. The criteria for its use shall be in accordance with the Highway Design Manual, Section 710.10 and the appropriate standard plans.
3.
5.
B. Bridge Railing Performance Levels It must be recognized that bridge railing performance needs differ greatly from site to site over our highway network and that railing designs and costs should match facility needs. This concept is embodied within the Guide Specifications for Bridge Railing. Three bridge railing performance levels and associated crash test/performance requirements are given in these guide specifications along with guidance for determining the appropriate performance level for a given bridge. 1. Performance Level 1 (PL1) On low-volume roads with little accident history, the concrete traffic barrier may not be warranted with concurrence of roadway geometrics. Crash tested breakaway guardrail systems and otherwise semi-rigid guardrail systems have shown that they can effectively contain vehicles on the bridge without undue damage to the bridge deck. Other semi-rigid guardrail systems also qualify for this performance level due to geometric features such as height. Examples of these semi-rigid and weak post guardrail systems are shown in Section 8.3.2C.1.
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Figure 8.3.2-1
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September 1992
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Figure 8.3.2-2
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8.3.2-8
September 1992
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September 1992
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Miscellaneous Design 8.3.3 Bridge Rail Rehabilitation
A. Policy The bridge rail retrofit policy is To systematically improve or replace existing deficient rails within the limits of 3R resurfacing projects by (1) utilizing an approved crash tested rail system that is appropriate for the site or (2) designing up to the strength requirements set forth by Section 2 of AASHTO. B. Guidelines Strength and geometric review, using the latest AASHTO Specifications, is required for all bridge rail rehabilitation projects. If the strength of the existing bridge rail is found to be less than 10 Kips or has not been crash tested, then modifications or replacement will be required to improve its redirectional characteristics and strength. C. WSDOT Bridge Inventory of Bridge Rails The Bridge Condition Unit maintains an inventory of all bridges in the state on the State of Washington Inventory of Bridges and Structures (SWIBS) program. Bridge rail types are indicated by a code from 1 to 8 depending upon type of rail. The coded rail types are shown in Figure 8.3.3-1. 1. 2. This Timber Post and Rail system has been used on timber trestle structures. The rail is structurally deficient and requires a retrofit with thrie beam guardrail (see Section 8.3.2C.1a). This combination steel post and flex beam guardrail system generally includes steel posts with spacing between 9 feet and 12 feet 6 inches, which is in excess of the required 6 feet 3 inches. Generally, additional steel posts are required as well as thrie beam guardrail or other approved rail system to bring this system up to standards. This combination steel post and tubular guardrail system was used in a limited way for a short period of time. It is normally adequate but, if damaged, it is very difficult to repair because the sections of guardrail are welded back to back. Concrete balusters are deficient in lateral load capacity, having approximately 3 kips while 10 kips is required. These rails are normally retrofitted with thrie beam guardrail (see Section 9.3.3D.1). New Jersey shaped traffic barriers have been used by WSDOT since 1970 and meet the current code requirements. This combination low-base concrete pedestal and metal rail is considered deficient and should be replaced with Type 1, 1A, and 2 metal rails. This combination high-base concrete parapet and metal rail may or may not be considered adequate depending upon the rail type. Metal rail Type R, S, and SB are considered capable of resisting the required 5 kips of lateral load. Types 3, 1B, and 3A are considered inadequate. See Highway Design Manual, Section 710.09 for replacement criteria. A combination metal rail and New Jersey Traffic Barrier has been used rarely by WSDOT but is considered to be adequate.
3.
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5. 6. 7.
8.
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Figure 8.3.3-4
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Figure 8.3.3-7
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8.3.4 - 1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Miscellaneous Design 8.3.5 Utility Installation on Bridges
A. Confined Spaces A confined space is any place having a limited means of exit which is subject to the accumulation of toxic or flammable contaminants or an oxygen deficient environment. Confined spaces include but are not limited to pontoons, box girder bridges, storage tanks, ventilation or exhaust ducts, utility vaults, tunnels, pipelines, and open-topped spaces more than 4 feet in depth such as pits, tubes, vaults, and vessels. The designer should provide for the following: A sign with Confined Space Authorized Personnel Only. In the Special Provisions Check List, alert and/or indicate that a special provision might be needed to cover confined spaces. B. Guidelines The utilities which are to be considered under this guideline are power and telephone lines, natural gas, volatile fluid pipes, water pipes, and sewer pipes. Each utility has its unique installation problems. Most utility installations will be initiated by the utility company or the district, and the Bridge Management Section will review the design. In some cases, such as new projects, certain original designs are done by the Bridge Division, such as hanger details for water lines. The following subjects are covered below: General Concepts Criteria for Utilities Installation on New Bridges special Considerations for Various Utilities Type of Conduit Types of Supports Utility Review Procedure for Existing Bridges Utility Review Checklist C. General Concepts On new construction, the utility installation shall be located so as to minimize the effect on the appearance of the structure. In most cases, this will mean installing the utility between girders or in curbs. Utilities and supports shall not normally extend below the bottom of the superstructure. When the utility is located between girders, it shall be installed no lower than 1 foot 0 inches above the bottom of the girders. In some cases when appurtenances are required (such as air release valves), care should be taken to provide adequate space. When the bridge is to receive pigmented sealer, consideration shall be given to painting any exposed utility lines and hangers to match the bridge. When pigmented sealer is not required, steel utility lines and hangers shall be painted or galvanized for corrosion protection. This special provisions shall specify cleaning and painting procedures. On existing structures, proposed utility attachments are normally reviewed by the Bridge Management Section and either approved or returned for correction. A current file for most utility attachments is maintained in the Bridge Management Section. See Utility Review Procedure For Existing Bridges and Utility Review Checklist (Sections 8.3.5G and 8.3.5H).
July 1994
8.3.5 - 1
2. 3. 4.
5.
6.
*(Items 1 through 8 may be cross-referenced with Design Criteria of General Notes and Design Criteria in Appendix A of this chapter or Chapter 1 Examples of the Utilities Manual.) 9. Utilities installed in the cells of box girder bridges shall be embedded in concrete where structurally and economically feasible. Where utilities, other than telephone and power conduit, are not embedded in concrete, access shall be provided in each cell. Such access can be from manholes in the shoulder of the roadway or in the sidewalk. Current practice for access to box girder cells is to locate a hatch in the bottom of the box girder at the end piers. Where access is provided into the cells, the Special Provisions must call for removal of the top slab formwork in those cells.
10. Telephone and power conduit may be installed in the cells of box girder bridges without provision for embedment or access provided that conduit is galvanized steel pipe, or Schedule 80 PVC rigid or heavier.
8.3.5 - 2
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employed. Stub outs for galvanized steel pipe shall be protected against corrosion as stated in subparagraph 5. 5. Rigid Electrical Conduit for Highway Circuits In the case of all new bridge construction where roadway shoulders have not yet been paved and where usable shoulder width is 4 feet or greater in width, electrical conduit shall be stubbed-out and capped 1 foot 6 inches below grade and 3 feet 0 inches horizontally toward roadway centerline from the face of the traffic barrier. Longitudinally, this stub-out location should be near the back of pavement seat. The conduit in this location should clear any foreseeable obstructions. The location of the stubbed-out conduit at bridge ends should be clearly shown on the plans. The galvanized steel conduit stub out shall be wrapped with corrosion resistant tape at least one foot inside and outside of the concrete structure, and this requirement shall be so stated on the plans. The corrosion resistant tape shall be 3M Scotch 50, Bishop 5, Nashua AVI 10, or approved equal. The usual location of the conduit throughout the remainder of the bridge should be in the traffic barrier. The number and size of conduits within the traffic barrier shall be minimized to assure proper concrete consolidation. A maximum of one (1) 4-inch conduit or two (2) 2-inch conduits will be allowed. Pull boxes shall be provided at a maximum spacing of 200 feet. Their size shall conform to the specifications of the National Electric Code or be a minimum of 6 inches by 6 inches by 18 inches to facilitate pulling of wires. Galvanized steel pull boxes (or junctions boxes) shall meet the specifications of the NEMA Type 4X standard and shall be so stated on the plans. Stainless steel pull boxes shall be allowed as an option to the galvanized steel. In the case of existing bridges, an area 2 feet in width shall be reserved for conduit beginning at a point either 4 feet or 6 feet outside the face of usable shoulder. The fastening for and location of attaching the conduit to the existing bridge should be worked out on a job-by-job basis. See Figure 8.3.5-1. F. Type of Conduit 1. Steel Pipe All steel pipe conduits shall be Schedule 40 or greater. All pipe and fittings shall be galvanized except for special uses. 2. PVC Pipe PVC pipe may be used with suitable considerations for deflection, the location and placement of expansion fittings, and of freezing water within the conduits. Where conduit is to be exposed in the cells of box girder bridges, PVC should be avoided because of the possibility of damage occurring when the top slab falsework collapses. If such falsework is specified on the plans to be removed after construction, this provision does not apply. PVC pipe should not be placed in concrete traffic barriers due to damage and pipe separation that often occurs during concrete placement and from temperature variations. Where conduit is to be supported by hangers or pedestals at intervals, the distance between supports shall be small enough to avoid excessive sag of the conduit. For recommended support spacing and tabulated properties of PVC pipe, see Table 8.3.5-1.
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July 1994
2.
3. 4.
H. Utility Review Procedure for Existing Bridges It is the responsibility of the District Utilities Engineer to forward any proposed bridge attachments to the Bridge Office. The Bridge Office is responsible for reviewing only those details pertaining to the bridge crossing such as attachment details or trenching details adjacent to bridge piers or abutments. The turnaround time for reviewing the proposals should not exceed two weeks; however, most attachments that have simple connections with epoxy anchors can be reviewed, stamped, and responded to within one day. This is provided that corrections and additional notes are minimal. The number of copies to be returned is determined by the district. Most districts send five copies of the proposed utility attachment. We keep one copy and, if its been approved, return four marked copies. If it has been returned for correction or not approved, we keep one and return two marked copies. See the Utility Review Checklist below (Section 8.3.5H).
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Occasionally, a utility company wants a conceptual approval of their proposed attachment before they invest their time in detailed drawings and calculations. Often they will request this approval by sending a sketch of their proposal directly to the Bridge Office. We will usually respond directly to them in a letter by concurring with their proposal or by suggesting an alternate. This letter includes instructions for them to resubmit their final proposal through the District Utilities Engineer with a courtesy copy of this letter sent to the District Utilities Engineer. Utility attachments which exert moments or large forces at the bridge connection should be accompanied by at least one set of calculations from the utility company. Bridge attachments designed to resist surge forces should always be accompanied by calculations. The engineer may request calculations from the utility company for any attachment detail that may be questionable. The engineer shall check the utility companys design with his own calculations. The connection detail shall be designed to successfully transfer all forces to the bridge without causing overstress in the connections or to the bridge members to which they are attached. For large utilities, the bridge itself shall have adequate capacity to carry the utility without affecting the live load capacity. For more detailed guidelines, see General Notes and Design Criteria . . . and Guide for Utility Installations to Existing Bridges in Appendix A of this chapter. 1. Utility Review Checklist (For review of all proposed utility attachments to existing bridges.) 1. 2. Do a cursory check to become familiar with the proposal. Determine location of existing utilities. a. b. c. d. 3. Check Bridge Inspection Report for any existing utilities (available in Bridge Conditions). Check utility file for any existing utility permits or franchises and possible as-built plans. (Currently maintained in the Bridge Management Section.) Any existing utilities on the same side of the structure as the proposed utility should be shown on the proposal. Obtain as-built plans from bridge vault if not in an existing utility file.
Review the following with all comments in red: Layout with directions, SR no. and bridge no. Adequate spacing of supports. Adequate strength of supports as attached to the bridge (calculations may be necessary). Maximum design pressure and regular operating pressure for pressure pipe systems. Adequate lateral bracing and thrust protection for pressure pipe systems. Does the utility obstruct maintenance or accessibility to key bridge components. Check with the Bridge Condition Section if in doubt. Location (elevation and plan view) of the utility with respect to pier footings or abutments. If trench limits encroach within the 45 envelope from the footing edge, consult the Materials Lab.
8.3.5 - 8
July 1994
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Figure 8.3.5-2
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Figure 8.3.5-4
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Force mains or water flow systems may require encasement if they are in excavations below the bottom of a footing. 4. Write a preliminary IDC or letter of reply for the supervisor to review before final typing. Upon his approval, include your initials at the bottom of the IDC or letter so that a copy will be returned to you indicating that the package has been accepted and sent out. Stamp and date the plans using the same date as shown on the IDC. Create a file folder: a. b. Bridge no., name, utility company or type of utility, and franchise or permit number. One set of approved plans and possibly one or two pages of the original design plans if necessary for quick future reference. (Previous transmittals and plans not approved or returned to correction should be discarded to avoid unnecessary clutter of the files.) The letter of submittal and a copy of the IDC or letter of reply after it has been accepted.
5. 6.
c. 7.
Give the complete package to the section supervisor for review and place the folder in the utility file after the review.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Miscellaneous Design 8.4 8.4.1 Bridge Details Expansion Joints
Expansion joints or bridge deck joints are designed to accommodate cyclic and long-term structure movements, to support and to provide smooth and quiet passage of traffic, to prevent water runoff from damaging the supporting structural elements, and to have a long service life. For new construction, the criteria shown below should be followed for expansion joints. Steel Bridges: Use L-Abutments with expansion joints at ends for multiple-span bridges. Expansion joints may be eliminated for single span bridges with the approval of the Bridge Design Engineer. Whenever the bridge skew exceeds 30 degrees, consult the Expansion Joint Specialist and the Bridge Design Engineer for recommendations and approval. Note: The use of intermediate expansion joints should be avoided, where possible. All Concrete Bridges: Use L-Abutments with expansion joints at ends when the bridge length exceeds 400 feet. Whenever the bridge skew exceeds 30 degrees, consult the Expansion Joint Specialist and the Bridge Design Engineer for recommendations and approval. Note: The use of intermediate expansion joints should be avoided, where possible. Expansion joints are not normally designed for seismic movements. The assumption is that damage will occur after a seismic event; and the joint will be repaired. If seismic isolation bearings are used, the expansion joints must accommodate the seismic movement so that the bearings perform properly. The following design, specification, and shop plan review criteria cover the bridge deck joint systems most commonly used in Washington State. A. Design Bridge deck joints are classified as small, medium, or large movement joints. The total movement to be accommodated at the joint determines the classification: Small Movement Joint Medium Movement Joint Large Movement Joint 1. Small Movement Joints Compression seals have most frequently been used for small movement range joints. Compression seals are continuous preformed elastomeric sections, typically with extruded internal web systems, installed within an expansion joint gap to effectively seal the joint against water and debris infiltration. Compression seals are held in place by mobilizing friction against adjacent vertical joint faces. Hence, design philosophy requires that they be sized and installed to always be in a state of compression. Silicone sealant joints and asphalt plug joints have both been used as alternatives to compression seals in recent years, particularly on rehabilitation projects. This office is continuing to monitor these systems in order to assess their long term performance. Consult the Expansion Joint Specialist for the current design policy on each of these systems. Total Movement 1 /4 < Total Movement 5 < Total Movement
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8.4.1-1
An asphaltic plug joint consists of polymer modified asphalt (PMA) installed within a blockout over a steel plate. The steel plate spans across the expansion gap to retain the PMA during its installation. In theory, asphaltic plug joints provide a smooth seamless riding surface for traffic. This office has used asphaltic plug joints for motion ranges up to 1 inch. Application guidelines must be carefully followed to assure successful performance of asphaltic plug joints. They should not be used at joints subjected to differential vertical movements (for example, longitudinal separation joints). They should not be used for joints having large skew angles, joints subjected to large rotations, or in situations where the total height of the polymer modified asphalt above the steel plate is less than 2 inches. The PMA has a tendency to creep out of the blockout, particularly within wheel lines. This tendency is amplified by any horizontal loading applied to the asphaltic plug joint. Therefore, asphaltic plug joints should not be used in situations where the adjacent pavement is subjected to significant acceleration or deceleration (off ramps, traffic signals). Overall, asphaltic plug joints have demonstrated erratic performance in Washington State. Consult the Expansion Joint Specialist for current policy and guidelines. Silicone sealants are generally poured in place directly over a foam backer rod placed in the expansion gap. A primer may be sprayed onto the vertical faces of the concrete or steel substrate to enhance bonding of the sealant. Several different chemical variations of silicone sealant are available depending upon the joint geometry and construction requirements. The primary differentiating characteristics of the silicone sealants are viscosity and curing time. A commonly used silicone sealant for rehabilitation projects is the two-part Dow Corning 902 RCS sealant. This product is self leveling, can bond to itself, and cures very quickly. In situations were the rapid curing and self leveling properties are not required, less expensive silicone sealants can be used. The completely cured silicone sealant joint can accommodate tensile movements of up to 100 percent and compressive movements of up to 50 percent of the sealant width at installation. This office has used silicone sealant joints for motion ranges up to 1 inch. A minimum recess is required from the top of the pavement to the top of the silicone sealant in order to prevent tire traffic from contacting and debonding the sealant from the substrate. Consult the Expansion Joint Specialist for guidelines and example details. Polymer concrete headers are generally recommended at compression seal joints and at silicone sealant joints. Polymer concrete provides tensile strength and toughness to resist traffic impact. Generic and proprietary polymer concrete formulations are available. Proprietary elastomeric concretes are occasionally used in lieu of polymer concrete to further enhance impact resistance. Consult the Expansion Joint Specialist regarding patent infringement issues which may result when generic polymer concrete is used in combination with a Dow Corning silicone sealant. a. Design Criteria (1) When more exact temperature data is not available, use the following design temperature ranges: Concrete Structure Steel Structures (Eastern Washington) Steel Structures (Western Washington) 0 to 100F -30 to 120F 0 to 120F
All plan dimensions are based on a normal installation temperature of 64F in accordance with the WSDOT Standard Specifications.
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August 1998
(2) Use a shrinkage coefficient 0.0002 for normal weight concrete. The calculated shrinkage is multiplied by a shrinkage factor, , to account for anticipated future shrinkage that occurs after the joint is installed. b. Compression Seal Size Determination To function properly, seals must be compressed at all times, otherwise they will fall out. Generally, the compression range for bridge compression seals is 40 to 85 percent of the uncompressed width. All movement of the joint must be within this range. It is recommended that compression seals not be used when the skew exceeds 45 degrees. To determine the compression seal size (W) required, proceed as follows: (1) Determine the total movement, Mt, along the bridge centerline: Mt = Temp + Shrink + Other Movement = Total Movement where: Temp = 12 L T Shrink = 12 L , Other Movement includes all other factors which affect movement. = Coefficient of thermal expansion: 0.000006 per degree Fahrenheit for concrete 0.0000065 per degree Fahrenheit for steel = Shrinkage coefficient for reinforced concrete: 0.0002 ft/ft = Shrinkage factor: 1.0 for Rat slabs, 0.8 for box girders and T-beams, 0.5 for prestressed-precast girder bridges, and 0.0 for steel bridges L = Length of structure contributing to movement of the joint in feet T = Design temperature range (2) Determine movements parallel to the joint, Mp, and normal to the joint, Mn (Figure 8.4.1-1): Mp = Mt Sin Mn = Mt Cos where: = skew angle (3) Define the working range of joint width, A, in terms of required uncompressed seal width, W: Width of joint opening, A, shall be: A min = 0.4W = maximum compression of 40% (4) A max = 0.85W = minimum compression of 85% A movement = 0.85W - 0.4W = 0.45W = movement range normal lo the seal (Movement parallel to the joint) (Movement normal to the joint) (2) (3) (1)
(5) (6)
February 2000
8.4.1-3
Skewed Expansion Joint Figure 8.4.1-1 Assume a minimum midrange installation width at 64F: A install = 0.6W (4) Determine required compression seal size, W: Seal width to accommodate movement parallel to the joint, Mp: W = Mp/0.22 Seal width to accommodate movement normal to the joint, Mn: W = Mn/0.45 (9) (8) (7)
Assume the seal is installed at a temperature of 64F and the joint opening at installation plus the total opening movement does not exceed the maximum permitted joint opening (0.85W): A max = A install + Cos [K(Temp) + Shrink + Other Movement] where: (10)
K = Temperature drop divided by temperature range: 0.64 (64 to 0F) for concrete bridges, 0.53 (64 to 0F) for western Washington steel bridges, and 0.63 (64 to -30F) for eastern Washington steel bridges. Temp = Temperature movement previously defined. Shrink = Shrinkage movement previously defined.
Substituting Eqs. (5) and (7) into (10), and solving for W yields the following formula: W = 4(Cos )[K(Temp) + Shrink + Other Movement] Use a seal size based on the largest value of W from Eqs. (8), (9) and (11). (11)
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Bridge Details
(6) When the computed seal size required exceeds the maximum seal widths noted in the Compression Seal table (see Appendix 8.4-A1), a joint providing greater movement capacity is required. (7) See Appendix 8.4-B I for example. 2. Medium Movement Joints Strip seals are the first choice for joint movements greater than 13/4 inch and less than 5 inch. Strip seals are available in whole inch sizes from 2 inches to 5 inches, with 3 inches and 4 inches as the most widely used. a. Design Criteria (1) In addition to the design criteria for small movement joints, all factors which affect movements, including rotations, should be considered in dimensioning the joint. These include: creep, shrinkage, stage construction, construction tolerances, temperature range, bearing type and direction(s) of permitted movements, skew, and external restraints. (2) Earthquake movement need not be considered for medium movement joints except when required for structure performance. For example, when using base isolation bearings, the superstructure must be allowed to displace without hitting the backwall. So, to ensure proper functioning of the bearings, a larger size joint than normal may be required. (3) When designing for existing joint rehabilitation or joint modifications, the designer should review as-built plans, past inspection reports for recorded joint movements, and measure the existing joint opening at several locations (note the structure temperature when taking field measurements). (4) Joints with 0 to 30 degree skew should be designed for the movement along the centerline of the bridge. For skews greater than 30 degrees, consult the Joint Specialist. The skew angle can influence strip seal performance. At large skews, large size strip seals can buckle and invert above the top surface of the steel edge rails. Therefore, a system which provides the most movement capacity at a 0 degree skew angle may not always provide the most movement capacity at greater skew angles. (5) The preferred maximum allowable opening, measured in the direction of traffic, for medium movement expansion joints is 4 inches. This maximum limitation improves the ride, reduces impact, and reduces the hazard to motorcyclists and bicyclists. The use of any medium movement joint with an opening greater than 4 inches must be approved by the Joint Specialist. (6) Adjustment of the joint to compensate for the temperature at time of installation must be allowed. Generally, ambient air temperatures, taken in the shade, are used in adjusting the joint at the time of installation.
August 1998
8.4.1-5
8.4.1-6
August 1998
Bridge Details
August 1998
8.4.1-7
(6) All supporting structural members shall be designed for the limit states, wheel loads, impact percentages, and distribution factors specified in the Special Provision Modular Expansion Joint System. These requirements are derived from research summarized in NCHRP Report 402 Fatigue Design of Modular Bridge Expansion Joints, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1997. (7) In the past, box seals were used; the current practice is to use factory installed strip seals. Consideration should be given to using reinforced strip seals. (8) To allow for replacement of damaged seals or seal installation under stage construction, all seals shall be removable and replaceable at 64F per manufacturers recommended procedure. Generally, this is accomplished by jacking the center beams apart or to one side. This creates a larger gap between center beams for seal removal and reinstallation. For retrofit or stage construction applications, this procedure may be both time consuming and expensive. It may be more convenient to oversize the joint so that the seals can be installed at the minimum manufacturers installation width at 64F. The designer should work closely with his Supervisor and the Expansion Joint Specialist to determine the best solution considering the time constraints of stage construction and increased cost. (9) Access to the modular expansion joint components shall be provided so that repairs, adjustments, and replacement of components can be made. (10) Only manufacturers who have satisfied the prequalification requirements stipulated in the Special Provisions Modular Expansion Joint System will be permitted to supply modular expansion joints. This Special Provision includes requirements for fatigue resistance characterization, testing, and design. (11) Traffic barrier cover plates should be designed for removability. b. Modular Expansion Joint Size Determination Modular joints are sized according to movement rating (MR) and are in increments of 3 inches beginning with a 6-inch modular system. The movement rating is equal to the product of the number of seals and the 3 inch maximum allowable movement rating of each seal. For example, a three seal modular joint with three strip seals, each with a maximum allowable movement rating of 3 inches, has a total movement rating of 9 inches. (1) G Dimension and Temperature Setting The G dimension, face-to-face of edge beams, helps the Contractor adjust the joint assembly in the field for different temperatures. This dimension is normal to the joint and is dependent upon two variables: (a) Flange width of center beams. (b) Minimum gap per seal permitted by the manufacturer at full closure. Therefore, Gmin and Gmax can be determined from: Gmin = (N-l)(B) + (N)(MG) Gmax = Gmin + MR (13) (14)
8.4.1-8
August 1998
Bridge Details
Center beam flange width Total movement rating of the joint system Number of seals = MR/MS Number of center beams Minimum gap per seal permitted at full closure Maximum permitted movement rating per seal = 3 inch maximum
In addition to the Gmin and Gmax dimensions, G dimensions should be shown for structure temperatures of 40F, 64F, and 80F following the same procedure as used for strip seals. These dimensions are normal to the joint. For large movement joints, in concrete bridges, consideration should be given to using structure temperatures in determining construction openings at 40F, 64F, and 80F, because of the time lag between ambient air temperature and structure temperature. For long span bridges, where temperature is not constantly monitored as part of the construction procedure, temperature movements require more attention. Consideration should be given to using a two- or three-day running mean temperature for setting joints during construction. (2) Generally, large movement joints are not designed for earthquake movements. It is felt that the joint will suffer damage in a seismic event and have to be rebuilt. However, consideration may be given to accommodating some earthquake movement. The designer should work closely with his Supervisor and the Expansion Joint Specialist to determine the best combination of cost versus design movement. (3) See Appendixes 8.4-B5 through 8.4-B8 for typical design calculations. 4. Large Movement JointsSteel Finger Joints Prior to the development of watertight modular joints, finger joints were used to accommodate large movements. However, these joints do not provide a watertight seal and are not currently being specified. Consult the Joint Specialist before selecting this type of joint. These joints are open-type, either cantilever or propped cantilever steel tooth plates. The tooth plates can be cut from a plate l1/2 inch thick for movements up to 5 inches, but for larger movements, it is preferable for tooth plates to be cast or fabricated by welding. The teeth should have adequate transverse and longitudinal stiffness to avoid chatter under traffic. The design should also accommodate differential deflection, rotation, or settlement across the joint. The steel fingers should have the top surface parallel to the roadway grade, but tapered downward slightly to prevent snowplow damage. The steel fingers should also be stress relieved to prevent warping. Additional requirements suggested by the FHWA include: (a) Limit deck surface openings in finger joints to permit safe operation of motorcycles. (b) Where narrow bicycle tires are anticipated, use special floor plates in the shoulder area. (c) Limit the minimum joint opening in the longitudinal direction to 1 inch. (d) At the maximum joint opening, the teeth should overlap at least 2 inches. (e) Elastomeric troughs should be provided under the joint to protect the structure below. Reinforced elastomeric material for troughs should have a low durometer (50 or 60) and be at least 3/8 inch thick. The troughs should be continuous across the full width of the bridge including the curb and parapet area and sloped at least 1 inch per foot to prevent
August 1998
8.4.1-9
sedimentation. However, the slope may vary depending on the expected rainfall and debris at each location. The troughs should be attached in a secure manner with a minimum of 5/8-inch diameter bolts at 18-inch centers. The designer should avoid specifying finger joints for new construction. However, they may be needed where snowplow use is extensive or where widening of an existing structure precludes the use of any other joint system. B. Specifications for Bridge Deck Joints Bridge deck joints shall be specified as follows: 1. 2. Specify only approved manufacturers that provide good field performance and service. Do not specify or an approved equal. A single manufacturer (sole source) may be specified if the designer determines that their system is the only one that can satisfy the design criteria. Furnish justification to the Specifications Section and check with the Joint Specialist. Approval will have to be obtained from the FHWA by the Bridge Design Engineer before a sole source can be specified. Specify quality assurance requirements, material specifications, design requirements, fabrication requirements (e.g., welding, personnel requirements, inspection, testing), acceptance criteria, corrosion protection, and payment. Specify that the manufacturers of modular joints or finger joints, be certified under the AISC Quality Certification Program (Simple Steel Bridges). For all joints, specify that welding inspection shall be done by certified welding inspectors under AWS QC1, Standard for Qualification and Certification of Welding Inspectors. Personnel performing nondestructive testing (NDT) shall be certified as NDT Level II under the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1a.
3.
4.
C. Reviewing Shop Plans 1. Review the shop plans to ensure that they conform with the Contract Plans and Special Provisions regarding the following information a. b. c. d. e. Plan and elevation of the joint. Complete details of all components and sections showing all materials incorporated in the joint. All AASHTO or other material designation and method of corrosion protection. Movement rating. HS 25 live loading plus impact. Behavior on skew, if present. Opening dimensions at 40F, 64F, and 80F for setting the joint. Note on the shop plans whether these temperatures are structure temperatures or ambient air temperatures taken in the shade. Installation procedures, including any required services by a manufacturers field representative. Consideration of weld details in areas of stress concentration, welding procedures to include pre- and post-heat, and methods proposed by the manufacturer to prevent weld induced cracks.
f. g.
8.4.1-10
August 1998
Bridge Details
Prohibition of temporary lifting, temperature, and construction adjustment devices that are welded to the centerbeams or edge beams, except for threaded studs used to support strip seal joints. Threaded studs should be removed by grinding and an appropriate corrosion protection system applied to the steel affected by grinding. Manufacturers part numbers, so replacement parts can be easily identified and ordered. Anchorage details, blockout size to facilitate placement of concrete, method of support during placement of deck concrete, and all blockout reinforcing steel. Treatment of curbs, sidewalks, parapets, and traffic barriers (to include the non-traffic side) with respect to leakage and maintenance. Ease of removal and handling of traffic barrier cover plates by two persons without special lifting equipment.
i. j. k. 1.
m. Minimum radii permitted by the AISC for cold bending steel traffic barrier cover plates. n. Design calculations for all structural elements of modular expansion joints. All calculations shall satisfy the requirements of the Special Provision Modular Expansion Joint System. See the Expansion Joint Specialist for sample calculations.
2.
Provide the following information to the Expansion Joint Specialist for performance tracking and maintenance purposes: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Contract Number/Bridge Number. Location. Manufacturer. Type of Joint. Type of Extrusion/Steel Shape Designation. Seal Size/Manufacturers Designation. Approved By/Date Approved.
D. Other Considerations 1. Maintenance During design, consideration should be given to maintenance of the joints. For large movement joints, parts availability, replaceability, and access provisions should be considered. The designer should consult with the Expansion Joint Specialist on the maintenance and durability of the modular joints. 2. Widening and Rehabilitation of Bridges a. For the rehabilitation of bridges, existing joints and structure layout should be studied to determine if existing joints can be eliminated. It will be necessary to determine what modifications to the structure are required to provide an adequate and functional system when existing joints are eliminated. Consideration should be given to proper anchorage of edge beams for wheel impact loads.
b.
P:DP/BDM8 9807-0802
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8.4.1-11
Bridge Details
P:DP/BDM8 9807-0802
August 1998
8.4.2-1
8.4.2-2
August 1998
Bridge Details
August 1998
8.4.3-1
Bridge Details
30-Year Extreme Temperatures High Olympia Spokane Yakima 100 108 110 Mean Annual Temperature Olympia Spokane 50 1 47.3 Low -7 -25 -25
Typical Temperature Ranges in Washington Figure 8.4.3C1-1 October 1975 a. Steel Structures In the absence of more exact temperature data, use the following design temperature ranges: Eastern Washington: Western Washington: -30 to 120F 0 to 120F
Center bearings at 50F. Specify bearing setting temperatures about a mean construction temperature of 64F. b. Concrete Structures Concrete structures possess more thermal mass than steel structures. Consequently, the temperature extremes to which they are exposed are less than those of steel structures. In the absence of more exact temperature data, design temperatures for concrete structures throughout Washington State shall be assured to range from 0 to 100F.
8.4.3-2
August 1998
Sample Temperature versus Motion Graph for a Concrete Box Girder Bridge Figure 8.4.3Clb-l October 1975 2. Shrinkage All concrete tends to shrink during curing unless special additives are used. See 5.1.1A. The design of bearing elements shall accommodate this shrinkage movement. If the calculated movements are significant, bearings for concrete structures (except elastomeric bearings) should be installed in the direction of the hot position (opposite to anticipated shrinkage) in order to be in the normal position after shrinkage has taken full effect. Such adjustment must be shown on the plans. 3. Creep In certain structures, creep associated with applied loads must be taken into account in the bearing details. This is particularly true for post-tensioned bridges where the prestressing force will cause an immediate clastic shortening of the structure and an associated long-term creep effect. On very unusual structures, this effect could result from dead load sidesway forces. Similar to the adjustment for shrinkage, bearings should be designed and installed to compensate for this effect.
August 1998
8.4.3-3
Bridge Details
8.4.3-4
August 1998
means. This may include anchor bolts, shear lugs, or other suitable devices. Normally, friction alone will not be considered to be adequate. Webs of the body of the bearing will be designed taking into account the minimum thickness requirements for steel plates.
Bearing Details Figure 8.4.3C-l October 1975 2. Rocker Bearings These bearings are intended to allow the end of the structure to move longitudinally along a horizontal line. They are usually used for movable bearings supporting very large loads. The base plate of these and of all movable bearings shall be placed level in order to avoid the tendency for the bridge to move down slope. AASHTO equations are used to select an appropriate line bearing value and a dimension for the rocker radius. Sufficient clearance must be maintained between the edges of the top and bottom bearing blocks to allow the bearing to rotate freely at the extremes of motion. Pintles are always used with thcse bearings to prevent walking of the rocker on the base plate and to resist transverse horizontal forces. The line bearing force values should be based on a net contact length, deducting the pintle widths. The line bearing values should take into account the increase in line pressure due to transverse loads when the loading combination being considered contains such loads. Moment at the bearing line of the rocker due to transverse loads can be developed using assumptions similar to those noted for fixed bearings. Base plate design consists of selecting a plate thickness to satisfy the strength requirements shown in Figure 8.4.3C-1. The strength of the plate ends beyond the end of the rocker may require additional investigation. Provision must be made to hold down the rocker to the base plate for earthquake uplift requirements. The designer should be aware of the longitudinal horizontal force which may be developed through pin friction. That force is equal to P w/R, where u is the steel friction coefficient (could be taken as 0.7 for the dry static condition), P the load, and r and R the radius of the pin and rocker respectively. Other design provisions are similar to those for fixed bearings.
August 1998
8.4.3-5
Bridge Details
8.4.3-6
August 1998
High-load elastomeric bearings (AASHTO Method B design) can provide economical alternatives to lightly loaded high-load multi-rotational bearings. Additionally, their flexibility provides some degree of seismic isolation which may reduce substructure costs. Designers shall obtain the approval of the Bearings Specialist and the Bridge Design Engineer in order to use high-load elastomeric bearings on a specific project. The Standard Specifications states that elastomeric bearing pads shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 251 Plain and Laminated Elastomeric Bridge Bearings and that internal shims shall be fabricated from ASTM A 570 Grade 36 (A 570M Grade 250) steel unless noted otherwise on the plans. The minimum elastomeric bearing length or width shall be 6 inches (except for girder stop pads). Generally, all pads shall be 60 durometer hardness. Pads shall be laminated in 1/2 inch elastomeric layers with a minimum total thickness of 1 inch. For overall bearings heights less than 3 inches, a minimum of 1/8 inch of side clearance shall be provided over the steel shims. For overall heights between 3 inches and 7 inches, a minimum of 1/4 inch of side clearance shall be provided. For overall heights greater than 7 inches, a minimum of 1/2 inch of side clearance shall be provided. Live load plus impact compressive deflection shall be limited to 1/16 inch. In determining bearing pad thickness, it should be assumed that slippage will not occur. Bearing pad thickness shall be no less than twice the maximum lateral deflection (see Figure 8.4.3D5a-1). The equations shown in b, c, and d below are approximations of this motion. Section 8.4-B9 of Appendix B presents a reinforced elastomeric bearing pad design example using the AASHTO Method A design procedure. Electronic spread sheet programs are available for designing high-load elastomeric bearings using the Method B design procedure. Reference 5 on page 8.99-1 provides additional guidance for the design of elastomeric bearings. b. Elastomeric Bearings for Precast Concrete Spans For prestressed or precast concrete girder spans, it should be assumed that the beams may not be placed at the mean temperature range. In addition, allowance must be made for half shrinkage. Minimum Pad Thickness for Prestressed Girders = 2[3/4 ( Temp. Rise + Temp. Fall) + 1/2 Shrink.]
March 2000
8.4.3-7
Figure 8.4.3D5a-l October 1975 c. Elastomeric Bearings for Cast-in-Place Concrete Spans For cast-in-place concrete spans, it should be assumed that the temperature of concrete at time of casting is the normal temperature. However, allowance must be made for full shrinkage. Minimum Pad Thickness for Cast-in-Place Girders = 2 [ Temp. Fall + Shrink.], where temperature fall is the deflection corresponding to a temperature change of 45. d. Elastomeric Bearings for Steel Girder Spans For steel girder spans, it should be assumed that the beams may not be placed at the mean temperature and design should provide for 3/4 of the total temperature range. No allowance is needed for shrinkage. Minimum Pad Thickness for Steel Girders = 2 [3/4 ( Temp. Rise + Temp. Fall)] e. Girder Stop Bearing Pads Where earth pressure on the back wall (end diaphragm) of skewed bridges or other transverse loads must be resisted by girder stops, these stops must be capable of allowing the anticipated motion (see Article 9.3.2D and Figure 8.4.3DSe-l). The following procedure is recommended for design of stop pads for skewed prestressed girder bridges for loads due to earth pressure on back walls. Design Assumptions (Series 80, 100, and 120 Prestressed Girders Only) Cold Climate Elastomeric Bearing Pads of 60 Durometer Hardness and 1/2-inch Laminates T = 2 [3/4 ( Temp. Range) +1/2 (Shrink.)] Pad Width Equals 5 inches
8.4.3-8
August 1998
Girder Stop Bearing Pad Figure 8.4.3D5e-l October 1975 Procedure The transverse load girder due to earth pressure plus live load surcharge pressure can be determined from the Spacing Chart on page 8.4-B14 of Appendix B. By entering this chart with skew angle, girder series, and girder spacing (normal to girder), the transverse load per girder F(Ep)T may be read on the right-hand side of the chart. Note: If F(Ep)T is less than 2,200 pounds, no girder stop bearing pads are required since the girder bearing pad is capable of resisting 2,200 pounds with a maximum transverse deflection of 1/8 inch. If the Spacing Chart indicates that girder stop bearing pads are required, the required pad thickness can be obtained by entering the Pad Thickness Chart on page 8.4-B15 of Appendix B on the left side with the bridge length (back to back of pavement seat). The pad thickness should be rounded lo the next higher half-inch increment. The width of the girder stop bearing pad is a constant 5 inches for series 80, 100, and 120 girders. The length of the pad is equal to three times the rounded T.
August 1998
8.4.3-9
By reentering the Pad Thickness Chart on the bottom with the pad thickness (from chart as rounded), F(Ep)T (from the Spacing Chart), and the number of lines of girders in the end span, the number of girders in the end span requiring girder stop bearing pads can be obtained. See the sample problem Appendix B Section 8.4-B12. 6. Preformed Fabric Pads These pads can withstand large compression loads. They can provide for rotation. When used in combination with a PTFE sliding surface, they will allow bridge movements in a horizontal direction. When a PTFE sliding surface is specified, the PTFE sheet shall be 1/8 inch thick and shall be recessed 1/16 inch into 1/2 inch-thick steel plate that is bonded to the top of the fabric pad. They have been used on reinforced and post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges and can be used on other bridge types. The cost of bearings incorporating preformed fabric pads is relatively low compared to most steel bearings. a. Criteria Maximum average allowable bearing pressure on the fabric pad is 1,200 psi at service load. Maximum allowable concrete bearing pressure is determined by 1977 AASHTO Article 1.5.26(3). Maximum total load on bearing is 500 kips. If the design load exceeds this value, another type of bearing should be used. Maximum bearing thickness is 4 inches. b. Sample Problem The following method is used to calculate the required dimensions of a preformed fabric pad used in combination with a TFE sliding surface: Maximum Edge Strain = Average Strain + Rotation Where: T = Pad Thickness L = Pad Length (parallel to longitudinal axis of beam) R = Rotation due to loading plus construction tolerances Allowance for Rotation = .015 Radians minimum (AASHTO) 0.14 = maximum strain with edge stress of 2,000 psi At 1,200 psi, strain = 10 percent or 0.10T Hence: 0.14T = (0.10)T + T = 12.5LR Given: DL + LL + I = 260 kips/bearing Rotation = 0.015 radians Allowable Bearing Pressure for Fabric Pad = 1,200 psi fc = 3,000 psi
L (R) 2
8.4.3-10
August 1998
Bridge Details
A2 A1 = 1.42 2
Allowable fb = (.3) (3,000 psi) (1.42) = 1,278 psi > 1,200 psi Allowable Bearing on the Fabric Pad Controls Thickness of Pad: T = 12.5LR = 12.5(11)(0.015) = 2.06 inches Use Fabric Pad that is 20 inches by 11 inches by 21/4 inches 7. Combination Bearings The bearing types which have been discussed above can be used in many combinations in order to develop a satisfactory solution for a bearing problem. For instance, an elastomeric bearing may be used to provide rotational ability when using a sliding bearing. 8. Patented Bearings These bearings are available from several sources. They are quite expensive and have seldom been used to date in Washington. In some cases, they may prove to be a good solution for heavily loaded bearings. If used, care must be taken to ensure that the bearing actually supplied by the Contractor meets all of the requirements of specifications. 9. Bearing Pins Pins of the type shown schematically in Figure 8.4.3C-I, Fixed Bearings, are commonly used with many bearing types. Figure 8.4.3D9-1 shows a typical configuration of such a pin. The pin diameter and strength must be such that vertical loads can be adequately carried. This is normally not a problem. The critical factor in pin design is the ability to carry transverse loads. Normally, in the figure shown, Diameter D2 is Y2 inch less than Dl. The transverse loads are carried from the top bearing plate to the bottom bearing plate by the inner ring of the upper bearing block bearing against the washer and nut. This causes a bending plus axial tension stress in the threaded portion of the pin. This stress must not exceed that allowed for tension at the root of the thread. The position of the acting force may be taken as shown in Figure 8.4.3C8-1 by force H, half of D2 from centerline pin. This is allowable because any slight bending of the pin will tend to move the point of application of the force vector closer to the centerline. High strength bar steel should be used where necessary to keep pin sizes reasonable. It is desirable to have pins fabricated of a
August 1998
8.4.3-11
steel with slightly different composition from the bearing blocks in order to avoid the possibility of freezing of the bearing surface. Pins of ASTM A-108 grade 1040, 70,000 Y.P. have been used successfully with A36 bearing blocks. The keeper rings used with such pins must be adequate to carry required uplift loads.
Typical Bearing Pin (For Use With Bearing Blocks) Figure 8.4.3D9-1 October 1977 10. Bearing Blocks The bearing blocks for use with the typical pin described above are rectangular steel blocks machined for the pin shaft and the keeper ring (see Figure 8.4.3D10-1).
8.4.3-12
August 1998
Design of such blocks is nominal. The dimension T, least thickness to pin, must be large enough to clear the nut and the weld on the end of the block. It must also be large enough to ensure that the stress due to vertical pin loads is within allowables. If P is the vertical load applied to the bearing, R is the pin radius, W is the width of the load applying element, H is the horizontal component of force developed by the pin curvature, and x and y are the distances to the reactive forces P/2 and H then; the movement on the section dimensioned at T can be shown to be:
T + R W M=P 2 8
This moment tends to fail the bearing block in bending at this section and must be resisted by the strength of the section at that point. 11. Anchor Bolts Anchor bolts are used for all except neoprene bearings and perform a variety of functions. These functions may be: Hold down uplift loads. Resist transverse loads from bearings. Provide temporary support for base plate. Hold base plate firmly to erection shims. Not all of these functions are necessarily needed in each design. Figure 8.4.3C11-1 shows a section through a typical anchor bolt. AASHTO Specifications give sizes for nominal anchor bolts. Where uplift loads must be held, the bolts must be adequate in length and the washer nut must be of sufficient size and strength to engage a mass of concrete as specified in AASHTO under Uplift. Where reinforcement in the concrete can be engaged, that reinforcement may also be considered to act to resist uplift Transverse loads cannot be resisted by the anchor bolts unless the void between the pipe and the bolt has been well grouted. The plans should require that the contractor grout from the bottom of the pipe before grouting the bearing plate. An arrangement for doing this must be shown on the plans. See Figure 8.4.3C11-2 for a typical detail. If the anchor bolt is to provide temporary support for a base plate, sufficient number of shims shall be used to carry the weight of the plate and other loads applied before grouting the plate. These may include the weight of erected steel superstructure for structural steel bridges. Anchor bolts shall be ASTM A 449 where strengths equal to ASTM A 325 are desired, and ASTM A 354, Grade BD, where strengths equal to ASTM A 490 are desired. For anchor bolt specifications and properties, see Bridge Instruction 7.1.8, Volume 1. 12. Construction Shims The Construction Specifications require that bearings for steel bridges be supported on sets of 21/2 inch square shims while the steel is being erected. The plans shall normally show how these shims are to be placed in order to avoid overstressing the base plate or bearing webs or the concrete of the pier. 13. Pintles Pintles are used with rollers and rockers to carry transverse loads and to keep the moving parts in alignment. They are detailed so that transverse shear is applied at the surface of the parts. Their size must be such that these shear forces can be adequately resisted by the cross section of the pintle.
August 1998
8.4.3-13
Anchor Bolt as Detailed Figure 8.4.3C11-2 E. Orientation of Bearings Movable bearings must be aligned to correspond to the actual direction of motion anticipated in the structure. On curved and skewed structures, care must be taken that the details clearly show the bearings set relative to the actual axis of motion. On curved bridges, this axis may correspond with a chord between the two ends of the span. STRUDL may be helpful in establishing the exact motion vectors of the structure.
8.4.3-14
August 1998
Bridge Details
Occasionally, other devices which act as bearings may be used. These include hinged columns and bents.
Bridge Railing (Vacant) Ladders, Stairs, Grates, Etc. (Vacant) Surface Treatments (Vacant)
P:DP/BDM8 9807-0802
August 1998
8.4.3-15
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Miscellaneous Design 8.4.7 Deck Protection Systems
A deck protective system is to be included in all projects involving concrete bridge deck construction or rehabilitation. The type of system to be used shall be determined by the Bridge and Structures Branch during the preliminary plan stage and shall be shown on the preliminary plan in the left margin. The most commonly used systems are listed below. Future overlays for bridges with one of the following systems is unlikely; however, if an overlay becomes necessary, a layer of concrete shall be removed equal to the weight of the asphalt overlay that will replace it so that the dead load remains unchanged. A. System Types 1. System 1: A 21/2-inch concrete cover over an epoxy-coated top mat of reinforcing with no overlay (see Section 8.4.7B). The 21/2-inch cover includes 0.15 feet of depth for traction striations in the roadway surface and 1/4-inch tolerance of the placement of reinforcing steel. System 2: A 13/4-inch concrete design cover over an epoxy-coated top map of reinforcing steel with 11/2 inches of later modified concrete overlay (see Section 8.4.7C). The design concrete cover includes 1/4-inch tolerance for placement of reinforcing steel and 1/4-inch for scarifying the concrete deck. The 11/2-inch latex modified concrete overlay is a minimum depth and includes .015 feet for traction striations. The bridge elevations shown on the layout sheet are to be based on top of the overlay (3 inches total cover). Deck elevations shown on other plan sheets shall be top of concrete as constructed (13/4-inch cover). System 3: A 11/2-inch or 2-inch concrete cover over an epoxy-coated top mat of reinforcing with a waterproofing membrane and asphalt overlay. Overlay thickness should be .15 feet (see Section 8.4.7D). The 2-inch concrete cover is for cast-in-place construction and includes a 1/4-inch tolerance for the placement of rebar. Because of the high quality of concrete and better control of reinforcing placement, the concrete cover for the precast prestressed deck members is reduced to 11/2 inches. Other Systems: The type of systems available for use may change as new products become available. At present, there are four other systems available, namely thin polymer concrete overlays, polyester polymer concrete, microsilica modified concrete, and cathodic protection. Thin polymer concrete overlays can be methyl methacrylate overlay or epoxy concrete overlay. All of the above systems are considered to be experimental and should not be used without the approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
Bridge Details
2.
3.
4.
June 1994
8.4.7-1
Bridge Details
2.
8.4.7-2
April 1991
C. System 2 (Latex Modified Concrete Overlay with Epoxy Coated Reinforcing) Note: See System 1 for additional details.
April 1991
8.4.7-3
D. System 3 (Asphalt Overlay with Waterproof Membrane and Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing) Note: The class of asphalt is to be determined by the district. See System 1 for additional details.
8.4.7-4
April 1991
Bridge Details
F. System Selection for Bridge Deck, Widening, and Rehabilitation Only design widenings for a future overlay when the adjacent existing structure is not overlaid as part of the widening. 1. 2. Epoxy-coated reinforcement is to be specified in the widened portion of the bridge. System 2: This system is preferred since it provides long-term protection. This system will normally be used when one or more of the following criteria are met: a. b. c. d. Delaminated and patched areas of the concrete deck exceed 5 percent of the deck area. A pacometer survey shows concrete cover over reinforcing steel of less than or equal to 1 inch over 15 percent or more of the deck area. Chloride contamination at the rebar level exceeds 2 pounds per cubic yard for 40 percent or more of the samples tested. When removal of an asphalt and membrane system is required. (This requirement will remain in effect until such time as a removal procedure is developed which will not result in damage to the underlying concrete. Concrete in the deck exhibits inferior durability based on visual observation.
e. 3.
System 3: In this system, asphalt concrete is a nonstructural component; it tends to reduce the load carrying capacity of the bridge by the amount of the overlay added. This system may be used when all of the following criteria are met: a. b. c. d. e. Delaminated and patched areas of the deck are less than 5 percent of the deck area. Concrete cover exceeds 1 inch or 90 percent or more of the deck area. ADT is less than 10,000 and the traffic index is less than 7.5. Chloride contamination at the rebar level is less than 2 pounds per cubic yard or exceeds 2 pounds per cubic yard for less than 40 percent of the samples tested. Deck surface must be compatible with the membrane system. A rough or pocked surface will result in damage to or early failure of the protective membrane.
4.
Other Systems: Thin Polymer Concrete Overlay systems should be considered only in special cases. They are particular suitable for bridges where weight of the overlay is critical, such as movable span bridges, or where extended traffic disruptions are intolerable, but due to their experimental nature should be used only in special cases.
June 1994
8.4.7-5
Adoption of thin overlays should be coordinated with the district through the Bridge Planning and Technology Unit. The bridge Planning and Technology Development Unit must be contacted early in the planning stage for using this system. This is required to coordinate development of the project with the district and if necessary the FHWA. Use of a system other than Systems 2 and 3 (stated previously) is considered as an exception and will require approval of the Bridge Design Engineer for its use. The Bridge Planning and Technology Unit should be consulted about the latest information on the new products available and also about the condition of the existing decks. 5. Deck Replacement: In some cases, deck deterioration will have advanced beyond the point of cost effective rehabilitation and/or protection. Excessive delamination, high chloride content, reactive aggregate, and freeze-thaw have been the predominant factors contributing to deck deterioration. When deck replacement or bridge replacement becomes necessary, the replacement scheduled should be coordinated with the districts.
8-4-7:V:BDM2
8.4.7-6
April 1991
Bibliography
3.
4.
5. 6. 7.
8. 9.
10. Fatigue Design of Modular Bridge Expansion Joints NCHRP-Report 402 Transportation Research Board National Research Council Washington, D.C. 1997 11. Handbook of Bridge Engineering Chen, W. F. and Lian Duan, editors Chapter 25: Expansion Joints CRC Press 1988 12. Steel Bridge Bearing Selection and Design Guide National Steel Bridge Alliance American Iron and Steel Institute, 1996
P:DP/BDM8 9807-0802
August 1998
8.99-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Miscellaneous Design Sign Structure Foundation Material Quantities
September 1992
8.2 - A1 - 1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Miscellaneous Design Sign Structure Foundation Material Quantities
8-2-A1:VP:BDM8
8.2 - A1 - 2
September 1992
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Miscellaneous Design Notes to Designers Truss Sign Bridge Foundations
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A4 (double-faced barrier foundation, Type 1, 2, and 3, for truss sign bridge). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Indicate type of foundation to be used (Type 1, 2, or 3). Determine conduit needs. If none exist, delete all references to conduit. If it is needed, verify with district as to size and quantity needed. Show sign bridge base elevation, number, D dimension and station. Modify details if other than a 3-inch curb is required. Transition section can be 10 feet 0 inches or 12 feet 6 inches. Note vertical shaft and tie steel No. 1 and No. 2. Quantities for the barrier as shown: Class 4000 concrete Class 3000 or 3000W concrete Gr. 60 Rebar Mark No. 21 and 22 Mark No. 24 Mark No. 26 8. Example contracts: .185 CY/LF above foundation cap .269 CY/LF outside foundation cap Varies with type and depth of foundation. See Standard Plan G-2b for dimensions. Varies, depends upon type of foundation and D dimension. Constant Maintain 6-inch o.c. spacing between end posts of truss. Varies with span length and D dimension 3345 SR 5 Southbound Add Lane 3393 Interstate VMS Signing
8-2-A3:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.2 - A3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Miscellaneous Design Notes to Designers Monotube Sign Bridge Foundations
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A6 (double-faced barrier foundation, Type 1, 2, or 3, for Monotube Sign Bridge). 1. 2. 3. 4. Indicate type of foundation to be used (Type 1, 2, or 3). Determine conduit needs. If none, delete. If needed, contact district for number and size. Determine sections needed to build foundation, transition sections can be 10 feet 0 inches or 12 feet 6 inches. Show sign bridge : 1. 2. 3. 5. Base elevation Station Number
Modify details if other than 3-inch curb is required. Approximate quantities for foundation as shown: Class 4000 Class 3000 or 3000W Steel Reinforcing Gr. 60 .289 CY/LF over shaft foundation. Varies see typical foundation sheet. 372 pounds
Steel AASHOT M222 or M223 GR. 50 60 feet & under 60 feet to 90 feet 90 feet to 120 feet 120 feet to 150 feet 6. Example contract = 1,002 pounds = 1,401 pounds = 1,503 pounds N/A 3283 Eastside to Plum
8-2-A5:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.2 - A5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Miscellaneous Design Notes to Designers Monotube Sign Structures
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A8 through A-13 (Monotube Sign Structures). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Note if view is looking ahead or back on stationing. Note the bridge sheets on which the structure details are contained. If not Type 1, 2, or 3, note the average lateral bearing pressure for each foundation. If some span lengths are not used on a particular project, delete these from lower table to free up room. Note size and quantity (if any) of conduit to be installed. If no cantilevers are included, delete detail.
List of contracts with special designs C-3199 C-3334 C-3502 First Hill Lid Third Lake Paving and Systems Seattle Transit Access Phase 1
8-2-A7:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.2 - A7
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Miscellaneous Design Notes for Utility Installations to Existing Bridges
July 1996
8.3 - A1 - 1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Miscellaneous Design Notes for Utility Installations to Existing Bridges
8.3 - A1 - 2
July 1996
Bridge Railing Type BP, Appendix 8.3-A3, is to be used when clear anodic coating is desired. Bridge Railing Type BP-B, Appendix 8.3-A4, is to be used when bronze anodic coating is desired. To determine height of railing, use 4-6 measured from the top of the railing to the reference surface (as defined by AASHTO). On the final plan sheet, show only one dimension for the height of the metal railing in two different places.
8-3-A5:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.3-A5
5. 6.
The horizontal leg of S2 should lap the transverse slab bars by 1-0 minimum. When bridge lighting is a part of the contract, show lighting bracket and conduit details on a separate sheet.
8-3-A5:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.3-A10
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9.
10. The 28-day compressive strength of the grout in the grout pad and in the pipes shall be 4,000 psi. 11. Stainless steel screws shall conform to ASTM F 593 Type 304. 12. Do not paint sliding surfaces and bearing pin mated surfaces.
8-B1:V:BDM8
May 1993
8 - B1
* 3. Top of grout pad elevations shown on the column sheets are based on an assumed overall bearing height of
8. 9.
10. Spherical bearings shall be used at piers _____. 11. Rotational capacity = + _____ degrees minimum. 12. Pressure grout masonry bearing plates after the structural steel has been erected and prior to pouring the roadway slab. Group bearings from the center to the outside edges of the masonry and lower keeper plate through the grouting tube. 13. Shim stacks shall be level. The bottom shim of each stack shall be machine tapered to account for both transverse and longitudinal top of pier slopes. Reminders: *Bearing height becomes very important at hinges when the bearings are contractor designed. Hinge gap should be sized before bearings are designed.
8-B2:V:BDM8
8 - B2
May 1993
2.
4.
5.
6.
7. 8. 9.
10. All bolts except as noted shall be ASTM A307 and shall have standard nuts and washers and galvanized according to AASHTO M232. All screws and miscellaneous fasteners shall be ASTM A 307 and galvanized according to AASHTO M232. 11. All bolt hole sizes shall be 1/16-inch diameter larger than bolt diameter. Bolt lengths not shown shall be as required to fit. 12. All dimensions and elevations shall be verified in the field by the contractor.
May 1993
8 - B3 - 1
13. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, clear concrete cover from top of roadway slab to any reinforcement bar shall be 21/2 inches, 1 inch from the bottom of the roadway slab, 3 inches from the bottom of footing, and 11/2 inches from all other concrete surfaces. Reminders: Normally used concrete mixes in Item #5 above are 4000W, 4000, and 4000 respectively. Items #9, #10, and #11 may be omitted on steel superstructure bridge designs as they may conflict with Structural Steel Notes. Item #12 is normally appropriate for rehabilitation and widening projects.
8-B3:V:BDM8
8 - B3 - 2
May 1993
3.
4.
Reminders: 1. 2. 3. 4 5. 6. Commonly used stress levels in note number 1 are 3000 psi and 3500 psi. For tendons made of 19 or less strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 101/2 inches. For tendons made of 20 to 31 strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 111/2 inches. For tendons made of 34 strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 12 inches. Do not use any tendon made of 1/2-inch strand greater than 34 strands. All longitudinal bars will be placed between vertical stirrups.
8-B4:V:BDM8
May 1993
8 - B4
4.
5.
6. 7. 8. 9.
10. Members marked FCM are fracture critical members and shall meet the fracture control requirement tests as described in the Special Provisions. 11. X denotes tension butt weld for flanges or webs. 12. Galvanizing shall be in accordance with AASHTO M111 or M232 as applicable. 13. Bolt holes remaining in girder webs upon removal of deck formwork and temporary bracing shall be treated in accordance with the Standard Specifications. Deck formwork shall not be supported on top laterals. 14. Remove temporary cross frames between box girders after the entire bridge deck has been placed and reached a minimum strength of 4,000 psi. 15. The contractor shall provide temporary web bracing and/or stiffening at locations where slab forms are attached to unbraced or unstiffened webs. 16. The designations V , FCM , and C marked on portions of the bottom flange also apply to stiffeners attached to or supported by the bottom flange. 17. All structural steel shall be painted. Reminders: Remove Note: A 715 for Filler Plates when minimum thickness is > 1/4 inch. Remove Note Regarding: FCM when not applicable.
May 1993
8 - B5 - 1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Notes to Designers Structural Steel (Box Girder)
Butt splice locations are the contractors option, except, no splice will be permitted within 20 feet of the centerline of a pier or within 6 inches of an intermediate cross frame stiffener. Intermediate transverse web stiffeners shall be located a minimum of 6 inches from a welded web or flange splice.
8-B5:V:BDM8
8 - B5 - 2
May 1993
4.
5.
6. 7. 8. 9.
10. Members marked FCM are fracture critical members and shall meet the fracture control requirement tests as described in the Special Provisions. 11. X denotes tension butt weld for flanges or webs. 12. Galvanizing shall be in accordance with AASHTO M111 or M232 as applicable. 13. Bolt holes remaining in girder webs upon removal of deck formwork and temporary bracing shall be treated in accordance with the Standard Specifications. 14. The contractor shall provide, if required, temporary web bracing and/or stiffening at locations where slab forms are attached to unbraced or unstiffened webs. 15. All structural steel shall be painted. Reminders: Remove Note: A 715 for Filler Plates when minimum thickness is > 1/4 inch. Remove Note Regarding: FCM when not applicable.
8-B6:V:BDM8
May 1993
8 - B6
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Strip Seal Expansion Joint Notes
(These notes change constantly. For the latest information, check the Bridge Sections Book of Knowledge (BOK) which is available through your supervisor.) 1. 2. 3. See strip seal table for approved manufacturers. The entire strip seal assembly shall be constructed so that the strip seal may be removed and replaced. The contractor shall submit details and installation procedure for strip seal assembly to the engineer for approval. Temporary lifting, temperature, and construction adjustment devices shall not be welded to the steel shapes. However, threaded studs may be welded to the steel shapes then removed by grinding and a corrosion protection system applied to the areas affected by the grinding. The strip seal shall be continuous. One factor vulcanized splice will be permitted per seal. If the opening between the steel shapes will be less than 11/2 inches at the time of seal installation, the seal may be installed prior to encasement of the extrusions in concrete. The shear studs attached to the steel shapes shall be shown on the shop drawings and shall not interfere with reinforcing in the blockout. A. (When Class 4000D concrete is used in the deck.) Class 4000LS concrete shall be placed in the blockout between the expansion joint system and adjacent roadway slab. B. (When Class 5000D concrete is used in the deck.) Class 5000LS concrete shall be placed in the blockout between the expansion joint system and adjacent roadway slab.
4. 5. 6. 7.
8-B7:V:BDM8
8 - B7
May 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Modular Expansion Joint Notes
(These notes change constantly. For the latest information, check the Bridge Sections Book of Knowledge (BOK) which is available through your supervisor.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The modular expansion joint system shall allow a minimum total movement normal to joint of ____ inches at pier 1 and ____ inches at pier _____. Modular expansion joint system shall be as specified in the modular expansion joint table found in the contract plans. Aluminum components shall not be used. Blockout dimensions as shown in the plans shall be verified by the contractor. Blockout reinforcing steel shall be specified by the expansion manufacturer. The roadway slab reinforcing steel shown elsewhere is the minimum required. The contractor shall submit details of the modular expansion joint system to be used together with installation procedures, and reinforcing steel required to the engineer for approval prior to installation. The contractor shall not install the modular expansion joint until the entire superstructure, except the traffic barriers, is completed. Sealing elements shall be strip seals. Minimum size and strip seal shall be 80 mm. G dimension is measure from nose to nose of steel edge beams and includes effects of anticipated creep and shrinkage.
10. Class _____ LS concrete shall be placed in the blockout between the expansion joint system and adjacent roadway slab.
8-B8:V:BDM8
May 1993
8 - B8
3.
5. 6.
8-B9:V:BDM8
8 - B9
May 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Compression Seal Design Example
Reinforced concrete box girder bridge with an overall length of 248 feet out to out of pavement seats. End abutments are L abutments with one foot thick backwalls. Note: Joints at the end piers for this bridge could be eliminated by using monolithic or integral end abutments. Skew angle = 28 < 45 Temperature range = 0 to 100F 1. Determine Compression Seal Width Required Determine total movement of joint, Mt: Temperature: Shrinkage: L = (248/2) - 1 = 123 = 0.89" = 0.24 = 1.13"
12(123)(0.000006)(100F) 12(123)(0.0002)(0.8) Mt
Total movement parallel to the joint: Total movement normal to the joint: Determine seal width required: From Eq. (8) From Eq. (9) From Eq. (11)
W = 0.53/0.22 = 2.41" W = 1.00/0.45 = 2.22" W = 4(Cos 28)[0.64(0.89) + 0.24] = 2.86" <= Controls
Use a 3" wide seal (W = 3"). 2. Determine Width of Joint at Time of Construction: Use Eq. (12) Construction Width at Tc = 40F: A const = 0.6(3.0) + Cos 28(12)(123)(0.000006)(64-40) = 1.99" Construction Width at Tc = 64F: A const = 0.6(3.0) = 1.80" Construction Width at Tc = 80F: A const = 0.6(3.0) + Cos 28(12)(123)(0.000006)(64-80) = 1.68" Use 15/8" Use 13/4" Use 2"
8-4-B1:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.4 - B1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Strip Seal Design Example 1
Cast-in-place concrete bridge with an overall length of 400 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 200 feet (at 64F) between point of zero movement and the end pier joints. Skew = 30, use movement along bridge centerline Temperature range = 0 to 100F 1. Determine Size of Strip Seal Required Total opening movement of joint: Temperature: Shrinkage: 64 to 0F (12)(200)(0.000006)(64) (12)(200)(0.0002)(0.8) = 0.92" = 0.38 = 1.30"
Set minimum installation width at 64F: Min. at installation, Group 1: (1.5-0.5)/Cos 30 = 1.15" > 0.52" (Group 1 joints have a 1/2" gap at full closure) Min. at installation, Group 2: (1.5-0.0)/Cos 30 = 1.73" > 0.52" (Group 2 joints have no gap at full closure) Determine size of joint required using the larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing movement: Group 1: Group 2: 2. Add opening and closing 1.30 + 1.15 = 2.45" Add opening and closing 1.30 + 1.73 = 3.03" Use 3" Use 3"
Determine Width Calculations for Various Temperatures Construction Width at 64F for both Group 1 and 2 Strip Seals: G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64F Construction Width at 40F: G = 1.50 + Cos 30(12)(200)(0.000006)(64-40) = 1.80" Construction Width at 80F: G = 1.50 + Cos 30(12)(200)(0.000006)(64-80) = 1.30" Use 13/8" Use 17/8" Use 11/2"
Note: In this case, the minimum seal installation width at 64F is the same for both Group 1 and 2 strip seals, because the minimum installation width at 64F exceeded the total calculated closing movement of the joint. This may not be true in all cases as shown in Appendix 8.4-B4.
8-4-B2:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.4 - B2
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Strip Seal Design Example 2
Cast-in-place concrete bridge with an overall length of 900 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 450 feet (at 64F) between point of zero movement and the end pier joints. Skew = 40 > 30 degrees, see Joint Specialist Temperature range = 0 to 100F 1. Determine Size of Strip Seal Required Total opening movement of joint: Temperature: Shrinkage: 64 to 0F (12)(450)(0.000006)(64) (12)(450)(0.0002)(0.8) = 2.07" = 0.87 = 2.94"
Set minimum installation width at 64F: Min. at installation, Group 1: Min. at installation, Group 2: 1.0/Cos 40 = 1.31" > 1.17" 1.5/Cos 40 = 1.96" > 1.17"
Determine size of joint required using the larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing movement: Group 1: Group 2: Add opening and closing 2.94 + 1.31 = 4.25" Add opening and closing 2.94 + 1.96 = 4.90" Use 5" Use 5"
Watson Bowman ACME (Group 2) has a 2" minimum opening for a 5" seal: Minimum at installation, Watson Bowman Acme: 2.0/Cos 40 = 2.61" Add opening and closing for Watson Bowman ACME 2.94 + 2.61 = 5.55" > 5" Cannot use Watsom Bowman ACME 5" Seal
After consulting with the Joint Specialist on the skew and size of strip seal required, the 5-inch seal cannot close without possibly buckling and inverting above the roadway surface. Therefore, a modular joint should be used.
8-4-B3:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.4 - B3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Strip Seal Design Example 3
Steel bridge with an overall length of 600 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 300 feet (at 64F) between point of zero movement and the end pier joints. Skew = 20 Temperature range = -30 to 120F (Eastern Washngton) 1. Determine Size of Strip Seal Required Total opening movement of joint: Temperature: 64 to -30F 12(300)(0.0000065)(94) = 2.20"
Set minimum installation width at 64F: Min. at installation, Group 1: Min. at installation, Group 2: 1.0/Cos 20 = 1.07" < 1.31" 1.5/Cos 20 = 1.60" > 1.31"
Determine size of joint required using larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing movement: Group 1: Group 2: 2. Add opening and closing 2.20 + 1.31 = 3.51" Add opening and closing 2.20 + 1.60 = 3.80" Use 4" Use 4"
Construction Width Calculations for Various Temperatures Group 1 Strip Seals: Construction Width at 64F: Use the larger of the manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64F or the total closing movement of the joint. G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64F = 11/2" Total closing movement of the joint: Cos 20(1.31) + 0.50 = 1.73" > 1.50" (Group 1 joints have a 1/2" gap at full closure.) Construction Width at 40F: G = 1.75 + Cos 20(12)(300)(0.0000065)(64-40) = 2.28" Construction Width at 80F: G = 1.75 + Cos 30(12)(300)(0.0000065)(64-80) = 1.40" Group 2 Strip Seals: Construction Width at 40F: G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64F = 11/2" Use 13/8" Use 21/4" Use 13/4"
September 1992
8.4 - B4 - 1
8-4-B4:V:BDM8
8.4 - B4 - 2
September 1992
Calculate Gmin and Gmax: See Equations (13) and (14) in Section 8.4.1. Gmin = (N-1)(B) + (N)(MG) = (2)(2.213) + (3)(1/2) = 5.93" Gmax = Gmin + MR = 6 + 9 = 15" 2. Watson Bowman ACME, WABO D-1200, Modular Expansion Joint B MR N N-1 MG = = = = = 2.5" 12" 4 seals 3 centerbeams 0" per seal Use 6" Use 15"
From Equations (13) and (14), determine Gmin and Gmax: Gmin = (3)(2.5) + (3)(0) = 7.50" Gmax = 7.5 + 12 = 19.5" Note: Gmin and Gmax for other modular joint manufacturers are computed in a similar manner. Use 71/2" Use 191/2"
8-4-B5:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.4 - B5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Modular Joint Design Example 1
Steel bridge with 600 ft (at 64F) between the point of zero movement and the end pier joint. Skew = 20 < 30 Temperature range = -30 to 120F (Eastern Washngton) 1. Determine Size of Joint Required Total opening movement of joint: Temperature: 64 to -30F (12)(600)(0.0000065)(94) = 4.40"
Design movement along bridge centerline: Add opening and closing (4.40 + 2.62) = 7.02" Design movement normal to joint + 15 percent: Cos 20(7.02)(1.15) = 7.59" Need a modular joint with a 5" movement rating (MR). 2. Construction Width Calculations for Various Temperatures a. D. S. Brown Co., Type D-241, MR = 9" Gmin = 6" Gmax = 15" (See Appendix 8.4-B5 for Gmin and Gmax.)
Construction Width at 64F: Set the joint opening (normal to the joint) at 64F and allow a 15 percent safety factor: G at 64F = Gmin + total closing movement of joint = 6.0 + Cos 20(2.62)(1.15) = 8.83" Any setting greater than 8.83" would be adequate. Choose a setting so that the extra capacity is shared equally between closing and opening of the joint. Extra capacity = MR - Design Movement = 9 - 7.59 = 1.41" -30 to 64F: (94F/150F)(1.41) = 0.88" Therefore, set G at 64F = 8.83 + 0.88 = 9.71" Construction Width at 40F: G = 9.75 + Cos 20(12)(600)(0.0000065)(64-40) = 10.81" Construction Width at 80F: G = 9.75" + Cos 20(12)(600)(0.0000065)(64-80) = 9.05" Check spacing between centerbeams at 64F for seal replacement: Spacing = [9.75 - 2(2.213)]/3 seals = 1.77" > 1.50" ok Use 9" Use 107/8"
Use 93/4"
September 1992
8.4 - B6 - 1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Modular Joint Design Example 1
Therefore, seals can be replaced without jacking the centerbeams apart. Check spacing between centerbeams at minimum temperature: G at -30F = 9.75 + Cos 20(4.40) = 13.88" < Gmax = 15" ok Maximum spacing = [13.88 - 2(2.213)]/3 seals = 3.15" < 31/2" ok b. Watson Bowman ACME, WABO D-900, MR = 9" Gmin = 5" Gmax = 14" Note that Gmin and Gmax are 1" less than those computed for D. S. Browns, Type D-241. Therefore, the temperature setting calculations will also be 1" less than those for D. S. Browns type D-241. G at 40F = 97/8" G at 64F = 83/4" G at 80F = 8" Check spacing between centerbeams at 64F for seal replacement: Spacing = [8.75 - 2(2.50)]/3 seals = 1.25" < 1.50" Since the spacing is less than the 11/2" minimum recommended by the manufacturer for seal installation, the centerbeam will have to be jacked toward one of the edge rails in order to replace the seals. Check spacing between centerbeams at minmum temperature: G at -30F = 8.75 + Cos 20(4.40) = 12.88" < Gmax = 14" ok Max. spacing = [12.88 - 2(2.50)]/3 seals = 2.63" < 31/2" ok
8-4-B6:V:BDM8
8.4 - B6 - 2
September 1992
Determine Size of Joint Required The Contractor would like to set the joint assembly 60 days after post-tensioning the structure. The elastic shortening due to post-tensioning has occurred. Assuming a long term creep factor, Ct, of 1.5, and that half of the shrinkage has occurred, determine: Total opening movement of the joint: 2.1 + 0.5(1.1) + 1.2 = 3.9" Total closing movement of the joint: Temp Rise 64 to 100F = 1.2" Design Movement = 3.9 + 1.2 = 5.1" > 5" Use a Modular Joint
Determine Size of Modular Joint: Add 15 percent safety factor Add opening and closing: (3.9 + 1.2)(1.15) = 5.9" Need a modular joint with a 6" movement rating (MR) 2. Construction Width Calculations for Various Temperatures a. D. S. Brown Co., Type D-161, MR = 6" From Eqs. (13) and (14), calculate Gmin and Gmax: Gmin = (1)(2.213) + (2)(0.5) = 3.21" Gmax = 3.25 + 6 = 9.25" Construction Width at 64F: Set the joint opening at 64F and allow a 15 percent safety factor G at 64F = Gmin + (Total Closing Movement due to Temp. Rise + 15 percent safety factor) = 3.25 + (1.2)(1.15) = 4.63" Use 43/4" The total temperature movement for 100F is 3.3" Construction Width at 40F: G = 4.75 + (24F/100F)(3.3) = 5.54" Construction Width at 80F: G = 4.75 - (16F/100F)(3.3) = 4.22" Check spacing between centerbeam and edge rail at 64F for seal replacement: Spacing = (4.75 - 2.213)/2 seals = 1.27" < 1.50" ok Therefore, centerbeams will have to be jacked to one side in order to replace the seals. Use 41/4" Use 51/2" Use 31/4" Use 91/4"
September 1992
8.4 - B7 - 1
8-4-B7:V:BDM8
8.4 - B7 - 2
September 1992
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Modular Joint Design Example 3
Two C.I.P. Post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges meet at a hinge adjacent to a pier. Skew = 0 The following calculated movements due to temperature, shrinkage, elastic shortening, and creep were obtained: Bridge A Temp Fall 64 to 0F Shrinkage Elastic Shortening Creep, (Ct)(ES) = (1.5)(1.2") = Temp. Rise 64F to 100F 1. Determine Size of Joint Required Determine joint opening 60 days after post-tensioning when the joint will be installed. Assume the elastic shortening and half of the shirnkage has occurred; assume a long-term creep factor, Ct = 1.5. Remember that the two bridges move opposite to one another. Total opening movement of the joint due to Bridge A: 3.0 + (0.5)(1.3) + 1.8 = 5.45" Total opening movement of the joint due to Bridge B: 1.2 + (0.5)(0.6) + 0.75 = 2.25" Total opening movement due to Bridge A and B = 5.45 + 2.25 = 7.7" Total closing movement due to Bridge A and B = 1.7 + 0.7 = 2.4" Determine size of Modular Joint: Include 15 percent safety factor Add total opening and closing movements = (7.7 + 2.4)(1.15) = 11.6" Need a Modular Joint with a 12" Movement Rating (MR) 2. Construction Width Calculations for Various Temperatures a. Watson Bowman ACME, WABO D-1200, MR = 12" Gmin = 7.5" Gmax = 19.5" Construction Width at 64F: G at 64F = Gmin + Closing Movement due to Temperature Rise = 7.50 + (2.40)(1.15) = 10.26" The total temperature movement for 100F = 3.0 + 1.7 + 1.2 + 0.7 = 6.6"/100F Construction Width at 40F: G = 10.375 + (24F/100F)(6.6) = 11.96" Construction Width at 80F: G = 10.375 - (16F/100F)(6.6) = 9.32" Use 93/8" Use 12" Use 103/8" 3.0" 1.3" 1.2" 1.8" 1.7" Bridge B 1.2" 0.6" 0.5" 0.75" 0.7"
September 1992
8.4 - B8 - 1
By comparison to previous calculations for Watson Bowman ACME, the construction width calculations for the D. S. Brown Co.s, Type D-321, will be 11/4" greater (11.625" = 10.375") than those computed for the Watson Bowman ACME, WABO D-1200. Construction Width at 40F: G = 131/4" Construction Width at 80F: G = 105/8" Check if G at 64F is 115/8" (include 15 percent safety factor): Total Closing = 11.625 - (2.4)(1.15) = 8.86" > Gmin = 83/4" ok Total Opening = 11.625 + (7.7)(1.15) = 20.48" < Gmax = 203/4" ok Check spacing between centerbeams at minimum temperature: G at 0F = 11.625 + 7.7 = 19.325" Max. spacing = [19.325 - 3(2.213)]/4 seals = 3.17" < 31/2" ok
8-4-B8:V:BDM8
8.4 - B8 - 2
September 1992
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Example for Prestressed Girder (AASHTO Design Method A)
Standard WSDOT W74G simple span prestressed concrete girder bridge. Span length is 130 feet. Bottom flange width of the girder is 25 inches. Use a temperature range of 0F to 100F for concrete bridges with a normal construction temperature of 64F. Use AASHTO Standard Specifications Section 14.4.1 Design Method A. Bearings shall be installed so that they are horizontal (level) under dead load. Loading: Dead Load reaction per bearing: PDL, Girder = 108 kips PDL, Slab+Traffic Barrier = 112 kips Live Load reaction per bearing (excluding impact): PLL,HS25 = 60 kips Live Load rotation (calculated from analysis) LL,x = Live load rotation (excluding impact) = 0.003 radians (from structural analysis) Constants: = Coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete = 0.000006/F = Shrinkage coefficient for reinforced concrete = 0.0002 in/in = Shrinkage factor = 0.5 BDM Section 8.4.1A.1.b.(1) Elastomer Design Parameters: Durometer Hardness = 60 From AASHTO Table 14.3.1, for a 60 durometer hardness elastomer, the shear modulus varies between 0.130 ksi and 0.200 ksi. Use a value corresponding to the most conservative design. Internal Steel Reinforcement: 14 gauge plate (thickness = 0.075") Fy = 36 ksi Fsr = 20 ksi The bearing design shall conform to the following additional WSDOT standard requirements: (a) Design for a 60-durometer elastomer. (b) Unreinforced (plain) pads shall not be used. (c) Internal elastomer layers shall be 1/2 inches thick; external elastomer layers shall be 1/4 inches thick. (d) Minimum number of internal elastomer layers shall be two. (e) Maximum overall height of the bearing shall not exceed 5 inches. (f) Tapered elastomer layers shall not be used. (g) The shape factor of each layer of any reinforced bearing shall be equal to or greater than 5.0.
August 1998
8.4-B9-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Example for Prestressed Girder (AASHTO Design Method A)
(h) The average compressive stress from dead load and uplift, if any, shall not be less than 200 psi to avoid walking of the bearings. (i) Design loading shall take into account the effect of skew and curvature. (j) The bearing design movement shall be based upon 75 percent of the total calculated temperature rise and fall using an assumed normal temperature of 64F plus any other anticipated movements or translations. (k) Girders are placed on the elastomeric bearing pads 30 days following casting. The remaining creep of the girders tributary to each bearing has been calculated to be 0.20". (l) The design details shall provide access for inspection, maintenance, and future replacement of each bearing. (m) For thick bearings, calculate the grout pad elevations using the compressed height of the bearing. 1. Determine preliminary bearing size Temperature fall (64 0F): Temperature rise (64 100F): Shrinkage: Creep (calculated from girder age of 30 days to infinity): s = 0.75 (Dfall + Drise)+ Dshrink +Dcreep = 0.75(0.30 + 0.17) + 0.08 + 0.20 = 0.63 Determine bearing thickness: Minimum total elastomer thickness 2s hrt (2)(0.63) = 1.26 Minimum total elastomer thickness required Use (2) - 1/2 thick interior layers of elastomer and 1/4 thick cover layers. 2 interior layers at 1/2 2 cover layers at 1/4 Total elastomer thickness, hrt = = = 1.0 0.5 1.5 > 1.26 (AASHTO Section 14.4.1.3) (0.000006)(64) (65)(12) (0.000006)(36)(65)(12) (0.5)(0.0002)(65)(12) = 0.30 = 0.17 = 0.08 = 0.20
ok
Use (3) - 14 gage steel shims. Sum of shim thicknesses = (3)(0.075) = 0.225 Total bearing thickness = T = 1.50 + 0.225 = 1.725 < 5 maximum Determine bearing width, W: Use a width equal to the width of the prestressed concrete girder bottom flange less two 1 chamfers less an additional 1/2 on each side. W = 25 in - 2(1) - 2(0.5) = 22 Determine bearing length, L: c,TL 1.000 ksi for steel reinforced bearings (220 kips + 60 kips) [(L)(22)] 1.000 ksi L 12.73 Use L = 13 (AASHTO 14.4.1.1) Use W = 22 ok
8.4-B9-2
August 1998
Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Example for Prestressed Girder (AASHTO Design Method A)
Check compressive stress under minimum load only. Keep c,DL > 0.200 ksi to keep bearing from walking under minimum load. Assume minimum load occurs under dead load and uplift, if any. c,DL= 220 kips [(13)(22)] = 0.769 ksi 0.200 ksi 3. Check bearing stability (AASHTO 14.4.1.5) To ensure stability, the total thickness of the bearing should not exceed the lesser of W/3 or L/3. W/3 = 22/3 = 7.33 > 1.725 L/3 = 13/3 = 4.33 > 1.725 4. ok ok ok
Check steel reinforcement (AASHTO 14.4.1.6) Resistance of internal elastomer layer = 1,700hri = 1,700(0.5) = 850 lbs/inch Pallow = (Fsr)(hs) = (20000 psi)(0.075) = 1500 lbs/inch > 850 lbs/inch ok
5.
Check if bearing needs to be secured against horizontal movement (AASHTO 14.5): Determine the design shear force on bearing, H: H = GAs /hrt = (0.200)(13)(22)(0.63) (1.5) = 24.0 kips PDL / 5 = 220 / 5 = 44.0 > 24.0 kips Anchorage of the bearing is not required.
6.
Check rotation (AASHTO 14.4.1.4) Rotation perpendicular to the beams longitudinal axis: TL,x 2c/ L Rotation parallel to the beams longitudinal axis: TL,z 2c/ W Determine the compressive deflection, c, using AASHTO Figure 14.4.1.2B: Compressive stress = 0.979 ksi and Shape factor = 8.17 Compressive strain = 0.039 c = (.039)[2(0.5) + 2(0.25)] = 0.058 Assume girders are level after placement of slab and traffic barriers. Therefore, TL,x = LL,x = 0.003 radians and TL,z= 0.000 radians. qTL,x, allowable = 2c / L qTL,x,allowable= 2(0.058)/13 = 0.0090 radians > 0.003 radians ok
August 1998
8.4-B9-3
Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Example for Prestressed Girder (AASHTO Design Method A)
Elastomer layers:
2 interior layers at 1/2 thick 2 cover layers at 1/4 thick Total Thickness = 1.725" 3 steel shims, 14 gage (0.075 inch thickness) Provide 1/8 minimum side clearance for the steel shims
Steel reinforcement:
P:DP/BDM8 9807-0802
8.4-B9-4
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Elastomeric Bearing Pad Example for Steel Girder
July 1996
8.4 - B11
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Girder Stop Bearing Pads Example
Spacing Chart: Page 8.4-B14 Pad Thickness Chart: Page 8.4-B15 Known: Skew = 33 Girder = Series 120 Spacing = 8-0 (Normal to Girder) From Spacing Chart (F(Ep)T 7,500 Lbs. > 22,200 Lbs. Pad Required Known: From Pad Thickness Chart: Bridge Length = 420 (Bk-Bk. Pavement Seat) T = 2.32 Use T = 21/2 (1/2 Laminates) Girder Stop Bearing Pad Dimensions Thickness = 21/2 Length = 3 2.5 = 71/2 Width = 5 (Flange Depth - Chamfer) (Number of Pads Required): Known: Pad Thickness = 31/2 F(Ep)T = 7,500 Lbs. (From Spacing Chart) Number of Girders = 6 From Pad Thickness Chart: 2.4 Pads Required
Use Girder Stop Bearing Pads on three (3) of the girders in each end span. Place pads on proper side of girder to oppose lateral component of force from earth pressure.
August 1998
8.4-B12-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Girder Stop Bearing Pads Example
8.4-B12-2
July 1996
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Chart
July 1996
8.4 - B13
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Girder Stop Bearing Pads Spacing Chart
July 1996
8.4 - B14
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Miscellaneous Design Girder Stop Bearing Pads Pad Thickness Chart
July 1996
8.4 - B15
9.1.2 9.1.3
9.2 9.2.1
9.2.2
9.3 9.3.1
9.3.2
July 2000
9.0-i
9.3.4
9.4.3
9.4.4
9.5 9.5.1
9.5.2
9.0-ii
July 2000
9.6.2
9.6.3
9.7.3
9.8.2
9.8.3
9.8.4
July 2000
9.0-iii
9.8.6
9.8.7
9.9.5
9.9.6 9.9.7
9.9.8
9.99
9.0-iv
July 2000
Appendix A Design Aids 9.2-A1 24-Inch Diameter Round Column Section Capacity Chart 9.2-A2 36-Inch Diameter Round Column Section Capacity Chart 9.2-A3 48-Inch Diameter Round Column Section Capacity Chart 9.2-A4 60-Inch Diameter Round Column Section Capacity Chart 9.2-A5 72-Inch Diameter Round Column Section Capacity Chart 9.2-A6 Column Design Flow Chart 9.2-A7 Column Design Effective Length Factors 9.2-A8 Buckling Load Round Columns 9.2-A9 Factor Charts 9.2-A10 Moment Magnification Factor 9.2-A11 Column Design Example 9.3-A1 Wing Wall Notes to Designers 9.3-A2 General Wing Wall Details (applies to 9.3-A1, A-3, A-4, and A-5) 9.3-A3 20-Foot Wing Wall 2:1 Slope 9.3-A4 15-Foot Wing Wall 2:1 9.3-A5 15-Foot Wing Wall 1 3/4:1 Slope 9.4-A1 Earthquake Force Retaining Wall 9.5-A1 Stress on a Rectangular Footing Normal Load Outside Kern 9.7-A1 Thickness of Foundation Seals 9.7-A2 Pile Extension Below Foundation Seals 9.9-A1-1 through 5 Simplified Example for Pile Foundation Design, Including Resistance Factor Calibration Appendix B Design Examples 9.2-B1-1 through 4 Column Shear Example 9.3-B1-1 through 5 L-Abutment Design Example Sheet 1 9.4-B1-1 through 8 Curtain Wall
P65:DP/BDM9
July 2000
9.0-v
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.1 9.1.1 General Considerations Loads
A. General 1. Substructure elements shall be designed to carry all of the loads specified in AASHTO, the Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges and Chapter 4 of this manual. Good judgment is needed to select those load conditions which govern in order to minimize calculation time. Computer programs such as GPLOAD, GROUPLDS, and YIELD tabulate the load combinations as described in Chapter 4 of this manual. Consideration shall be given during design to construction loads in order to ensure that stability and appropriate stresses can be handled during all construction conditions. For example, a single column pier could be overloaded by placing all of the precast girders on one side of the roadway before placing those on the other side. In some cases a sequence of construction is shown on the plans in order to avoid unacceptable loadings. On curved bridges, the substructure units shall be designed for the eccentricity resulting from the differences in girder lengths. Where curved girder theory has been used in design of the superstructure, the reactions from such analysis shall be used appropriately as loads to the substructure.
General Considerations
2.
3.
B. Dead Loads Substructures shall be designed for all anticipated dead load conditions. Sidesway effect shall be included where it tends to increase stresses. C. Live Loads Live load shall be distributed to the substructure by placing the appropriate live load wheel line reaction in the lane configuration giving maximum stresses in the substructure unit. Liveload impact is not included in some elements of the substructure. See AASHTO Impact. The loads are considered to act directly on the substructure without further distribution through the superstructure except as previously noted. No consideration is given to torsional or lateral distribution. (See Figure 9.1.1-1.) Normally, sidesway effect from live load need not be considered. The computer program GTSTRUDL will include this effect. For maximum cantilever moment on the substructure units, the outside vehicle wheel shall be placed 2 feet from the curb. For the design loads in the crossbeam members, the design lanes are to be loaded to obtain the maximum moment in the member, then loaded again to obtain the maximum shear in the member. For the design loads in columns, the design lanes are to be loaded to obtain the maximum transverse moment at the top of the column, then loaded again to obtain the maximum axial force on the column. In each case, the lane reduction factor as described in AASHTO Article Reduction in Load Intensity can be applied to the number of lanes actually loaded to obtain the design loads. The live load wheel line reaction can be obtained by the computer programs BDS or UCONBRG. The wheel line reaction will be 1/2 the results for one lane load from BDS or the results for one wheel load from UCONBRG. For simple span structures, Appendix A of AASHTO can be used. The values in Appendix A are for one lane. The wheel line reaction will be 1/2 of the values listed.
April 1991
9.1 - 1
9.1 - 2
General Considerations
January 1991
9.1 - 3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.1.2 Concrete Design for Substructure
The class of concrete for substructure units shall normally be as specified below: Seals Footings Pedestals Massive Piers Columns Std. Retaining Walls Wing Walls Crossbeams Retaining Walls Traffic Barriers Class 4000W Class 4000 Class 4000 Class 4000 Class 4000 Class 3000 Class 4000 Class 4000 Class 4000 Class 4000
General Considerations
Where retaining walls are connected directly to the bridge superstructure and color matching is important, consideration could be given to using Class 4000 in the retaining wall or using pigmented sealer in order that the concrete color will not vary from adjacent portions of the structure.
9.1.3
9-1:V:BDM9
9.1 - 4
April 1991
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.2 9.2.1 Piers Columns
A. Spacing of Piers and Columns 1. Pier Spacing Piers normally are spaced to meet the geometric and aesthetic requirements of the site and to give maximum economy for the total structure. Tall piers will generally justify greater spacing (longer spans) than short piers. Difficult and expensive foundation conditions will also justify long spans. Good judgment must be used in determining pier locations on each job. 2. Multicolumn Spacing Columns shall be spaced to give maximum structural benefit except where aesthetic considerations dictate a modification. The spacing should be selected so that column moments are minimized for dead load. Multiple columns should be considered if earthquake loads control the column design. 3. Changing Spacing Column and pier spacing is usually set at the preliminary plan stage based on preliminary analysis. The designer may, for structural reasons, after column spacing in a multicolumn pier or change from a single-column pier to a multicolumn pier. Multicolumn piers are generally better suited for handling lateral loads due to wind and/or earthquake. These changes must be reviewed by the supervisor, who will determine if the changes need to be reviewed by the Bridge Planning Engineer or the Bridge Architect. Pier spacing is usually not changed after the preliminary plan stage. However, if substantial structural improvement and/or cost savings can be realized, changes can still be made. The designer should discuss the possibilities of changing the pier spacing or skew with his/her supervisor at the earliest possible time. Changes in pier spacing could affect the Materials Labs soils investigation. B. Section Shape Column section shape shall be selected for strength and aesthetics and shall give proper dimensions for long column action. Columns should be designed so that construction is as simple and repetitious as possible. The diameter of circular columns should be a multiple of one foot. Rectangular sections should have lengths and widths that are multiples of 3 inches. Long rectangular columns are often tapered to reduce the amount of column reinforcement required for strength. Tapers should be kept to one plane for ease of construction. The column shape is determined at the preliminary plan stage. Changes to column size and shape may be made by the designer. Any changes must be reviewed by the supervisor, who will determine if the change needs to be reviewed by the Bridge Planning Engineer or the Bridge Architect. C. Construction Joints Construction joints in columns are normally placed at the top of the footing or pedestal and the bottom of the crossbeam. Optional construction joints with roughened surfaces should be provided at approximately 30-foot vertical spacing.
Piers
January 1991
9.2 - 1
Piers
9.2 - 2
October 1993
hoop and be tied to the longitudinal reinforcement. The designer should check that the 180 hook can fit between adjacent hoops and longitudinal bars. Where confinement is not required, the transverse reinforcing needs to resist the column shear. Crossties outside the confinement zones are usually No. 4 or No. 5 bars. Cross-ties should be spaced so as to leave horizontal openings of 18 inches to 21 inches to allow for placing and consolidating concrete. The area of the transverse reinforcement required to resist the column shear is defined in Article Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement of the Guide Specifications and AASHTO Article Shear. The area of transverse reinforcement required for confinement is determined from Guide Specifications Article Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement for spirals and ties. The area of transverse reinforcing in the confinement zones is the larger of the two requirements. Transverse reinforcement may be provided by spirals, hoops, or cross-ties. See Design Example 9.2B-1 through -5. The general arrangement for column spirals in circular columns is shown in Figures 9.2.1-1 and 2. Note that spirals are to be used for all circular columns including and less than 8 feet diameter. Standard sizes for column spiral use are No. 4 or No. 5 deformed bar, 1/2-inch diameter or 5 /8-inch diameter plain steel bar, or W20 or W31 cold drawn wire. Label these spirals with all three options (for example: No. 4, 1/2-inch diameter or W20 spiral). The pitch shall allow for 1 inch or 11/3 times the maximum coarse aggregate size clearance to allow aggregate to flow through. Anchor spirals at the top and the bottom with a hook that extends into the core a distance of 10 inches past the bend. Twelve feet zero inches is the maximum height normally fabricated. Show full height of the spiral in the bar list; the fabricator will provide required splices. For diameters larger than 8 feet 0 inches, hoops are to be used. Constant dimension rectangular columns shall be detailed as shown in Figure 9.2.1-4 with the use of spirals. The same provisions as a spirally-reinforced circular column apply. The general arrangement for ties in tapered rectangular columns is shown in Figures 9.2.1-5 through 5. The maximum vertical spacing for hoops and ties in the confinement zones and over the length of lap splices is 4 inches for Seismic Performance Categories C and D and 6 inches for Seismic Performance Categories A and B. The vertical opening between layers of confinement reinforcement should be at least 21/2 inches to allow aggregate to flow through. The spacing at lap splices should be shown on the splice detail and tied to the splice location. 4. Location of Confinement Zones The typical locations of confinement zones for circular columns are shown in Figure 9.2.1-2 and for tapered rectangular columns in Figure 9.2.1-3. The locations of confinement zones are the same for columns of any shape. Column ends that are framed into footings, multicolumn crossbeams, or longitudinal frames must have confinement reinforcing over the maximum of: a. The lesser of: (1) 1/6 the clear column height, or (2) The maximum column dimension. For wall type piers where plastic hinging occurs only along the weak axis, use the short dimension. b. 18 inches.
October 1993
9.2 - 3
Confinement reinforcing is required to extend into these framed footings, multicolumn crossbeams, etc., the larger of one-half the maximum column dimension and 15 inches, but not more than three-quarters the depth of the crossbeam or footing. Crossbeam and footing steel can be counted as confinement steel as long as it is fully developed at the extended planes of the side of the column. 5. Column Hinges The area of the hinge bars in square inches is as follows: 1/ (Pu) Pu2 2 + + Vu2 2 4 As =
0.85 Fy Cos
Where: Pu is the factored axial load Vu is the factored shear load Fy is the reinforcing yield strength (60 ksi) is the angle of the hinge bar to the vertical The development length required for the hinge bars is 1.25 times that described in AASHTO Article Development of Flexural Reinforcement. Figure 9.2.1-6 shows some typical hinge details. Space the ties and spirals to satisfy Article Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement of the Guide Specifications, AASHTO Article Shear, or a maximum of 12 inches (6 inches if longitudinal bars are bundled). Premolded joint filler should be used to assure the required rotational capacity. There should also be a shear key at the hinge bar location. When the hinge reinforcement is bent, additional confinement reinforcing may be necessary to take the horizontal component from the bent hinge bars. The maximum spacing of confinement reinforcing for the hinge is the smaller of that required above and the following: Av Fy Smax = Where: Av, Vs, and d are as defined in AASHTO Article Notations and 1h is the distance from the hinge to where the bend begins. Continue this spacing one-quarter of the column width (in the plane perpendicular to the hinge) past the bend in the hinge bars. E. Column Loads Loads applied to the columns consist of reactions from loads applied to the superstructure and loads applied directly to the columns. The load combinations are described in AASHTO Article Combination of Loads and in Chapter 4 of this manual. The Earthquake Load Combination is described in the Guide Specifications, Article Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections. For long columns, it may be advantageous to reduce the amount of reinforcement as the applied loads decrease along the column. In these cases, load combinations need to be generated at the locations where the reinforcement is reduced. Computer programs such as YIELD, GROUPLDS, and GPLOAD can be used to combine the loads.
Pu Tan V + s 0.85 lh d
9.2 - 4
9.2 - 5
Spiral Details for Circular or Rectangular Columns Show splice details on the plans. Figure 9.2.1-2
9.2 - 6
October 1993
January 1991
9.2 - 7
9.2 - 8
November 1993
July 1994
9.2 - 9
9.2 - 10
Piers
Peculiarities of Bridge Columns Unlike building columns, bridge columns are required to resist lateral loads through bending and shear. As a result, these columns may be required to resist relatively large applied moments while carrying nominal axial loads. In addition, columns are often shaped to give good appearance. This results in complicating the analysis problem with non-prismatic sections.
B. Slenderness Effects The goal of a slenderness analysis is to estimate the additional bending moments in the columns and the foundations that are developed as a result of axial loads acting upon the deflected structure. The following is intended to supplement and clarify the provisions of the AASHTO Specifications. Valuable information is available in the Commentary on Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318 R-83. Two primary analysis methods exist: Method 1: Method 2: The approximate moment magnifier method detailed in AASHTO Article Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects. A second-order structural analysis which accounts directly for the axial forces.
The decision as to which method to use is based upon a consideration of the slenderness ratio (kLu/r) of the column(s). Method 1 is allowable if kLu/r 100. Method 2 is recommended (by AASHTO) for all situations and is mandatory (Article Slenderness Effects in Compression Members) for kLu/r > 100.
January 1991
9.2 - 11
When compatible assumptions are made, Method 1 is generally more conservative and is easier to apply. For certain structures, however, use of Method 2 can lead to significant economy in the final structure. Determination of (kLu/r) requires an estimate of the value of the effective length factor, k. For unbraced columns, k 1.2; for braced columns, k 1.0. 1. Braced or Unbraced Columns The AASHTO Specifications use the expression compression members braced against sidesway in order to establish an effective column length. In a braced member with loads applied at the joints, any tendency toward sidesway is resisted by other members. In building design, bracing is commonly provided by diagonal bracing, shear walls, or similar elements. Bracing for some columns is provided by other columns within a story. Design procedures developed for these situations are not readily adaptable to bridge design since typical bridge columns tend to be dominated by lateral loading while building columns are usually dominated by axial loading. In the transverse direction, sidesway, due to axial loads may be resisted by lateral flexure of the superstructure as a result of the connections at the end piers. The usual practice is to consider the piers as unbraced in the transverse direction. Normal bridge practices is to provide expansion bearings at the end piers. Thus, the columns must resist the longitudinal lateral loading and therefore are considered unbraced. The only time a column can be considered as braced in the longitudinal direction is when it is framed to a bracing member that does not let the column displace more than L/1500, where L is the total column length. In this case, the bracing member must be designed to take all of the horizontal forces. 2. Effective Length Factor, k The computation of the effective length factor for columns can be readily accomplished by using the charts shown on Design Aid Sheet 9.2-A7. The effective length factor (k) should be computed for both axes of the column. These charts are appropriate only for prismatic members. For nonprismatic columns, k is not used in the column design, a second order analysis is more appropriate. G on these charts is the ratio of the sum of the flexural stiffnesses of the columns to the sum of the flexural stiffnesses of the restraining members. a. Gtop (1) Transverse Direction When the connection between a single column pier and the superstructure is moment resisting, the torsional rigidity of the superstructure may be accounted for in the computation of the restraining stiffness. In this case, Gtop can be computed as follows:
9.2 - 12
April 1991
Piers
or given , KR , = [ /(1- )]*Kcol Therefore, Gbot = (1- )/ Note that 0 (free) 1.0 (fixed)
January 1991
9.2 - 13
Procedures for establishing KR and/or will be discussed in Chapter 4, Foundation Modeling. In most cases, there is a substantial amount of uncertainty involved in the computation of KR or . Therefore, care must be taken to use conservative values in the slenderness analysis. For preliminary design or when detailed foundation information is not available, an approximate, conservative value for base fixity, , should be used. In this case, Gbot should not be taken 1.0. (1) Piers on multiple rows of piles are 100 percent fixed at the connections to the piles. (2) Piers on a single row of piles are pinned at the connection to the piles. (3) Piers on spread footings: (a) allowable* soil pressure of 3-6 TSF; = 0.3, (b) allowable* soil pressure of 6-9 TSF; = 0.4, (c) allowable* soil pressure 9 TSF (competent rock); = 1.0. *at service load level If additional information becomes available, the effective length of the column(s) should be recalculated. When the new effective length is significantly different, the design should be checked using the new values. Lower limits on k values: k 1.2 for unbraced columns with rotational restraint at both ends, k 2.1 for unbraced columns with no rotational restraint at one end (i.e., cantilever column). For braced columns, a value of k = 1.0 will normally be used. c. Alternate Procedure for Determining Base Fixity, The moment induced in columns is dependent on the rotational restraint at the top and the degree of fixity at the base. In turn, the base fixity is dependent on the connection between the column and the footing, and the resistance of the soil to footing rotation. For most cases, it is adequate to assume a base fixity between 0.5 and 1.0, but in some cases a more detailed analysis is warranted. The degree of fixity between a column and a footing is a function of several factors including the size and spacing of anchor bolts, thickness of base plate, grout strength, etc. The degree of fixity or restraint, , between the footing and soil, assuming a fixity of 1.0 in the column-footing connection, can be calculated from: = kIf
kIf + 4EccIc/h where: k = Soil modulus, similar to Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, used in paving design. Where this value is not available, it can be estimated from Figure 9.2.2-2. Because the equation is not sensitive to values of k, these values will usually be adequate, psi/in. If = Moment of inertia of the plan of the footing in the direction of bending, in.4. Ic = Moment of inertia of the column, in.4. h = Height of column, in. Ecc = Modulus of elasticity of concrete in column, psi. 9.2 - 14 April 1991
Piers
Approximate relationship between allowable soil bearing value and subgrade
C. The Moment Magnification Method This method can lead to rapid column design. The procedure for its use is well defined in the AASHTO Specifications. Design Aid Sheets 9.2-A1 through 9.2-A6 can be helpful for design by this method. 1. General Procedure The following information is required: Column geometry and properties: E, I, Lu, and k. All ultimate group loads and column understrength factors, (see Figure 9.2.2-1), obtained from conventional elastic analyses using appropriate stiffness and fixity assumptions. The basic procedure is as follows: a. b. Compute Pc for all columns per AASHTO Article Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects. Check Pu* .7Pc. Pu* is the load at the top of the column plus a portion of the column weight: Pu* = Putop + 1/3 * factored column weight. This ensures that Euler buckling is not approached. Compute the moment magnification factors as specified in AASHTO using Pu*. Since may vary for different columns for the same load group, Equation 8-41a is modified as follows: s = d. 1 1.0 1-(Pu*/Pc)
c.
Compute the magnified factored moments, Mc, as specified in AASHTO Equation 8-40. M2b is defined by the specifications as the bending moment due to gravity loads which result in no appreciable sidesway ( < Lu/1500). Since creep, shrinkage, post-tensioning effects, and thermal deformations do not result in sidesway of the entire frame, it is considered appropriate to include those moments in the definition of M2b. This provision applies only to those columns framed together by the superstructure and/or a crossbeam. Note that the use of Equation 8-40 will generally require that Pc be computed for both the unbraced and the braced conditions.
April 1991
9.2 - 15
9.2 - 16
April 1991
Piers
January 1991
9.2 - 17
As with a conventional linear elastic frame analysis, various assumptions and simplifications must be made in regard to member stiffness, connectivity, and foundation restraint. Care must be taken to use conservative values for the slenderness analysis. For compression members, use of the equations for EI stated in AASHTO Article Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects will give an adequately conservative value. For concrete beams, use EI = 0.5EcIg. This is inexact in that reinforcement, cracking, load duration, and their variation along the members are not explicitly taken into account. More precise methods may be used. Foundation restraint will often be modeled as rotational springs (lateral and vertical springs may also be incorporated). A stiffness matrix may be computed to represent the soil-foundation interaction. Procedures to compute these values will be discussed in Chapter 4, Modeling Foundations. For certain loadings, column moments are sensitive to the stiffness assumptions used in the analysis. For example, loads developed as a result of thermal deformations within a structure may change significantly with changes in column, beam, and foundation stiffnesses. Accordingly, upper and lower bounds on these stiffnesses should be determined and the analysis repeated using both sets to verify that the governing load has been found. The specifications include the strength reduction factor, , in the computation of the moment magnifiers. No guidance is given with respect to the use of in a second-order analysis scheme. The following procedure is adopted: For the lower-bound analysis, use the reduced member stiffnesses discussed earlier and the lower-bound foundation restraint stiffness values. Multiply the member stiffnesses by the appropriate reduction factor: = 0.9 for beams, and varies for columns. For the upper-bound analysis, use stiffness assumptions normally employed for elastic analysis; IB = Ig, IC = 1.2Ig, and the upper-bound foundation restraint stiffnesses. The stiffnesses for the upper-bound analysis should not be reduced ( = 1.0). E for concrete varies with loading type; thus, some superposition of results may be required in spite of the non-linearity of the analysis. In most cases, the non-linear effects will be small for the relatively stiff upper-bound analysis. Judgment is required. Note: Computations of effective length factors, k, and buckling loads, Pc, are not required for a second-order analysis, though they may be helpful in establishing the need for such an analysis. In general, if magnification factors computed using the AASHTO Specifications are found to exceed about 1.4, then a second-order analysis may yield substantial benefits. Methods for satisfying the requirements of a second-order analysis are given as follows: a. The preferred method for performing a second-order analysis of an entire frame or on isolated single columns is to use the program GTSTRUDL with appropriate stiffness and restraint assumptions. The columns are divided into a number of individual segments (10 gave good results in tests). The factored group loads (including the self-weight of the columns) are applied to the frame. The model is then analyzed using the nonlinear option available in GTSTRUDL. The final design moments are obtained directly from the analysis. Care must be taken in modeling complex structures as the cost of a nonlinear analysis can be high. For isolated single columns, the program COLUMN gives the magnified moments directly (P- moments are added to the applied moments using an iterative process until stability is reached).
b.
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Piers
For isolated single columns, the program LPILE1 can be manipulated to also give the magnified moments directly. Note: Neither of these programs, COLUMN nor LPILE1, includes the effect of the column weight; therefore, the axial load must be adjusted as follows: Pu* = Pu + 1/3 * factored column weight. Care and judgment must be used as they have limitations on the boundary conditions and configurations that may be analyzed.
d.
For isolated single columns, the iterative hand method is sometimes economical. Loads affected by column stiffness (temperature, shrinkage, and post tensioning) cannot be analyzed this way. The factored load is applied to the column and the deflections are computed along the length of the member taking into account restraints top and bottom and the effect of variations in moment and I along the length of the column. The load is adjusted for the P- moment. The adjusted loads are applied to the column and the deflections are computed again. The deflections usually converge in about five iterations (deflections from last cycle are within 5 percent of the total deflections). If not, the column is too flexible and is unstable for that load. The program LOTUS can be used to do the repetitious hand calculations. Column EI must be adjusted according to AASHTO Article Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects. Pu* including one-third the factored column weight must not exceed .7Pc. *At service load level.
2.
Special Provisions for Seismic Loading The following applies to those structures designed according to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Design. The seismic analysis program SEISAB does not include the secondary effects of the axial loads. Therefore, a modified approach is necessary to perform a second-order analysis for this loading. The moment magnifier method magnifies the Group VII loads as follows: Mu = bMDL + s(MEQ/R) where MEQ is the elastic seismic moment obtained from SEISAB and R is the response modification factor defined in the Guide Specifications. The design philosophy of the Guide Specifications may be summarized as follows: The columns are designed to hinge (fail in flexure) at a specified percentage of the computed fully elastic seismic moment. This will occur at a deflection and shear force corresponding to sMEQ/R. At this point, inelastic deflection will continue to some unknown maximum, but bending moments and shear forces in the columns will theoretically not increase. Therefore, the problem is to come up with an approach to compute the additional design moment due to slenderness effects, M, such that: MEQ/R + M = sMEQ/R. A suggested second-order analysis is given as follows: Estimate the maximum primary elastic deflection of the frame: PR = EQ/R where EQ is the CQC elastic deflection computed from SEISAB.
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Apply PR to a GTSTRUDL model of the frame. This will yield a set of primary deflections and forces, MPR and VPR, corresponding to PR. (Note that for some structures, these forces may not agree exactly with the SEISAB results.) Apply the external gravity loadings and the primary lateral force determined above to the original model. Use the nonlinear option of GTSTRUDL to analyze the structure. The final moments (MF) obtained are then equal to the sum of the primary moments (MPR) and the additional moments due to slenderness effects (M). Thus, the design moments for the columns are given by: Mu = MDL + MEQ/R + M where: M = MF - MPR obtained from the GTSTRUDL analysis. Note: The response modification factor, R, used for footing or pile design is generally less than the value used for the columns. Thus, a separate analysis may be required to obtain the footing design moments. E. Resisting Capacities Once magnified moments have been established, the resisting capacity of the column section must be made adequate to carry this magnified moment. The appropriate capacity reduction factor () must be used in the computation of this resisting capacity. In addition, the superstructure and the foundation must also be designed to resist this magnified moment. 1. Reduction Factor () According to AASHTO Article Design Strength, the reduction factor () may be increased linearly from the value for compression members to the value for flexure as the design axial load strength, Pn, decreases from .10fcAg or the balanced load strength Pb, whichever is smaller, to zero. Since moment capacities are based on the factored axial load, Pu, this axial load is equal to the design axial load strength, or Pu = Pn. The balanced load strength can be less than .10fcAg when the area of reinforcement in tension of the column exceeds .02Ag. This is rarely the case in column design but can be the case in pile design. According to the Guide Specifications Article Flexural Strength, for Seismic Performance Categories C and D, the value of for Group VII Loading may be increased linearly from .50 to the value for flexure when the stress due to the maximum axial load decreases from .20fcAg to zero. Figure 9.2.2-1 shows a graph of Pn versus . This graph is appropriate unless Pb is less than .10fcAg. Computer program YIELD computes according to this graph. 2. Moment Capacity Computer programs such as YIELD and ULT2AX can be used to compute the moment strength, Mn. The program YIELD computes the moment strength in the direction of the resultant Mx and My. The program ULT2AX computes the moment strength in the direction given in the input; therefore, the Mn curve must be plotted for the axial load strength, Pn. The resultant of Mux and Muy must fall within the curve.
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Piers
and P is the service axial load G. Seismic Design of Multicolumn Bents The Guide Specifications require that connections to the superstructure be designed for either the elastic demand moment (Seisab Load Case 2) at the top of the column using an R of 1, or the plastic moment capacity of the top of the column, whichever is less. These column moments are to be carried into the crossbeam and accounted for in the design. (For a center column of a three-column bent, the moment is distributed to the crossbeam on either side of the column.) The seismic design moment for the crossbeam would then be the moment at the face of the column or the equivalent square column.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.3 9.3.1 Abutments Size and Construction Details
A. Representative Types Several representative types of abutments that have been used by the Bridge and Structures Division are shown in Figure 9.3.1-1. The types shown are intended for guidance only and may be varied to suit the type of bridge being designed. B. Bearing Seats The bearing seats shall be wide enough to accommodate the size of the bearings used with a minimum edge dimension of 3 in. and satisfy the requirements of the Guide Specification for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, Article Design Displacements. On L-abutments, the bearing seat should be sloped away from the bearings to prevent a build up or pocket of water at the bearings. The superelevation and profile grade of the structure should be considered for drainage protection. Normally, a 1/4 in. drop across the width of the bearing seat is sufficient. C. Bearing Restraints and Girder Stops All structures shall be provided with some means of restraint against lateral displacement at the abutments due to earthquake, temperature and shrinkage, wind, earth pressure, etc. Such restraints may be in the form of concrete hinges, concrete girder stops with or without vertical elastomeric pads, or pintles in metal bearings. Other solutions are possible. Article Connection Design Forces of the Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges describe longitudinal linkage force and hold-down devices required. To eliminate alignment conflicts between prestressed girders and girder stops, prestressed girders should be placed in final position before girder stops are cast. Allow 1/8 in. clearance between the prestressed girder flange and the girder stop to prevent binding. Incorporate details of Figure 9.3.1-2 in bridge plans. D. Face Slope A vertical abutment wall or a 1:4 slope is used on the front face of the abutment as shown on Design Aid Sheets 9.3-A2 through 9.3-A6. On very high abutments, where a 1:4 slope would create an excessively wide bearing seat, the slope should be adjusted or using the slope only at the exposed leading edge of the abutment and wing wall while leaving the remaining abutment wall surface vertical. On abutments with fractured fin surface, the front face should be vertical to match the fractured fins. E. Sizing Abutments Other portions of the abutment shall be sized for stress. As indicated in Figure 9.3.1-1, additional stem width, where required, may be obtained by sloping the back face of the wall. On extremely high walls (30 feet and above) subjected to large earth pressures, consideration should be given to using counterfort construction. See Section 9.4.2 B of this manual, Counterfort Retaining Walls. F. Class of Concrete The class of concrete used in abutments and standard wingwalls shall be Class 4000.
Abutments
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Underdrain pipe and gravel backfill for drains are not necessary behind cantilever wing walls. Threefoot (3 ft.) thickness of gravel backfill for walls behind the cantilever wing walls shall be shown in the plans. The backfill for walls, underdrain pipe and gravel backfill for drains are not included in bridge quantities, the size of the underdrain pipe should not be shown on the plans. Figure 9.3.1-4 illustrates backfill details. J. Embankment at Bridge Ends The minimum clearances for the embankment at the front face of abutments shall be as indicated on Standard Plan Sheet H-9. At the ends of the abutment, the fill may be contained with wing walls or in the case of concrete structures, placed against the exterior girders. On stub abutments with the end diaphragm cast on the superstructure, the open expansion joint must be protected from the fill. Normally, 1/8 in. butyl rubber is used to seal the opening. Figure 9.3.1-5 and Figure 9.3.1-6 show typical details using butyl rubber. The bearings must also be protected from the fill. Figure 9.3.1-7 and Figure 9.3.1-8 show typical details to protect the bearings. There are many other different ways to protect the open expansion joints and bearings than shown in Figures 9.3.1-5 through 8. The method used should be well detailed in the plans. The Special Provision and Estimates unit can advise as to what types of materials would or would not require special provisions.
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September 1992
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9.3.3
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Abutments
9.3.4
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Abutments
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.4 9.4.1 Retaining Walls General
A retaining wall is a structure built to provide lateral support for a mass of earth or other material, the top of which is at a higher elevation than the earth or rock in front of the wall. Retaining walls depend either on their own weight or on their own weight plus an additional weight of the laterally supported material, or on a tieback system for their stability. All retaining walls not covered under Standard Walls or Preapproved Proprietary Walls are designed in the Bridge and Structures Division. The Hydraulics Section should be consulted for any walls that could be threatened by flood water or are located in a flood plain. The Architectural Section should review architectural features and visual impacts at the Preliminary Design stage. For illustrations of different types of walls, see Figures 9.4.2-1 through 9.4.2-4 at the end of this section.
Retaining Walls
9.4.2
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Retaining Walls
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There are several important factors when selecting a structural earth wall. These are as follows: a. Height In fills more than 10 feet high, structural earth walls are generally less costly than other wall types in fill locations. b. Length Adequate room is needed for earthwork equipment. Short, low walls should be avoided. c. Backfill A granular soil meeting the requirements of gravel borrow is required for the wall mass. In areas where the wall may become saturated, the backfill shall be free-draining. The Materials Lab will supply the Special Provisions for the wall mass material. d. Excavation Structural earth walls are typically more costly than other wall types in excavation areas. Greater excavation is needed to accommodate the wall mass which has a width of about 70 percent of the wall height. e. Foundation These walls perform well in settlement sensitive areas, but are not adaptable to pile support. f. Aesthetics Facing is available in a variety of surface textures, shapes and colors. Welded wire wall surfaces may have vegetation growing on exposed surfaces to match existing terrain. The backfill used in this case must be suitable to sustain vegetation growth at the face of the wall. 2. Geotextile Walls Geotextile walls are structural earth walls that use geotextile fabric for the reinforcement and the facing. The main use of fabric walls is for temporary walls, which can become permanent walls with a cast-in-place or shotcrete facing. The Materials Lab is responsible for the design and review of geotextile walls. 3. Other Proprietary Walls Other wall systems similar in concept to the standard crib, bin, precast cantilever, or tieback can offer cost reductions, reduce construction time, and provide special aesthetic features. A list of preapproved proprietary walls is on file in our office, including height limitations. The district can select a particular wall type from the list and include it in the contract plans, as an alternate to a Standard Wall. The Materials Lab and the Preliminary Plans Unit will approve the concept prior to Ad. The Special Provisions will be written by the Bridge Office with design criteria, and the Materials Lab will give the soil criteria needed for design and check the soil for overall stability. Prior to wall construction, the supplier will submit design calculations and shop drawings for approval. The following is a list of the proprietary wall systems that are preapproved: a. Criblock Retaining Walls Northwest Inc. Criblock up to 30 feet.
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Retaining Walls
Hilfiker Retaining Walls, a cast-in-place concrete face is not allowed with these wall systems. (1) Reinforced Soil Wall up to 30 feet. (2) Welded Wire Wall up to 20 feet.
c. d.
The Reinforced Earth Co. Reinforced Earth up to 30 feet. VSL Corporation Reinforced Earth up to 30 feet.
H. Slurry Walls Slurry wall construction method enables wall placement to precede wall excavation. This is useful when restricted by tight right-of-way, staging construction, or where ground water is a problem. A trench is excavated for the wall and simultaneously filled with a bentonite slurry. The bentonite slurry restricts the ground water flow and holds the trench sides in place. Reinforcing steel is placed in the slurry-filled trench and concrete is placed by means of a tremie or a concrete pump while displacing the slurry. After the concrete has cured, the excavation can be completed. With the addition of tiebacks, these walls can exceed heights of 50 feet. For an aesthetically pleasing appearance, facing is used in the form of precast panels, cast-in-place concrete, or shotcrete. I. Rock Walls Rock walls are gravity walls made of stacked large rock. They are used primarily in cut sections to provide erosion protection and limited support. They are generally 15 feet or less in height. J. Soil Nailing Soil nailing is a technique used to stabilize moving earth, such as a landslide, or as a means of temporary shoring. Soil anchors are used along with the strength of the soil to provide stability. The Materials Lab will design the system of soil nailing to be incorporated in the bridge contract plans. K. Wingwall A wingwall retains the fill beyond the bridge end. It acts like a horizontal cantilevered wall with its main support from the end abutment. The two Office Standards lengths are 15 feet with 1 3/4:1 and 2:1 fill slope and 20 feet with 2:1 fill slope wingwalls. The standards also show different surface treatments, e.g., fractured fin finish or plain concrete finish. A separate design is required when using a nonstandard length. See Design Example 9.4 B1-10 for curtain wall rigidly attached to footing and abutment wall. L. Noise Walls Noise walls are primarily used in urban or residential areas to mitigate noise or to obstruct view of roadway. Precast wall panels supported by precast pilasters, cast-in-place wall and footing, or wood fencing are the common types. The Architectural Section is responsible for determining wall type. Design criteria for noise walls is based on AASHTOs Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers.
9.4.3
Design
A. General Refer to AASHTO Specifications and Bridge Design Manual Criteria 9.1.2, 9.3.1F and G, and 9.5.1A2. Service Load Design is used for design of retaining walls and the loading combinations shall be as described in AASHTO. Service Load Design is used rather than Load Factor Design, because of its long history of good performance and due to the lack of development of Load Factor Design criteria for retaining walls.
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Retaining Walls
F.S. = 1.5
Factor of Safety (FS) Table *Both cases shall be met for determining wall stability. The 10 kip collision load shall be distributed over 16 feet. This is the minimum wall length allowed for Type 2 Retaining Walls in the Standard Plans. In a special design, the distribution width shall be the smaller of wall length between expansion joints (24-0 max.) or 5 feet + 2H (assumes AASHTO traffic barrier distribution plus a 45 degree influence line).
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For sliding, the passive resistance in the front of the footing may be considered if the earth is more than 2 feet deep on the top of the footing and does not slope downward away from the wall. The design soil pressure at the toe of the footing shall not exceed the allowable soil bearing capacity supplied by the Foundation Engineer. For retaining walls resting on foundation piles, refer to Bridge Design Manual Sections 9.5.1, 9.5.2, and 9.6. Mononobe-Okabe analysis in AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges shall be used as a check in the design of the wall. AASHTO article Abutments gives equations to calculate the earthquake forces. Reduced factors of safety are shown in the preceding table. The Mononobe-Okabe equation requires the following assumptions: Kv = 0, vertical acceleration coefficient is zero. Kh = A/2, A is the acceleration coefficient. , angle of friction between soil and abutment i, backfill slope angle = i, slip is more likely to occur within the backfill than between soil and abutment interface. The earthquake force will be in the same direction as the slope of the surface of the backfill. = 0, For cantilever walls, the soil fails in a vertical plane through the footing heel. This results in = 0 for cantilever walls, regardless of wall batter. See example in Design Aid 9.4-A1 to determine earthquake load. C. Diaphragm Walls (Other names: Slurry Wall, Cut-off Wall, or Curtain Wall) The permanent diaphragm walls include cylinder or tangent pile walls, simple panel slurry walls, and T-section slurry walls. 1. Advantages of diaphragm walls are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 2. No formwork required; No lowering of the ground water table required; Can form outer wall of structures; Irregular shapes are possible; Relatively impervious in comparison with other types of walls, if dry excavation is necessary; Construction possible under adverse circumstances, such as unfavorable soils and hydrologic conditions and where other techniques may have limitations; Can be constructed to considerable depths ahead of the main excavation; Relatively free from vibrations and noise during construction.
Disadvantages of diaphragm walls are: a. b. c. Limited local contractor experience which may result in higher bid prices or unforeseen construction problems; The disposal of used slurries in urban areas may pose special problems. Higher cost.
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c.
d. e.
h.
*Conventional practice is to use a factor of safety which increases the embedded depth by 20 to 40 percent above the value required for barely stable equilibrium. The choice of depth factor is based on engineering judgment.
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(2) Unfactored soil parameters use KP/1.5, without adding additional length. (3) Unfactored soil parameters use KP, when providing 20 ~ 40 percent additional length. i. Soil loading due to earthquake is based on Mononobe-Okabe pseudo-static analysis (refer to Guide Specification, Commentary Foundation and Abutment Design Requirements, FreeStanding Abutments) KAE = KA + KAE where KAE KAE = the coefficient of total earthquake earth pressure = KA (Coulombs static active coefficient), when = 0
KAE = the additional dynamic load The static loads are triangularly distributed and the additional dynamic loads are uniformly distributed on the wall. It is recommended that the horizontal acceleration coefficient Kh for diaphragm walls be the value of 1.0A, which falls in between the value of 0.5A for yielding walls and 1.5A for nonyielding walls. (A = acceleration coefficient) The design seismic passive resistances represent the total resistance during earthquake. The coefficient of passive resistance can be determined from the Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges. Note that if, = 0, then KPE = KP (Coulombs static passive coefficient)
For the submerged portion of soils, KAE and KPE shall be calculated by replacing with . ( Kh . ) = tan-1 1-Kv where = submerged unit weight of soil Kv = vertical acceleration coefficient j. Two different techniques can be used for design of diaphragm walls: (1) Fixed Earth Support Method So-called Conventional Method (refer to USS Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual). (2) Free Earth Support Method So-called Simplified Method. This method uses active earth pressure on the projecting portions of the wall, and passive pressures on the front of the wall for the entire embedded length. The required depth of embedment is determined based on: (a) Moment equilibrium about the base of the wall; (b) Overall wall and slope stability using unfactored (or peak) soil strength parameters and factor of safety 1.5; and (c) A minimum wall depth below the excavation level depending on engineering judgment or criteria from the Materials Laboratory.
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l.
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c.
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The estimated ultimate load transferred from the bond length to different types of soils is listed as follows: Corrected Standard Penetration No. N Loose (4-10) Medium Compact (10-30) Compact (30-50) Loose (4-10) Medium Compact (10-30) Compact (30-50) Loose (4-10) Medium Compact (10-30) Compact (30-50) Stiff (10-20) Hard (20-40) Estimated Ultimate Transfer Load in Kip/ft 10 15 20 7 10 13 5 7 9 2 4
Sand
Silt-clay mixture with minimum LL, PI, and LI restrictions, or fine micaceous sand or silt mixtures
The maximum allowable anchor design load in soil may be determined by multiplying the bond length by the ultimate transfer load and dividing by a safety factor of 2.5. The ultimate load transferred from the bond length to rock deposits may be estimated from the rock type in the following table. Estimated Ultimate Transfer Load in Kip/ft 50 40 30 30 25 10
Rock Type Granite or Basalt Dolomitic Limestone Soft Limestone Sandstone Slates and Hard Shales Soft Shales
The maximum allowable anchor design load in rock may be determined by multiplying the bond length by the ultimate transfer load and dividing by a safety factor of 3.
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Typical amount of wall translation (top movement) to develop the active earth pressure. Soil and Condition Cohesionless Dense Cohesionless Loose Cohesive Firm Cohesive Soft 3. Corrosion Protection The corrosion protection of anchors can be divided into two categories*: a. Simple Protection The use of simple protection relies on Portland cement grout to protect the tendon, bar, or strand in the bond zone. The unbonded lengths are sheaths filled with anti-corrosion grease, heat shrink sleeves, and secondary grouting after stressing. Except for secondary grouting, the protection is usually in place prior to inserting the tendon in the hole. Double Protection Complete encapsulation of the anchor tendon is accomplished by a corrugated PVC, high-density polyethlene, or steel tube. The same provisions of protecting the unbonded length for simple protection are applied to those for double protection. Amount of Translation (0.1% to 0.2%)H (0.2% to 0.5%)H (1% to 2%)H (2% to 5%)H
b.
*Provide simple protection for temporary tieback walls (less than 18 months) and double protection for permanent tieback walls. 4. Angle of Wall Friction The wall friction depends on the soil properties, the amount and direction of wall movement, the wall material, and the surface condition. Values of = 0 or = are generally too low and high, respectively, for most practical cases. The typical values are between 1 /3 and 2 /3. It is conservative if assumed = 0. 5. Determination of Tieback Spacing The preliminary anchor spacing can be determined from Figure 9.4.3-1. Suggested temporary test loads are between 75 and 80 percent of Guaranteed Ultimate Tensile Strength (GUTS). Suggested Limits for design loads, T, are between 0.5 and 0.6 of GUTS (typically 53 percent). Therefore, (S1 + S1)S2 = T cos q 2 PE Typical pile spacings (horizontal) of 6 to 10 feet and anchor spacings (vertical) of 8 to 12 feet are commonly used. The minimum spacing of 4 feet in both directions is not recommended for considering the effectiveness and disturbance of anchors due to installation.
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Figure 9.4.3-2 For the submerged portion of soil, KAE and KPE should be calculated by replacing with in Equations (4) and (5) and replacing with for calculating earth pressure.
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Note: (1) Neglect any passive resistance below the base of excavation in D zone where D is the largest value of 1.5 times shaft diameter, 0.1 times height of the wall, depth of fascia wall footing, or anticipated future excavation depth within 20 feet of wall. (2) Active pressure is assumed to act over pile spacing above base of excavation and over shaft diameter below base of excavation. Passive pressure is assumed to act over two times over shaft diameter or pile spacing, whichever is smaller. (3) For permanent tiebacks, tie back DESIGN LOAD, T, Shall be (1) + (2) or [(1) + (3)]/1.5, whichever is greater. For temporary tiebacks, tie back DESIGN LOAD, T, shall be (1) + (2). (4) Lock-off load is 80 percent of (1) + (2) for permanent wall and 70 percent of (1) + (2) for temporary wall. (5) Proof test to 1.5T for permanent tiebacks and to 1.3T for temporary tiebacks.
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Retaining Walls
Figure 9.4.3-3
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Figure 9.4.3-4a
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Figure 9.4.3-4b Note: Stability number n and m are determined based on stability analysis of the project walls. Consult with Material Laboratory to obtain appropriate values of n and m.
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Retaining Walls
Figures 9.4.3-5
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Retaining Walls
For walls which are not of a uniform height, H should be shown for each segment of the wall between expansion joints or at some other convenient location. On walls with a steep slope or vertical curves, it may be desirable to show 2 or 3 different H dimensions within a particular segment. The horizontal distance should be shown between changes in the H dimensions. The value for H shall be shown in a block in the center of the panel or segment. See Example, Figure 9.4.4-1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Follow the example format shown in Figure 9.4.4-1. Calculate approximate quantities using the Standard Plans. Wall dimensions shall be determined by the designer using the Standard Plans. Do not show any details given in the Standard Plans. Note on the plans any deviation from the Standard Plans. Do not detail reinforcing steel, unless it deviates from the Standard Plans. For pile footings, use the example format except revise the footing size, detail any additional steel, and show pile locations.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.5 9.5.1 Footings Spread Footings
A. General The provisions given in this section pertain to both spread footings and pile supported footings except as noted in 9.5.2, Pile Supported Footings. 1. Footing Shape and Location Footings shall normally be rectangular in plan for both square and skewed bridges. Footing depth will normally be set at the minimum required to assure adequate bearing pressure and cover. On stream crossings, additional cover depth may be required as protection against scour. The Hydraulic Section should be consulted on this matter. Unnecessary footing depth results in large increases in cost. The end slope on the bridge approach fill is usually set at the preliminary plan stage but affects the depth of footings placed in the fill. Figure 9.5.1-1 illustrates some items to consider when developing footing positions. 2. Retaining Wall Footings Retaining wall footings shall be designed using working stress methods for reasons stated in Subsection 9.4. The resultant of forces shall be kept within the middle one-third of the footing for Group I loadings and within the middle one-half of the footing for all other service load conditions, including impact collision load for walls under 16 feet. See AASHTO Working Strength Loading Combinations. 3. Design Loadings for Spread or Pile Footings Footings will normally be designed by load factor methods. The factored loads shall be in accordance with Section 4, as modified below. Where the footing is being used to support a long column, the magnified moments shall be used for footing design. See Section 9.2.1E for guidance on computing magnified moments. See Figures 9.5.1-2 and 9.5.1-3 for modes of failure for spread and pile footings. Allowable soil bearing capacities and pile loads are given in terms of service loads as they are obtained from the Foundation Engineer or, in the case of piles, specified on the plans. When factored loads are applied to the footing, the following maximum soil or pile loading shall apply. This value includes any capacity reduction factor. a. Basic Load Combination Using Group I Working Stress Design, the soil or pile loading shall not exceed 1.0 times the allowable, and for spread footings, the resultant shall fall within the middle one-third of the footing area. In the case of a pile footing: (1) No uplift shall be used for Group I loading. (2) Stability requirements shall be met without mobilizing the piles. (3) Stability check against overturning shall be taken about the front row of piles. b. Factored Load Combinations (1) Soil Pressure or Pile Reactions For any factored load combination, the soil loading shall not exceed twice the allowable. Maximum pile loading shall be in accordance with the following:
Footings
October 1993
9.5 - 1
9.5 - 2
October 1993
October 1993
9.5 - 3
9.5 - 4
October 1993
Footings
October 1993
9.5 - 5
Whenever a pedestal is used, the plans shall note that a construction joint will be permitted between the pedestal and the footing. This construction joint should be indicated as a construction joint with roughened surface. D. Footing Design 1. Footing Thickness and Shear Design The minimum footing thickness shall be 1 foot 6 inches or, for pile supported footings, 2 feet 0 inches. The minimum plan dimension shall be 4 feet 0 inches. Footing thickness may be governed by the development length of the column dowels, or by concrete shear requirements, with or without reinforcement. If concrete shear governs the thickness, it is the Engineers judgment, based on economics, as to whether to use a thick footing unreinforced for shear or a thinner footing with shear reinforcement. Generally, shear reinforcement should be avoided but not at excessive cost in concrete, excavation, and shoring requirements. Where stirrups are required, place the first stirrup at d/2 from the face of the column or pedestal. For large footings, consider discontinuing the stirrups at the point where vu = vc. For proportions of footings and pedestals and footings on rock, see Figure 9.5.1-5. Shear strength requirements are stated in AASHTO Specifications. They are summarized in Figure 9.5.1-4. 2. Reinforcement a. Column Dowels Column dowels shall be anchored into the footing in such a manner as to adequately transfer loads to the footing. Column dowels shall be hooked in order to facilitate placing, prevent their insertion into wet concrete, and to minimize footing thickness. Bars in tension shall be developed using length, 1.25 Lb, as shown in Chapter 5 of this manual. Bars in compression shall develop a length, 1.25 Ld, prior to the bend, as shown on Sheet 5-164. Where bars are not fully stressed, lengths may be reduced in proportion, but shall not be less than 3/4 Ld. The concrete strength used to compute development length of the bar in the footing shall be the strength of the concrete in the footing. The concrete strength to be used to compute the section strength at the interface between footing and column concrete shall be that of the column concrete. This can be allowed because of the confinement effect of the wider footing. b. Bottom Reinforcement Reinforcement shall be designed in accordance with AASHTO provisions and current office practice shown on Figure 9.5.1-4. However, reinforcement shall not be less than #6 bars at 12-inch centers to account for uneven soil conditions and shrinkage stresses.
9.5 - 6
October 1993
January 1991
9.5 - 7
9.5 - 8
Footings
9.5.2
April 1993
9.5 - 9
Typical Pile Footing Reinforcing Placement Figure 9.5.2-1 C. Horizontal Force on Pile Groups Piles resist horizontal forces by a combination of internal strength and the passive pressure resistance of the surrounding soil. The pile is modeled like a beam on an elastic foundation or by the use of computer programs, i.e., LPILE1. LPILE1 requires soil properties supplied from the Materials Lab in order to generate P-Y curves. P-Y curves represent the force required to deflect a pile a unit length. Forces and moments are applied to the pile and LPILE1 calculates the deflections along its length. The results can also be used to determine pile lateral and rotational springs. For more information on modeling individual piles or pile groups, see Chapter 4 Foundation Modeling. D. Uplift Forces When piles are subject to uplifting forces or a built in condition is needed at the top of the pile, the pile must be adequately connected to the footing by means of extended reinforcement, welded bars, or other means. No uplift capacity is allowed due to the bond between pile and embedment into footing. Uplift pile capacities shall be determined by Materials Lab. Construction methods used for jetted or spudded piles reduce uplift capacity.
9-5:V:BDM9
9.5 - 10
October 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.6 9.6.1 Piles and Piling General Considerations
A. Selection of Pile Type Piles should not be used where spread footings can be used at allowable basic bearing pressures of approximately 2 to 3 ton/sq. ft. or greater. Where heavy scour conditions may occur, pile foundations should be considered in lieu of spread footings. Where large amounts of excavation may be necessary to place a spread footing, pile support may be more economical. The following is a general summary of comparative pile properties. Penetrat. ofHard Srt ta a Very Good Moderate (CIPGood) w/tip Po or Good Easeof Connect. toStruct. Moderate Lea arl t Force Resist. High. Ease o f Splice High
Cs ot High
Capacity High
Frcton ii High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Good
High
Timber Cylinder
Lw o High
Lw o Very High
Moderate Moderate
Po or Moderate
Lw o Very High
B. Friction vs. Point Bearing Piles Piles may be of friction type or point bearing or a combination of both. AASHTO Load Capacity of Piles shall pertain for the design of piling, except as noted herein. Normally in the absence of a soil layer which can offer adequate resistance to develop full point bearing, the pile shall be considered to be acting as a friction pile. The Materials Laboratory will provide information as to the ability of the soil to support the pile load. The conditions of support of the pile in the soil may affect several structural properties. These may be: rate of pile elastic shortening, effect of group action and hence spacing, column stability of the pile, and ability to resist lateral forces. C. Pile Loads and Spacings The loads allowed and spacing of piles in groups are usually as tabulated below. Many other combinations are possible; however, their use should be predicated on suitable analysis and concurrence of the Bridge Design Engineer and the Foundation Engineer. Pile selection shall be made to give maximum economy combined with adequate load capacity and ability of the pile to be driven into the particular material.
January 1991
9.6 - 1
Capacity* 40 T 55 T
PileSize Spec. HP 12 x 53 + HP 12 x 53
70 T
Concrete Steel
3-3 3-3
1-9 1-6
10 BP 42 may be used if the pile is point bearing for this capacity. 12-inch diameter min. for Concrete Filled Casing. 13-inch diameter min. for Precast or Precast Prestressed. 14-inch diameter min. Butt for Tapered. 10-inch or 12-inch Square Precast Prestressed. 12-inch diameter min. for Hollow Prestressed Spun Piles. + 14-inch diameter min. for Concrete Filled Casing. 16-inch diameter min. for Precast or Precast Prestressed. * Capacity shown is rated Basic (working) load value and includes the effect of any downdrag forces. The Converse-Labare Formula (AASHTO Group Pile Loading) need not be applied to pile values shown here. This formula reduces the vertical load carry capacity of a pile group. See Foundation Modeling, Chapter 4, for lateral load capacity reduction for pile groups. ** Center of pile to footing edge. The above table is a guide to usual practice and is not intended to restrict the use of other capacities and spacings where needed. Maximum pile spacings should be limited to about 10 feet. With spacings beyond this, the shear between the footing and column or wall may become a problem.
9.6.2
Design Considerations
A. Column Action Consideration shall be given to the pile acting as a column. Piles which extend above the ground surface shall be analyzed by the appropriate column design procedures. Piles which are driven through very weak soils should be designed for reduced lateral support, using information from the Materials Laboratory as appropriate. Piles driven through firm material normally can be considered to be fully supported for column action (buckling not critical).
9.6 - 2
April 1993
b. c. d. e.
January 1991
9.6 - 3
9.6 - 4
July 2000
January 1991
9.6 - 5
9.6.3
Concrete Piles
A. Specifications When concrete piles are specified, the Standard Specifications Section 6-05 allow the contractor to select the pile type, i.e., precast or cast-in-place and describes the network of construction. Reinforcement for 55- and 70-ton piles is specified in the Standard Specifications. Where bearing values are specified on the plans other than 55- and 70-ton piles, or if the standard reinforcement is inadequate for the application, the details or Special Provisions must provide for the reinforcement. The following criteria shall be used for cast-in-place concrete piles: 1. The wall thickness will be determined by Materials Lab analysis of pile driving formula. Unless otherwise specified, the design shall be based on a steel shell thickness of 1/4 inch for piles less than 14 inches in diameter, 3/8 inches for piles 14 to 18 inches in diameter, and 1/2 inch for larger piles. Piles shall be embedded into the footing a minimum of 6 inches. The reinforcing mat shall have 11/2 inches of cover to the top of the pile. Class 4000 LS Concrete shall be specified for inside the pile. The top 10 feet of concrete in the pile is to be vibrated. The full cross section of the steel shell, minus 1/16 inch for corrosion, is to be used in determining the pile stiffness and foundation modeling. It can also be considered as confinement reinforcement for the internal cage except at pile/footing interface. The moment of inertia of the pile is to be computed by adding the components I pile = Iconc + (n)(Ishell) + (n)(Ireinf). A steel reinforcing cage shall be used to tie the pile to the footing. The reinforcement, alone, shall be sufficient to resist the total moment throughout the length of pile without considering the shell. The minimum reinforcement shall be 0.5 percent of the gross concrete area for Seismic Performance Categories A and B, and 0.75 percent for Category C as required per AASHTOs Seismic Guideline Specifications, Chapter 6. No less than four No. 5 bars shall be used. The reinforcement shall extend above the pile into the footing a distance equal to 1.25 1d (tension). Above the top of the pile, the vertical steel reinforcing bars shall be tied together with closely spaced hoops or spirals as required by the seismic guide specifications. Inside the pile, No. 4 hoops at 12-inch centers is minimum required for Category B and 9-inch centers for Category C.
2. 3. 4.
5.
6.
B. Concrete Pile Types The following types of concrete piles have been commonly used: 1. Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles Utilizing Driven Steel Pipe Casings The casing diameter and thickness is called for in the specifications. The bottom of the casing is capped with a suitable flat plate before driving. Special tips are sometimes used when difficult driving is expected.
9.6 - 6
April 1993
9.6.4
9.6.5
Timber Piles
Timber piles have the lowest cost per foot of any of the pile types. Timber piles may be untreated or treated. Untreated piles are used only for temporary applications or where the entire pile will be permanently below the water line. Composite piles, treated and untreated, may be used if the pile length is long and a splice will be required. Where composite piles are used, the splice must be located below the permanent water table. If doubt exists as to the location of the permanent water table, treated timber piles shall be used. Where dense material exists, consideration should be given to allowing jetting (with loss of uplift capacity), use of shoes, or use of other pile types.
9.6.6
Sheet Piles
Sheet piles are normally used for cofferdam and shoring and cribbing, but are usually not made a part of permanent construction.
9.6.7
Cylinder Piles
Large diameter cylinder piles are used because of their high allowable bearing and bending strength capacity. Cylinder piles are commonly cast-in-place concrete and the shaft is formed by drilling. See Drilled Shafts Section 9.8.
9-6WORK:V:BDM3
January 1991
9.6 - 7
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.7 9.7.1 Seals Purpose
A concrete seal is used within the confines of a cofferdam to permit construction of the pier footing and column in the dry. This type of underwater construction is practical to a water depth of approximately 50 feet. Seal concrete must be placed underwater. This is usually accomplished with the use of a tremie. A tremie is a long pipe that extends to the bottom of the excavation and permits a head to be maintained on the concrete during placement. After the concrete has been placed and has obtained sufficient strength, the water within the cofferdam is removed. The weight of the seal concrete resists the hydrostatic pressure exerting force at the base of the seal. In Figure 9.7.1-1, some of the factors that must be considered in designing a seal are illustrated.
Seals
*Usually 1 foot 0 inches for design (use 1 foot 0 inches greater than design seal dimensions for quantity calculations). Figure 9.7.1-1
9.7.2
General
A. Normal High Water Elevation The Normal High Water Elevation is defined as the highest water surface elevation that may normally be expected to occur during a given time period. This elevation, which appears on the Hydraulics Data Sheet, is obtained from discussions with local residents or by observance of high water marks at the site. The normal high water is not related to any flood condition.
March 1993
9.7 - 1
Seals
9.7.3
Spread Footings
A. Seal Positively Required When there is little possibility of the seal being eliminated during construction, the following procedure shall be used for design: 1. Preliminary Sections The bottom of the seal elevation shall be the lower of the scour elevation or the foundation elevation as recommended by the Soils Engineer. Footing cover requirements of Section 9.5 apply when the top of footing is exposed to view. The size of the seal is selected based on the following: a. Allowable Soil Pressure The size of the seal required in order to meet the allowable soil pressure shall be calculated using column moments at the base of the footing and vertical load applied at the bottom of the seal. b. Stability Stability need only be checked at the base of the footing. 2. Final Design After preliminary sections are determined, the final design is made based on the criteria outlined in Section 9.5.
9.7 - 2
March 1993
Seals
9.7.4
9-7:V:BDM9
March 1993
9.7 - 3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.8 9.8.1 Drilled Shafts General
A. Definition A drilled shaft is a machine and/or manually excavated shaft in soil or rock that is filled with concrete and reinforcing steel. A drilled shaft is circular in cross-section and may be belled at the base to provide greater bearing area. Vertical load is resisted by the drilled shaft in base bearing and side friction. Horizontal load is resisted by the shaft in horizontal bearing against the surrounding soil or rock. B. Characteristics The following special features distinguish drilled shaft from other types of foundations: 1. 2. The drilled shaft is installed in a drilled hole, unlike the driven pile. Wet concrete is cast and cures directly against the soil forming the walls of the bore hole. Temporary steel casing may be necessary for stabilization of the open hole and is extracted during concrete placement. The installation method for drilled shafts is adapted to suit the subsurface conditions.
Drilled Shafts
3.
C. Terminology Other terminology commonly used to describe a drilled shaft includes: drilled pier, drilled caisson, and bored pile. In soil, the shaft is normally drilled with an auger. In rock, a core barrel bit is used in combination with blasting.
9.8.2
5.
B. Classification by Type of Construction 1. 2. 3. Not cased, reinforced. Temporary casing, removed while placing concrete. Temporary casing with permanent liner.
January 1991
9.8 - 1
Drilled Shafts
9.8.3
4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
10. Designs of drilled shafts can be made considering load transfer both in end bearing and in side resistance. 11. The behavior of a drilled shaft at a site can be monitored by available methods of instrumentation and analytical techniques. 12. Use in constricted areas. The shaft occupies less area than a footing and thus can be built closer to railroads and existing structures. 13. When drilling inside a steel casing, pollution of lake or river water is minimized. 14. Drilled shafts may be more economical than spread footing construction, especially when the foundation is deep. B. Disadvantages 1. 2. 3. 4. Construction procedures are critical to the quality of the drilled shaft, and very careful inspection is required. Construction techniques are sometimes very sensitive to subsurface soil and rock conditions. Boulders can be a serious problem, especially in smaller diameter shafts. The proper performance and interpretation of load tests on drilled shafts requires expert knowledge and experience. Lack of general knowledge of construction problems and design methods has restricted the use of drilled shafts.
9.8 - 2
Drilled Shafts
9.8.4
3. 4. 5. 6.
B. Subsurface Investigation A preliminary soils investigation and testing is needed to determine the pertinent characteristics of the soil in which the drilled shaft is to be constructed. The characteristics of the soil will influence the design of the shaft and the method of construction. C. Methods of Investigation The standard method for obtaining soil characteristics involves laboratory testing of undisturbed samples and the use of in-situ techniques such as: Goodman Jack, the static cone test, and pressuremeter tests. The standard penetration test is used extensively. D. Subsurface Conditions Affecting Construction 1. The stability of the subsurface soils when the excavation is made will determine whether a casing is necessary or not. The dry method (see Section 9.8.7A) of construction can be used only where the soils will not cave or collapse. The casing or slurry method (see Section 9.8.7B and 9.8.7C) must be used if there is danger of caving or collapse. It must be determined if groundwater exists at the site and what rate of flow can be expected into a shaft excavation. The presence of groundwater will indicate if a tremie pour shaft will be needed or if a tremie seal must first be poured, the shaft dewatered, and then the remainder of the shaft poured in the dry. In either instance, the design must assure access to the top of the seal to allow the surface to be thoroughly cleaned prior to placing additional concrete (i.e., the shaft must be large enough to accommodate a worker or the top surface of a small diameter shaft seal must be located so that it is accessible).
2.
January 1991
9.8 - 3
Drilled Shafts
Any artesian water conditions must be clearly identified in the contract documents. Artesian water flowing into a pour could spoil the concrete or cause collapse or heaving of the soil at the excavation. The presence of cobbles or boulders can cause difficulties in drilling. Drilling with core barrel bits or blasting can remove obstructions. The presence of existing foundations or structures. Presence of landfill that could contain hazardous or dangerous material that cannot be easily excavated. Presence of rock may require more sophisticated drilling methods or shooting with explosives. Presence of a weak stratum below the base of the drilled shaft. For this situation, drilling may have to be extended below the weak stratum.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9.8.5
9.8 - 4
Drilled Shafts
b.
Reinforcing shall be detailed to minimize congestion. Longitudinal reinforcing extending into footing should be straight. If hooked, detail so that casing can be removed while placing concrete. Percentage of reinforcing shall be 0.5 percent minimum and 4 percent maximum. Use of two concentric circular cages shall be avoided.
January 1991
9.8 - 5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.8.6 Design of Drilled Shafts Subject to Lateral Loads
A. General Modeling Technique The modeling technique involved in the analysis of laterally loaded shafts depicts the soil surrounding the shaft as a set of linear or nonlinear elastic springs. See Figure 9.8.6-1 for illustration.
Drilled Shafts
Model of Laterally Loaded Shaft Figure 9.8.6-1 Present day computer analysis techniques can handle a finite number of springs. The correct mathematical solution involves the solution of an infinite number of springs. The problem is one of a beam-on-elastic foundation which involves the solution of a fourth order differential equation. The exact mathematical solution is normally difficult except in the very limited cases. Therefore, this method of solution is considered impractical for the normal design problems. The most practical means for analysis of the drilled shaft for lateral loads is by computer. For additional modeling techniques, see Chapter 4 Foundation Modeling.
9.8 - 6
Drilled Shafts
January 1991
9.8 - 7
Another concept in soil mechanics is that of the Soil Modulus ES which is defined as -P/Y. This term will have units such as kips per square foot.
Illustration of the Secant Modulus Figure 9.8.6-3 The soil modulus is taken as being a linear function of depth. Since the P-Y relationship is nonlinear, the modulus ES will be a secant modulus. C. Analysis by Computer 1. Dr. Reese Program The Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles program by Dr. Lymon Reese will accommodate P-Y curve input data for the solution of laterally loaded piles. Linear P-Y curves are generated for different soil layers with known soil properties. The program referred to as LPILE1 will not allow simultaneous solution of the superstructure and substructure. The program is most commonly used to analyze shafts. 2. PILANA This acronym describes a modeling technique, using STRUDL, to solve lateral loads on piles. The soil spring coefficient (P-Y relationship) must be linear. Superstructure and substructure may be solved for simultaneously. 3. Pile Structure Interaction Analysis The McAUTO STRUDL program will solve the lateral load on a pile problem. P-Y curve relationship values may be entered directly. P-Y values may be linear or nonlinear. Both superstructure and substructure may be analyzed simultaneously. The McAUTO STRUDL program has the most capabilities of the three computer programs listed.
9.8 - 8
Drilled Shafts
9.8.7
Construction Methods
A. Dry Method The dry method is applicable to soils above the water table that will not cave or slump when the hole is drilled to its full depth. A soil that meets this specification is a homogenous stiff clay. The dry method can be employed with sands above the water table if the sands have some cohesion. The dry method can be used for soils below the water table if the soils are low in permeability so that only a small amount of water will seep into the hole during the time the excavation is open. The dry method consists of drilling a hole, without casing, placing a rebar cage, and then filling the hole with concrete. B. Casing Method The casing method is applicable to sites where soil conditions are such that caving or excessive deformation will occur when a hole is excavated. An example of such a site is a clean sand below the water table. This method employs a cylindrical (usually steel) casing inside the hole to hold back the caving soil. The casing is removed from the hole during concrete placement. C. Slurry Displacement Method A Bentonite Slurry is introduced into the excavated hole to prevent caving or deformation of loose or permeable soils. Drilling continues through the slurry. When the desired depth is reached, the rebar cage is lowered into the hole and the slurry. Concrete is then tremie poured into the hole. Slurry is displaced by the heavier concrete and collected at the surface in a sump. The slurry may be used again in another hole.
9-8WORK:V:BDM9
January 1991
9.8 - 9
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.9 9.9.1 Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design Overall Design Process, Roles, and Responsibilities
A flowchart is provided in Figure 9.9.1-1 which illustrates the overall design process needed to accomplish an LRFD foundation design. The steps in the flowchart are defined as follows: Conceptual Bridge Foundation Design This design step results in an informal communication produced by the Geotechnical Branch at the request of the Bridge and Structures Office which provides a brief description of the anticipated site conditions, an estimate of the maximum slope feasible for the bridge approach fills for the purpose of determining bridge length, conceptual foundation types feasible, and conceptual evaluation of potential geotechnical hazards such as liquefaction. In general, no test holes are drilled at this stage, as only existing site data is used for this determination. The purpose of these recommendations is to provide enough geotechnical information to allow the bridge preliminary plan to be produced. Develop Site data and Preliminary Bridge Plan During this phase, the Bridge and Structures Office obtains site data from the region (see WSDOT Design Manual) and develops a preliminary bridge plan adequate for the Geotechnical Branch to locate borings in preparation for the final design of the structure (i.e., pier locations are known with a relatively high degree of certainty). The Bridge and Structures Office would also provide the following information to the Geotechnical Branch to allow them to adequately develop the preliminary foundation design: Anticipated structure type and magnitudes of settlement (both total and differential) the structure can tolerate. At abutments, the approximate maximum elevation feasible for the top of the foundation in consideration of the foundation depth. For interior piers, the number of columns anticipated, and if there will be single foundation elements for each column, or if one foundation element will support multiple columns. At stream crossings, the depth of scour anticipated, if known. Typically, the Geotechnical Branch will pursue this issue with the OSC Hydraulics Office. Any known constraints that would affect the foundations in terms of type, location, or size, or any known constraints which would affect the assumptions which need to be made to determine the nominal resistance of the foundation (e.g., utilities that must remain, construction staging needs, excavation, shoring and falsework needs, other constructability issues). Preliminary Foundation Design This design step results in a memorandum produced by the Geotechnical Branch at the request of the Bridge and Structures Office which provides geotechnical data adequate to do the structural analysis and modeling for all load groups to be considered for the structure. The geotechnical data is preliminary in that it is not in final form for publication and transmittal to potential bidders. In addition, the foundation recommendations are subject to change, depending on the results of the structural analysis and modeling and the effect that modeling and analysis has on foundation types, locations, sizes, and depths, as well as any design assumptions made by the geotechnical designer. Preliminary foundation recommendations may also be subject to change depending on the construction staging needs and other constructability issues which are discovered during this design phase. Geotechnical work conducted during this stage typically includes completion of the field exploration program to the final PS&E level, development of foundation types and capacities feasible, foundation
July 2000
9.9-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
depths needed, P-Y curve data and soil spring data for seismic modeling, seismic site characterization and estimated ground acceleration, and recommendations to address known constructability issues. A description of subsurface conditions and a preliminary subsurface profile would also be provided at this stage, but detailed boring logs and laboratory test data would usually not be provided. Structural Analysis and Modeling In this phase, the Bridge and Structures Office uses the preliminary foundation design recommendations provided by the Geotechnical Branch to perform the structural modeling of the foundation system and superstructure. Through this modeling, the Bridge and Structures Office determines and distributes the loads within the structure for all appropriate load cases, factors the loads as appropriate, and sizes the foundations using the foundation nominal resistances and resistance factors provided by the Geotechnical Branch. Constructability and construction staging needs would continue to be investigated during this phase. The Bridge and Structures Office would also provide the following feedback to the Geotechnical Branch to allow them to check their preliminary foundation design and produce the Final Geotechnical Report for the structure: Anticipated foundation loads (including load factors and load groups used). Foundation size/diameter and depth required to meet structural needs. Foundation details which could affect the geotechnical design of the foundations. Size and configuration of deep foundation groups. Final Foundation Design This design step results in a formal geotechnical report produced by the Geotechnical Branch which provides final geotechnical recommendations for the subject structure. This report includes all geotechnical data obtained at the site, including final boring logs, subsurface profiles, and laboratory test data, all final foundation recommendations, and final constructability recommendations for the structure. At this time, the Geotechnical Branch will check their preliminary foundation design in consideration of the structural foundation design results determined by the Bridge and Structures Office, and make modifications to the preliminary foundation design as needed to accommodate the structural design needs provided by the Bridge and Structures Office. It is possible that much of what was included in the preliminary foundation design memorandum may be copied into the final geotechnical report, if no design changes are needed. This report will also be used for publication and distribution to potential bidders. Final Structural Modeling and PS&E Development In this phase, the Bridge and Structures Office makes any adjustments needed to their structural model to accommodate any changes made to the geotechnical foundation recommendations as transmitted in the final geotechnical report. From this, the bridge design and final PS&E would be completed.
9.9-2
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Bridge and Structures Office (BO) requests conceptual foundation recommendations from Geotechnical Branch (GB)
w BO obtains site data from region, develops draft preliminary bridge plan, and provides initial foundation needs input to GB
w
w
w
BO performs structural analysis and modeling, and provides feedback to GB regarding foundation loads, type, size, depth, and configuration needed for structural purposes
BO performs final structural modeling (if necessary) and develops final PS&E for structure
July 2000
w
GB performs final geotechnical design as needed and provides final geotechnical report for the structure 9.9-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.9.2 Definitions and Geometry
Use Figure 9.9.2-1 below to provide a common basis of understanding for loading locations and directions for substructure design. This figure also describes the geometric data required for abutment and substructure design. Note that for shaft and some pile foundation designs, the shaft or pile may form the column as well as the foundation element, thereby eliminating the footing element shown in the figure.
Template for Foundation Site Data and Loading Direction Definitions Figure 9.9.2-1 Note that in the guidelines which follow, where reference is made to an article or table in the AASHTO specifications, the article can be found in the 1998 AASHTO LRFD specifications, Second Edition, with Interims.
9.9-4
July 2000
Load Combinations and Load Factors (from AASHTO LRFD Specifications Table 3.4.1-1) Table 9.2.3-1
Load Combination DC DD DW EH EV ES p p p LL IM CE BR PL LS 1.75 1.35 WA WS WL FR TU CR SH EL TG SE Use One of These at a Time EQ IC CT
CV
Limit State Strength-I Strength-II Strength-III Strength-IV EH, EV, ES, DW DC only Strength-V Extreme Event-I Extreme Event-II Service-I Service-II Service-III Fatigue-LL, IM and CE only
1.40
TG TG TG
SE SE SE
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
1.35
0.40 0.30
0.40 0.30
TG
SE
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
EQ
TG
SE
TG
SE
0.75
July 2000
9.9-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p (Adapted from Table 3.4.1-2 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, but modified as shown below) Table 9.9.3-2 Load Factor Type of Load DC: Components and Attachments DD: Downdrag DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure Active At-Rest EV: Vertical Earth Pressure Retaining Structure Rigid Buried Structure Rigid Frames Flexible Buried Structures other than Metal Box Culverts Flexible Metal Box Culverts ES: Earth Surcharge Maximum 1.25 1.00* 1.50 1.50 1.35 1.35 1.30 1.35 1.95 1.50 .50 Minimum 0.9 1.00* 0.65 0.90 0.90 1.00 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.75
*DD was reduced to 1.00 to reflect current WSDOT and national practice. Permanent Load Factors DC = dead load of structural components and non structural attachments DD = downdrag DW = dead load of wearing services and utilities EH = horizontal earth pressure load EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill ES = earth surcharge load EL = accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the construction process Various Transient Load Factors BR = vehicular braking force LS = live load surcharge CE = vehicular centrifugal force PL = pedestrian live load CR = creep SE = settlement CT = vehicular collision force SH = shrinkage CV = vessel collision force TG = temperature gradient EQ = earthquake TU = uniform temperature FR = friction WA = water load and stream pressure IC = ice load WL = wind on live load IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance WS = wind load on structure LL = vehicular live load The load factors TG and SE are to be determined on a project specific basis in accordance with Articles 3.4.1 and 3.12 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications.
9.9-6
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.9.4 Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
In general, for Extreme Event I, set EQ, the earthquake load factor, equal to 0 (note that EQ up to 0.5 should be considered on a project specific basis to account for potential partial live loads during a seismic event). For eccentrically loaded footings and abutment wall footings, use EQ = 0.0 or 1.0, depending on the maximum resultant force eccentricity allowed (see Overturning Stability for Footings Strength and Extreme Event Limit States). A. LRFD Basic Equation The basic equation for load and resistance factor design (LRFD) states that the loads multiplied by factors to account for uncertainty, ductility, importance, and redundancy must be less than or equal to the available resistance multiplied by factors to account for variability and uncertainty per the AASHTO LRFD specifications. The basic equation, therefore, is as follows: ii Qi Rn i i Qi Rn = = = = = Factor for ductility, redundancy, and importance of structure Load factor Load (i.e., dead load, live load, seismic load, etc.) Resistance factor Nominal or ultimate resistance
For typical WSDOT practice, i should be set equal to 1.0 for use of both minimum and maximum load factors. B. Characteristic Soil/Rock Properties and Their Use in LRFD Load and resistance factors are based on a combination of the following: design model uncertainty, soil/rock property uncertainty, unknown uncertainty inherited from allowable stress and load factor design practices included in previous AASHTO design specifications. Therefore, uncertainty in the soil parameters only amounts for a part of each of the load and resistance factors.
July 2000
9.9-7
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Assume that the characteristic soil/rock properties used in conjunction with the load and resistance factors provided herein are average values obtained from laboratory test results or from correlated field in-situ test results. Note that use of lower bound soil/rock properties could result in overly conservative foundation designs. No specific guidance is available regarding the extent of subsurface characterization and the number of soil/rock property tests required to justify use of the load and resistance factors provided herein. Geotechnical engineering judgment is required. No adequate documentation exists regarding the derivation of load factors for soil loads to have any basis for adjusting the load factors for site specific considerations, or for regional practice. However, there is some documentation available regarding the derivation of resistance factors for foundations. This makes it possible to adjust the resistance factors for site specific considerations and regional practices. See the Federal Highway Administration manual FHWA HI-98-032 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures, 1998, for the necessary statistical information and procedures for making such an adjustment. Appendix A of this section has an example of resistance factor adjustment as applied to a pile foundation design. Adjustments to soil resistance factors, where warranted, will be made by the Geotechnical Branch if adequate data is available to do so.
9.9-8
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.9.5 Spread Footing Design
Figure 9.9.5-1 provides a flowchart which illustrates the design process and the interaction between the structural geotechnical engineers needed for footing design.
1(ST). Determine bridge geometry and pier locations
1(GT). Determine depth of footing based on geometry and bearing material w 1(GT). Determine depth of footing for scour, if present (with help of Hydraulic Engineer) w 3(GT). Determine soil properties for foundation design, and resistance factors in consideration of the soil property uncertainty and the method selected for calculating nominal resistance w 4(GT). Determine active, passive, and seismic earth pressure parameters as needed for abutments w 5(GT). Determine nominal footing resistance at the strength and extreme limit states w 6(ST). Determine nominal footing resistance at the service limit state w 7(GT). Check overall stability, determining max. feasible bearing load to maintain adequate stability
2(ST). Determine loads applied to footing, including lateral earth pressure loads for abutments w 3(ST). Design the footing at the service limit state w 4(ST). Check the bearing pressure of the footing at the strength limit state w 5(ST). Check the eccentricity of the footing at the strength limit state w 6(ST). Check the sliding resistance of the footing at the strength limit state w 7(ST). Check the bearing pressure of the footing at the extreme limit state w 8(ST). Check the eccentricity of the footing at the extreme limit state w 9(ST). Check sliding resistance of the footing at the extreme limit state w 10(ST). Design the footing (and walls for abutment) according to the concrete section of the Specification
8(GT). Check nominal footing resistance at all limit states, and overall stability in light of new footing dimensions, depth, and loads
GT: ST:
July 2000
w w w
9.9-9
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
A. Loads and Load Factor Application to Spread Footings Figures 9.9.5-2 and 9.9.5-3 provides definitions and locations of the forces and moments which act on structural footings. Table 9.9.5-1 identifies when to use maximum or minimum load factors for the various modes of failure for the footing (sliding, overturning, bearing capacity) for each force. Note that the eccentricity used to calculate the bearing stress is referenced to point C, whereas the eccentricity used to evaluate overturning is referenced to point O. It is important to not change from maximum to minimum load factors in consideration of the force location relative to the reference point used (C or O), as doing so will cause basic statics to no longer apply, and one will not get the same resultant location when the moments are summed at different reference points. Also note that the loads are factored after they are distributed to the foundation through structural analysis and modeling.
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Cantilever (or Overhanging) Abutments Figure 9.9.5-2
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for L-abutments and Interior Footings Figure 9.9.5-3
July 2000
9.9-11
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
The variables shown above in Figures 9.9.4-1 and 9.9.4-2 are defined as follows: DLv, LLv, EQv p or t n or l EQp or EQt EQn or EQl Ws Wtoe WC Ft Fq PAE PIR QEP Q sv R eC eO B L q = vertical structural loads applied to footing/wall (dead load, transient load, EQ load, respectively) = structural static shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (parallel to abutment wall or transverse to bridge, respectively) = structural static shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (normal to abutment wall or longitudinal to bridge, respectively) = structural seismic shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (parallel to abutment wall or transverse to bridge, respectively) = structural seismic shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (normal to abutment wall or longitudinal to bridge, respectively) = weight of soil above abutment wall heel = weight of soil above footing toe = weight of footing and column/wall = soil active force behind abutment wall (use at rest earth pressure if have an integral abutment) = traffic surcharge force behind abutment wall = dynamic horizontal thrust due to seismic loading = soil and wall mass inertial force due to seismic loading = ultimate soil passive resistance (note: height of pressure distribution triangle is determined by the geotechnical engineer and is project specific) = soil shear resistance along footing base at soil-concrete interface = resultant vertical bearing stress at base of footing = resultant force at base of footing = eccentricity calculated about point C (center of footing), to be used for bearing stress calculations = eccentricity calculated about point O (toe of footing), to be used for overturning calculations = footing width = footing length = traffic live load surcharge pressure
9.9-12
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Selection of Maximum or Minimum Spread Footing Foundation Load Factors for Various Modes of Failure for the Strength and Extreme Event Limit States Table 9.9.5-1 Load Factor Load DLv LLv p , t, n 1 Sliding DCmin, DWmin Use transient load factor (e.g., LL) Use DCmax, DWmax for causing forces, DCmin, DWmin for resisting forces EVmin DCmin EHmax LS Set = 0 Overturning, eo DCmin, DWmin Use transient load factor (e.g., LL) Use DCmax, DWmax for causing forces, DCmin, DWmin for resisting forces EVmin DCmin EHmax LS Set = 0 Bearing Stress (ec, sv) DCmax, DWmax Use transient load factor (e.g., LL) Use DCmax, DWmax for causing forces, DCmin, DWmin for resisting forces EVmax DCmax EHmax LS Use transient load factor (e.g., LL)
Ws, Wtoe Wc Ft Fq q
Note that the dead load, DLv, as used herein typically includes the load due to structural components and non-structural attachments (i.e., DC), and the dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (i.e., DW). The live load, LLv, as used herein for foundation design can include any of the transient loads identified previously except vehicular dynamic load allowance, IM, and loads due to earthquake, EQ. B. Footing Bearing Stress and Capacity Strength and Extreme Event Limit States For geotechnical and structural design of eccentrically loaded footings on soil, calculate the bearing stress based on a uniform bearing pressure distribution using the Meyerhof approach. For geotechnical and structural design of eccentrically loaded spread footings on rock, calculate the bearing stress based on a triangular or trapezoidal bearing pressure distribution. The Meyerhof method is summarized as follows: Step 1: Calculate eccentricity, ec, about Point C in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3, with the applied loads already factored. ec = (summation of factored moments acting on footing and wall)/(summation of factored vertical forces acting on footing and wall)
July 2000
9.9-13
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Step 2: Calculate the factored vertical stress based on a uniform pressure distribution acting on the base of footing, v as illustrated in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3. Note that this calculation method applies in both directions for biaxially loaded footings (see Article 10.6.3.1.5 in the AASHTO LRFD specifications for guidance on biaxial loading). v = (summation of factored vertical forces acting on footing and wall per unit footing length)/(B-2ec)
Use the appropriate maximum or minimum load factors as shown in Table 9.9.5-2 when calculating sv. Note that B - 2ec is considered to be the effective footing width B. If a triangular distribution is used for the footing contact pressure (applies to footings on rock only): vmax = V/B ( 1+ 6 ec / B )
V is the sum of the factored vertical forces on the footing. Step 3: Compare v, or vmax, which already has the load factors included, to the factored bearing capacity of the soil (i.e., the ultimate bearing capacity for the soil/rock multiplied by an appropriate resistance factor). The factored bearing capacity (resistance) should be greater than or equal to the factored bearing stress. That is: v < bcqult where, qult is the unfactored ultimate bearing capacity for the appropriate limit state and bc is the resistance factor. Note that qult will be the same for the strength and extreme event limit states. In general, a resistance factor of 1.0 should be used for bearing capacity at the extreme event limit state. See Table 9.9.5-2 for resistance factors for the strength limit state. Bearing capacity for the strength and extreme event limit states should be calculated considering the effects of soil frictional and cohesive resistance, footing dimensions and shape, footing embedment, and slope of the ground in front of the footing. The Geotechnical Branch will calculate the footing bearing capacity using either the AASHTO LRFD specifications, Article 10.6.3.1, or other widely accepted methods provided in the literature. Load inclination factors will not, in general, be considered in the determination of bearing capacity. The Geotechnical Branch may limit the ultimate bearing capacity based on the geotechnical engineering experience available for the given geological formation. C. Sliding Stability for Footings Strength and Extreme Event Limit States The factored sliding resistance is comprised of a frictional component ( Q) and a passive earth pressure component (ep Qep). The frictional component acts along the base of the footing, and the passive component acts on the vertical face of the buried footing element. Factored Sliding Resistance, QR = Q + ep Qep The Strength Limit State, and ep are determined from Table 9.9.5-2. For the Extreme Event Limit State, = 1.0 and ep = 1.0. If passive resistance in front of footing is not dependable due to potential for erosion, scour, or future excavation in front of footing, use ep = 0.0 for the strength and extreme event limit states, and for temperature/shrinkage loads. The Geotechnical Branch should be contacted for assistance to determine if passive resistance should be considered for analysis of sliding stability.
9.9-14
July 2000
The factored sliding resistance should be greater than or equal to the factored horizontal applied loads. D. Overturning Stability for Footings Strength and Extreme Event Limit States Calculate the eccentricity about Point O in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3 to locate the resultant force, R. Forces and moments resisting overturning are to be considered negative, and minimum load factors should be used (see Table 9.9.5-1). Forces and moments causing overturning are to be considered positive, and maximum load factors should be used for those forces (see Table 9.9.5-1). For strength limit state, keep the resultant force at the base of the footing within the middle 1/2 of the footing dimensions for soil and the middle 3/4 of the footing dimensions for rock. For extreme event limit state and with EQ = 0, keep the resultant force at the base of footing within the middle 2/3 of the footing dimensions for soil and rock. If EQ = 1.0, keep the resultant force at the base of the footing within the middle 3/4 of the footing dimensions for soil and rock. Note that for footings subjected to biaxial loading, these eccentricity requirements apply in both directions. E. Overall Stability for Footings Service and Extreme Event Limit States The Geotechnical branch will evaluate overall stability using modified Bishop, Janbu, Spencer, or other widely accepted slope stability analysis methods. Article 10.5.2 recommends that overall stability be evaluated at the Service I limit state (i.e., a load factor of 1.0) and a resistance factor, os of 0.65 for slopes which support a structural element. Available slope stability programs produce a single factor of safety, FS. The Geotechnical Branch will continue its past practice of checking overall slope stability to insure that footings designed for a maximum bearing stress equal to the specified service limit state bearing capacity will not cause the slope stability factor of safety to fall below 1.5 (1.1 for extreme event limit state, with service loads and a horizontal acceleration kh equal to 0.5 A). This practice will essentially produce the same result as specified in Article 10.5.2 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications. The footing loads should be as specified for the Service I limit state for this analysis. If the footing is located on the slope such that the footing load increases slope stability, the Geotechnical Branch will not establish a maximum footing load which is acceptable for insuring overall slope stability (see Figure 9.9.4-3 for example), but will instead ignore the presence of the footing to evaluate overall stability.
Example Where Footing Contributes to Instability of Slope (left figure) vs. Example Where Footing Contributes to Stability of Slope (right figure) Figure 9.9.5-4
July 2000
9.9-15
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
A resistance factor of 0.9, which is equivalent to a factor of safety of 1.1 in current WSDOT practice, should in general be used for overall stability for the extreme event limit state. F. Resistance Factors for Footing Design Strength Limit State Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Shallow Foundations (adapted from Table 10.5.5-1 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications) Table 9.9.5-2 Type of Resistance Bearing Capacity bc Resistance Factor
Method/Soil/Condition Sand - Semi-empirical procedures using SPT data - Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data - Rational Method using estimated from SPT data using estimated from CPT data Clay - Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data - Rational Method using shear resistance measured in lab tests using shear resistance measured in field vane tests using shear resistance estimated from CPT data Rock - Semi-empirical procedure, Carter and Kulhawy (1988) Plate Load Test
0.45 0.55 0.35 0.45 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.60 0.55 0.90 0.90 0.80 0.80
Sliding
Precast concrete placed on sand - using estimated from SPT data - using estimated from CPT data Concrete cast-in-place on sand - using estimated from SPT data - using estimated from CPT data Sliding on clay is controlled by the strength of the clay when the clay shear strength is less than 0.5 times the normal stress, and is controlled by the normal stress when the clay shear strength is greater than 0.5 times the normal stress (see Figure 10.6.3.3-1 in AASHTO LRFD specifications, which is developed for the case in which there is at least 150 mm of compacted granular material below the footing). Clay (where shear resistance is less than 0.5 times normal pressure) - Using shear resistance measured in lab tests - Using shear resistance measured in field tests - Using shear resistance estimated from CPT data Clay (where the resistance is greater than 0.5 times normal pressure) Soil on soil
ep
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
G. Design of Footings at the Service Limit State The service limit state bearing capacity, qserv, will be a settlement limited value (typically 1 inch, but may be greater for long spans, simple spans, or relatively flexible structures). The method used to determine the service limit state bearing capacity will depend on the soil type. The Geotechnical Branch will use the AASHTO specifications or an appropriate textbook to select a settlement estimating method. The Meyerhof approach (see discussion under Footing Bearing Stress and Capacity Strength and Extreme Limit States) should be used to calculate the footing bearing stress, except that service limit state load factors should be used. For immediate settlement (not time dependent), both permanent dead load and live load should be considered for sizing footings for the service limit state. For time dependent settlement (e.g., on clays), only the permanent dead loads should be considered. v < qserv, where qserv is the unfactored service limit state bearing capacity and is the resistance factor. In general, a resistance factor of 1.0 should be applied to the bearing capacity at the service limit state. Design of a footing for overall slope stability at the service limit state was covered previously. H. What the Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to the Bridge Office for LRFD Footing Design To evaluate bearing capacity, the Geotechnical Branch will provide qult and qserv for various effective footing widths likely to be used, and resistance factors for each limit state. The amount of settlement on which qserv is based will be stated. The calculations will assume that qult and qserv are uniform loads applied over effective footing dimensions B and L (i.e., effective footing width and length ((B or L) - 2e) as determined using the Meyerhof method, at least for soil. For footings on rock, the calculations will assume that qult and qserv are peak loads and that the stress distribution is triangular or trapezoidal rather than uniform. The Geotechnical Branch will also provide embedment depth requirements or footing elevations to obtain the recommended bearing capacity. To evaluate sliding stability and eccentricity, the Geotechnical Branch will provide the following information: resistance factors for both the strength and extreme event limit states for calculating Qt and Qep soil parameters of , Kp, and depth of soil in front of footing to ignore in calculating Qep , Ka, and for calculating active force behind footing (abutments only) To evaluate soil response and development of forces in foundations for the extreme event limit state, the Geotechnical Branch will provide foundation soil/rock shear modulus and Poissons ratio (G and ). These values will typically be determined for shear strain levels of 0.02 to 0.2%, which span the strain levels for typical large magnitude earthquakes. The Geotechnical Branch will evaluate overall stability and provide the maximum (unfactored) footing load which can be applied to the design slope and still maintain an acceptable safety factor (typically 1.5 for the strength and 1.1 for the extreme event limit states, which is the inverse of the resistance factor). A uniform bearing stress as calculated by the Meyerhof method will be assumed for this analysis. An example presentation of the LRFD footing design recommendations to be provided by the Geotechnical Branch is as shown in Tables 9.9.5-3 and 9.9.5-4, and Figure 9.9.5-5.
July 2000
9.9-17
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Example Presentation of Soil Design Parameters for Sliding and Eccentricity Calculations Table 9.9.5-3
Parameter Soil Unit Weight, (soil above footing base level) Soil Friction Angle, (soil above footing base level) Active Earth Pressure Coefficient, Ka Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient, Kp Coefficient of Sliding, Tan
Abutment Piers X X X X X
Interior Piers X X X X X
Example Presentation of Resistance Factors for Footing Design Table 9.9.5-4 Resistance Factor, Shear Resistance to Sliding X Passive Pressure Resistance to Sliding X
Bearing X X X
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.9.6 Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Integral Shaft Column or Pile Bent Figure 9.9.6-1
July 2000
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Pile or Shaft Supported Footing Figure 9.9.6-2 where, qp qs qDD QDD Wnet = = = = = ultimate end bearing resistance at base of shaft or pile (unit resistance) ultimate side resistance on shaft or pile (unit resistance) ultimate down drag load on shaft or pile (unit load) ultimate down drag load on shaft or pile (total load) unit weight of concrete in shaft minus unit weight of soil times the shaft volume below the groundline (may include part of the column if the top of the shaft is deep due to scour or for other reasons structural static moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (parallel or transverse to pier orientation, respectively) structural static moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (normal or longitudinal to bridge, respectively) structural seismic moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (parallel or transverse to pier orientation, respectively) structural seismic moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (normal or longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
Mp or Mt Mn or Ml
= =
All other forces are as defined for Figures 9.9.5-2 and 9.9.5-4 for footings.
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Selection of Maximum or Minimum Deep Foundation Load Factors for Various Modes of Failure for the Strength Limit State Table 9.9.6-1 Load Factor Load DLv LLv tp, tt, tn t1 Bearing Stress (ec, sv) DCmax, DWmax Use transient load factor (e.g., LL) Use DCmax, DWmax for causing forces, DCmin, DWmin for resisting forces Use DCmax, DWmax for causing moments, DCmin, DWmin for resisting moments EVmax DCmax DDmax Uplift DCmin, DWmin Use transient load factor (e.g., LL) Use DCmax, DWmax for causing forces Use DCmax, DWmax for causing moments *Lateral Loading DCmax, DWmax Use transient load factor (e.g., LL) DCmax, DWmax
EVmin DCmin Treat as resistance, and use appropriate resistance factor Use EHmax if causes uplift Use LS if Fq causes uplift Set = 0
Ft Fq q
Use unfactored loads to get force distribution in structure, then factor the resulting forces for final structural design. All forces and load factors are as defined previously.
July 2000
9.9-21
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design 9.9.7 Drilled Shaft Design
Figure 9.9.7-1 provides a flowchart which illustrates the design process and the interaction between the structural and geotechnical engineers needed for shaft design.
1(ST). Determine bridge geometry, pier locations, column diameter, and foundation top
w 2(GT). Determine soil properties for foundation design, liquefaction potential, and resistance factors in consideration of the soil property uncertainty and the method selected for calculating nominal resistance w 3(GT). Determine active, passive, and seismic earth pressure parameters as needed for abutments w 4(GT). Determine nominal single shaft resistance at the strength and extreme limit states as function of depth, for likely shaft diameters needed, considering shaft constructability w 5(GT). Estimate downdrag loads, if present w 6(ST). Provide estimate of settlement limited resistance (service state) for shaft/shaft group, or foundation depth required to preclude unacceptable settlement w 7(GT). Determine nominal uplift resistance for shafts as function of depth w 8(GT). Determine P-Y curve parameters for shaft lateral load analysis
w w
2(ST). Determine loads applied to foundation top, including lateral earth pressure loads for abutments, through structural analysis and modeling as well as shaft lateral load analysis w 3(ST). Determine depth, diameter, and nominal shaft resistance needed to support the unfactored applied loads at the strength limit state w 3(ST). Determine depth, diameter, and nominal shaft resistance needed to support the unfactored applied loads at the strength limit state w 5(ST). Reevaluate foundation stiffnesses, and rerun structural modeling to get new load distribution for foundations. Reiterate if loads from lateral shaft analysis do not match foundation top loads from structural modeling within 5% w 6(ST). Factor the loads, and adjust the shaft size or depth as needed to resist applied factor loads, both lateral and vertical w 7(ST). Check the minimum shaft depth required to resist factored uplift loads and to resist lateral loads within acceptable deformations w 8(ST). Design the foundation (and walls for abutment) w 9(ST). Develop contract specifications
9(GT). Evaluate the shaft/shaft group for nominal resistance at the strength and extreme limit states, and settlement/ resistance at the service limit state w 10(GT). Verify estimated tip elevation and shaft nominal resistance from Step 6(ST), as well as the specified tip elevation from the greatest depth required to meet uplift, lateral load, and serviceability requirements; if significantly different than what was provided in Step 6(ST), have structural model and foundation design reevaluated
w w
GT: ST:
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
A. Drilled Shaft Capacity Strength and Extreme Event Limit States The factored capacity must be greater than the total factored vertical load applied to the shaft. Factored capacity, QR = qp Qp + qs Qs (strength and extreme event limit states) where, Qp Qs Ap As = = = = qp Ap qs A s end bearing area side area
The unit shaft end bearing and skin friction resistance will be determined by the Geotechnical Branch using an appropriate static analysis method, such as provided in the AASHTO LRFD specifications, Article 10.8.3, or determined from load test results. qp and qs are determined from Table 9.9.7-1 for strength limit state conditions. qp and qs are equal to 0.90 to 1.0 for the extreme event limit state, depending on the confidence in the soil parameters (typically, a resistance factor of 0.9 for qp will typically be used where a column is supported by a single shaft). Qp and Qs are the same for both the strength and extreme event limit states. Note that Qs is a total nominal resistance. The AASHTO LRFD specifications treats this net shaft weight, which is the weight of the average minus the weight of the soil volume removed to construct the shaft, as a dead load, in which a load factor of 1.25 is applied. Past WSDOT practice has been to subtract the net shaft weight directly from the shaft capacity. To correctly apply the AASHTO LRFD specifications, this past practice will not be used. Therefore, for LRFD, the structural designer must calculate the net shaft weight (typically, a unit net weight of 50 pcf is sufficiently conservative) and add that net weight to the applied foundation dead load. Articles 10.8.3.3.2 and 10.8.3.4.3 in the current AASHTO specifications require Qp to be reduced for shaft diameters greater than 1.91 m (6.25 ft) in clay and 1.27 m (4.17 ft) in sand, respectively. Since the intent of this correction is to crudely account for settlement, this correction for shaft diameter should not be used if a more detailed analysis of settlement is conducted (see Service Limit State Design for Drilled Shafts). Furthermore, it should be noted that qp as determined in Article 10.8.3.4.3 of the AASHTO LRFD specifications, even without this settlement correction factor for shaft diameter, is to some extent settlement limited for shafts in sand and is not a true ultimate value. The reason for this is that a true bearing capacity failure is typically not observed for shafts in sand, but instead deformation simply continues to increase with load. Therefore, the transition from a strength or extreme event limit state to a serviceability limit state is not well defined for shafts in sand. This issue will be evaluated on a case by case basis by the Geotechnical Branch when providing shaft capacity information for all limit states. If downdrag exists, the downdrag force QDD (qDD As) shall be considered as a load rather than a negative resistance for shaft capacity calculations. The downdrag force QDD will be determined by the Geotechnical Branch using an appropriate static shaft skin friction analysis method (see AASHTO LRFD Article 10.8.3.3.1 for a method which can be used). Per Table 9.9.3-2, use a load factor applied to the downdrag force of 1.0. This factored downdrag force, in combination with the other factored applied loads, should be less than or equal to the factored strength and service limit state resistances.
July 2000
9.9-23
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Transient loads should not be considered when downdrag forces are included in the factored load applied to the shaft. Shaft skin friction in the downdrag zone should not be included in the shaft capacity. If downdrag forces are induced by settlement due to liquefaction, downdrag forces shall be considered in the extreme event limit state design of the shaft. Note that the downdrag force during liquefaction may be different than the downdrag force which is applicable during the strength and serviceability limit states, as liquefaction can cause the strength of the soil to change. The downdrag forces calculated for static conditions should not be combined with the downdrag forces resulting from liquefaction when evaluating the extreme event limit state. B. Uplift for Drilled Shafts Factored uplift capacity, Quf = up qup As = up Qup where, qup = ultimate unit uplift resistance, up is as determined from Table 9.9.7-1 for strength limit state conditions, and Qup is the unfactored ultimate uplift capacity. The unit uplift resistance, qup is usually set equal to the unit side friction resistance, qs, for LRFD foundation design, as the resistance factors for uplift in Table 9.9.7-1 already account for the potential for side resistance in uplift being less than the side resistance in compression. If downdrag is likely to occur, either due to long-term settlement or due to liquefaction, the skin friction causing downdrag is considered to be fully available to resist uplift forces. However, the downdrag force is not subtracted from the uplift force. C. Lateral Load Analysis for Drilled Shafts In general, P-Y curves are used for lateral load analysis in the bridge design model to iteratively match deflections and load distributions between the various bridge components, considering the soil response, to insure stability of the bridge. The maximum lateral deflection which is considered acceptable may vary from structure to structure. Even though deflections are calculated, service limit state load groups are usually not used for this analysis. In general, only the extreme event load groups are used for lateral load analysis, and a lat of 1.0 is used. However, strength limit state load groups are sometimes used for this analysis. For the strength limit state, a resistance factor of 1.0 is recommended at this time. Note that in some cases the depth required for shaft fixity based on lateral load analysis may control the shaft depth required rather than bearing capacity or uplift; for example where soft or liquefiable soils are present. Normally, both static and dynamic P-Y curve parameters are provided in the Geotechnical Report. The static parameters represent the soil behavior for short-term transient loads such as wind, ice, temperature, and vessel impact. For earthquake loads, the dynamic and static P-Y curve parameters will be the same if the soils present have a stiffness which does not degrade with time during shaking, such as would occur during liquefaction. If liquefaction can occur, two P-Y analyses for the extreme event limit state should be conducted, one analysis using the static P-Y parameters and the other analysis using the dynamic P-Y parameters. The intent here is to bracket the structure response. Often, the highest acceleration the bridge sees is in the first cycles of the earthquake, and liquefaction tends to occur toward the middle or end of the earthquake. Therefore, early in the earthquake, loads are high, soil-structure stiffness is high, and deflections are low. Later in the earthquake, the soil-structure stiffness is lower and deflections higher. D. Group Effects for Bearing Capacity AASHTO Article 10.8.3.9 applies.
9.9-24
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Resistance Factors for Drilled Shaft Design Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Drilled Shaft Foundations (adapted from Table 10.5.5-3 in AASHTO) Table 9.9.7-1 Type of Resistance Bearing Capacity of Single Drilled Shafts qp Resistance Factor 0.55 *0.50 0.50 0.65 *0.65 0.55 0.65
+
Method/Soil/Condition Base Resistance in Clay: - Total stress (Reese and ONiel, 1988) Base Resistance in Sand: - SPT method (Reese and ONiel, 1988) Base Resistance in Rock: - Canadian Geotechnical Society (1985) qs Side Resistance in Clay: - -method (Reese and ONiel, 1988) Side Resistance in Sand: - -method (Reese and ONiel, 1988) Side Resistance in Rock: - Carter and Kulhawy (1988) - Horvath and Kinney (1979) Side and Base Resistance: - Load test
up
Clay: - -method (Reese and ONiel, 1988) - Belled shafts (Reese and ONiel, 1988) Sand: - -method (Reese and ONiel, 1988) Rock: - Carter and Kulhawy (1988) - Horvath and Kinney (1979) Load Test:
+
0.70-0.80 0.65
Group Bearing Capacity (block failure) Group Uplift Resistance Lateral Resistance of Shafts and Shaft Groups
qgr
Clay:
upgr lat
*The AASHTO specifications currently do not provide bearing capacity resistance factors in sand and factors for lateral loading. For lat, the value used will depend on the confidence in the soil parameters. These resistance factors should be considered to be tentative until additional research and comparative designs are accomplished. For shaft load tests, the number of load tests required will depend on the uniformity of the soil/rock conditions and whether or not a well defined bearing stratum is present. Assuming that an appropriate number of load tests are conducted, use the largest resistance factor in the specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor in the range for nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum.
+
July 2000
9.9-25
Definition of Loading Direction and Spacing for Group Effects Figure 9.9.7-2
9.9-26
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
The soil strength parameters are also reduced to account for group effects. For cohesive soils, multiply the soil cohesion, C, directly by the appropriate group reduction factor from Table 9.9.7-2 or as specified in the Geotechnical Report. For granular soils (sands, gravels), multiply the normalized resistance identified in Figure 9.9.7-3 by the appropriate group reduction factor to determine the reduced friction angle. Use the following steps to accomplish this: 1. 2. Determine the normalized resistance for each soil layer at the friction angle for that soil layer provided in the Geotechnical Report (e.g., for = 36o, normalized resistance = 61). Multiply the normalized resistance determined in Step 1 by the group efficiency reduction factor based on the foundation element spacing (e.g., if the spacing is 3b, the reduction factor is 0.5 and the normalized resistance accounting for group effects is 32). Based on the reduced normalized resistance, determine the soil friction angle accounting for group effects (e.g., at a normalized resistance of 32, the soil friction angle is 31o). Use this reduced , in combination with the reduced modulus of subgrade reaction, k, to determine the P-Y curve accounting for group effects.
3. 4.
Normalized Resistance as a Function of Soil Friction Angle for Lateral Capacity Determination Figure 9.9.7-3 where, Normalized Resistance = Ps/bX = Ka(tan8B - 1) + Ko(tan4B)(tan) b X B = = = = = Soil friction angle Soil resistance on section of foundation element Foundation element diameter Soil unit weight Depth to section of foundation element 45o + /2 tan2 (45o-/2) 1 - sin Ps =
Ka = Ko =
July 2000
9.9-27
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
G. Service Limit State Design for Drilled Shafts The service limit state shaft capacity, Qserv, will be a settlement limited value (typically 0.5 to 1 inch, but may be greater for long spans, simple spans, or relatively flexible structures). See the AASHTO LRFD specifications, Article 10.8.2.3, which provides the method published by Reese and ONeill, 1988, to estimate the side friction and end bearing mobilized for a specified total settlement for a single shaft. Typically, the Geotechnical Branch will be using this method to estimate vertical deflection of shafts, where applicable. For immediate settlement (not time dependent), which is the type of settlement addressed by the Reese and ONeill method, both permanent dead load and live load should be considered. For time dependent settlement (e.g., on clays for analysis of shaft groups which are primarily frictional in nature), only the permanent dead loads should be considered. Note that this method was developed for predicting immediate settlement for shafts in clay or in sand. This method may be overly conservative for the very dense glacially consolidated soils often encountered in WSDOT shaft installations, since this method was based on settlement limited behavior in soils which were not as dense as state of Washington glacially overridden soils. The Geotechnical Branch will evaluate the settlement potential of drilled shafts considering the amount of skin friction and end bearing mobilized for service limit state design. Factored bearing capacity at a specified settlement, QRserv = servp Qpserv + servs Qsserv (service limit state), where, Qpserv = qpserv Ap Qsserv = qsserv As qpserv qsser Ap As = end bearing resistance at base of shaft (unit resistance) for a specified settlement = side resistance on shaft (unit resistance) for a specified settlement = end bearing area, = side area,
In general, a resistance factor of 1.0 should be used for shaft capacity at the service limit state (servb and servs). H. What Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to Bridge Office for LRFD Shaft Design To evaluate bearing capacity, the Geotechnical Branch will provide as a function of depth and at various shaft diameters the unfactored ultimate bearing capacity for end bearing, Qp, and side friction, Qs, used to calculate QR, for strength and extreme event limit state calculations (see example figures below). For the service limit state, the unfactored bearing capacity at a specified settlement, typically 0.5 or 1.0 inch, Qpserv (mobilized end bearing) and Qsserv (mobilized side friction) will be provided as a function of depth and shaft diameter. See Figure 9.9.7-4 for an example of the capacity information that would be provided. A similar set of curves, for the strength and extreme event limit states, will also be provided for uplift capacity, Qup. Qup will be reduced to account for scour or liquefaction/ weakening.
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
In most cases, Qult and Qup for the strength, extreme event II and extreme event I limit states will be the same, as loss of skin friction due to liquefaction downdrag will be taken into account separately. However, if soils are present which weaken but do not liquefy during an earthquake, a separate curve for the extreme event I limit state may be needed. Note that the side friction bearing capacities provided in these figures will be a total nominal resistance, in that the net weight of the shaft below the final groundline will not already be subtracted out of the side friction capacity. Resistance factors for bearing capacity for all limit states will also be provided, as illustrated in Table 9.9.7-3. If downdrag is an issue, the ultimate downdrag load, QDD, as a function of shaft diameter will be provided, as well as the depth zone of the shaft which is affected by downdrag, the downdrag load factor, and the cause of the downdrag (settlement due to vertical stress increase, liquefaction, etc.). If liquefaction occurs, the reduction in side friction resistance, Qs, to be subtracted off of the ultimate side friction capacity plots will be provided. See example tables below. Example Presentation of Resistance Factors for Shaft Design Table 9.9.7-3 Resistance Factor Limit State Strength Service Extreme Event Skin Friction, Qs X X X End bearing, Qp X X X X Uplift, Qup X
If lateral loads imposed by special soil loading conditions such as landslide forces are present, the ultimate lateral soil force or stress distribution, and the load factors to be applied to that force or stress, will be provided. The Geotechnical Branch will also provide group reduction factors for bearing capacity and uplift if necessary, as well as the associated resistance factors. The Geotechnical Branch will continue to provide P-Y curve data as a function of depth as has been done in the past. Resistance factors for lateral load analysis will not be provided, as the lateral load resistance factors will typically be 1.0.
July 2000
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Example Presentation of Downdrag Loads Table 9.9.7-4 QDDs, Static Conditions Pier No. X X X Shaft Dia = __ X X X Shaft Dia = __ X X X QDDliq Due to Liquefaction Shaft Dia = __ X X X Shaft Dia = __ X X X
Example Presentation of Skin Friction Loss Due to Downdrag or Scour Table 9.9.7-5 Qs Loss to be Applied to Figure 9.9.6-3 Due to Static Downdrag or Scour for Strength Limit Qult Pier No. X X X Shaft Dia = __ X X X Shaft Dia = __ X X X Qs Loss to be Applied to Figure 9.9.6-3 Due to Liquefaction Downdrag for Extreme Event Limit Qult Shaft Dia = __ X X X Shaft Dia = __ X X X
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Qpb (unfactored) Q
Service Limit Service Limit State at ___ State at ___ (in.) of of Settlement
Service Limit Service Limit State State at ___ (in.) at ___ of Settlement of
Typical Shaft Total Bearing Capacity Plots (All Limit States) Figure 9.9.7-4
9.9.8
July 2000
9.9-31
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Figure 9.9.8-1 provides a flowchart which illustrates the design process and the interaction between the structural and geotechnical engineers needed for pile foundation design.
1(ST). Determine bridge geometry, pier locations, and foundation top
w 2(GT). Determine soil properties for foundation design, liquefaction potential, and resistance factors in consideration of the soil property uncertainty and the method selected for calculating nominal resistance w 3(GT). Determine active, passive, and seismic earth pressure parameters as needed for abutments w 4(GT). Select best pile types, and determine nominal single pile resistance at the strength and extreme limit states as function of depth, estimating pile sizes likely needed, and establishing maximum acceptable pile nominal resistance w 5(GT). Estimate downdrag loads, if present w 6(ST). Provide estimate of settlement for pile/pile group, or foundation depth required to preclude unacceptable settlement w 7(GT). Determine nominal uplift resistance for piles as function of depth w 8(GT). Determine P-Y curve parameters for pile lateral load analysis
w w
2(ST). Determine loads applied to foundation top, including lateral earth pressure loads for abutments, through structural analysis and modeling as well as pile lateral load analysis w 3(ST). Determine the number of piles required to support the unfactored applied loads at the strength limit state, and their estimated depth w 3(ST). Determine the number of piles required to support the unfactored applied loads at the extreme event limit state, and their estimated depth w 5(ST). Reevaluate foundation stiffnesses, and rerun structural modeling to get new load distribution for foundations. Reiterate if loads from lateral pile analysis do not match foundation top loads from structural modeling within 5% w 6(ST). Factor the loads, and adjust size of pile group or the pile capacities and estimated depths as needed to resist applied factored loads w 7(ST). Check the minimum pile depth required to resist factored uplift loads and to resist lateral loads within acceptable deformations w 8(ST). Design the foundation (and walls for abutment) w 9(ST). Develop contract specifications, obtaining pile quantities from estimated pile depths, minimum pile capacity required, minimum tip elevations, and overdriving required from design
9(GT). Evaluate the pile group for nominal resistance at the strength and extreme limit states, and settlement/ resistance at the service limit state w 10(GT). Verify estimated tip elevation and pile nominal resistance from Step 6(ST), as well as minimum tip elevation from the greatest depth required to meet uplift, lateral load, and serviceability requirements w 11(GT). Based on minimum tip elevation and pile diameter needed, determine need for overdriving and driveability of pile as designed; if not driveable, reevaluate pile foundation design and structural model
w w
GT: ST:
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July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
A. Pile Type, Pile Size, Bearing Capacity, and Estimated Tip Elevation Strength and Extreme Event Limit States First, determine the feasible ultimate pile capacity, Qult, for the soil at the site, and determine the desired pile type and diameter. This ultimate capacity should be unfactored and based on static capacity calculations or experience with a given soil deposit. See the Federal Highway Administration manual FHWA-HI-97-013 Design and Construction of Driven pile Foundations, 1997, for examples of static analysis methods for piles. The feasible ultimate pile capacity may also be controlled by the structural capacity of the pile, especially if the pile will be driven to a very hard bearing stratum (e.g., driven to refusal). Determine the structural capacity of the pile per Article 10.7.4 in the AASHTO specifications. In lieu of more detailed structural analysis, the general guidance on pile types, sizes, and ultimate capacities provided in Table 9.9.8-1 can be used to select pile sizes and types for analysis. The Geotechnical Branch may also limit the ultimate pile capacity for a given pile size and type driven to a given soil/rock bearing unit based on experience with the given soil/rock unit. The maximum capacity allowed in that given soil/rock unit may be increased by the Geotechnical Branch per mutual agreement with the Bridge and Structures Office if a pile load test is performed. Typical Pile Types and Sizes for Various Ultimate Pile Capacities Table 9.9.8-1 Pile Type and Diameter, in in. Ultimate Pile Capacity in tons 60 tons Closed End Steel Pipe/Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles *Precast, Prestressed Concrete Piles -
Steel H-Piles -
Timber Piles See WSDOT Standard Specs. See WSDOT Standard Specs. -
120 tons
12 in. 14 in. 18 in. nonseismic areas (Category A), 24 in. seismic areas (Category B, C, and D) 24 in.
12 in. 14 in.
450 tons
Project Specific
Project Specific
*Precast, prestressed concrete piles are generally not used for highway bridges, but are more commonly used for marine work.
July 2000
9.9-33
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Select the construction quality control method to be used (e.g., driving formula, wave equation, Pile Driving Analyzer, etc.), and the resistance factors associated with the selected method, dyn. Determine the total factored load to be applied to the pier in question (strength and extreme event limit states). Note that the actual distribution of that load to the piles will depend on the number of piles in the group as well as where they are located within the group geometry. The factored load per pile, Loadp, is determined as follows: Loadp = where, Mi = the moment at the base of the column resulting from the forces applied to the column (i.e., dead load, live load, seismic load, etc.) C I N = the distance between the centroid of the pile group and the center of the pile under consideration = moment of inertia of the pile group = number of piles in the pile group iQi n + (iMi)c I
Other variables are as defined previously. Determine the number of piles required in the pile group such that the factored load in any pile in the group is not greater than the factored resistance. Use the resistance factor for the construction quality control method selected previously, that is, QR = dyn x Qult. Qult is the feasible ultimate pile capacity. Do not use the above method if the pile is being driven to a specified tip elevation and the pile capacity is not being determined in the field using a driving criteria which is based on a pile penetration resistance (i.e., any dynamic method). In this case use the resistance factor for the static analysis method used to determine the pile capacity. In this case, QR = qp Qp + qs Qs (strength and extreme event limit states). Check all limit states, and determine the pile group size using the limit state which requires the most piles for the specified ultimate capacity. Note that dyn, qp, and qs are all equal to 0.9 to 1.0 for the extreme event limit state, depending on the confidence in the soil parameters (AASHTO specifications recommend that 1.0 be used). The pile weight will be neglected in most cases, but if it is to be considered, it is to be treated as a load as is done for safts (see Section 9.9.7A). Qp and Qs are the same for both the strength and extreme event limit states. If downdrag exists, the downdrag force QDD (qDD As) shall be considered as a load rather than a negative resistance for pile capacity calculations. The downdrag force QDD will be determined by the Geotechnical Branch using an appropriate static pile skin friction analysis method (see FHWA manual on the design of driven pile foundations mentioned previously). Per Table 9.9.3-2, use a load factor applied to the downdrag force of 1.0. This factored downdrag force, in combination with the other factored applied loads, should be less than or equal to the factored strength and service limit state resistances. Transient loads should not be considered when downdrag forces are included in the factored load applied to the pile for service and strength limit state calculations. Pile skin friction in the downdrag zone should not be included in the pile ultimate capacity.
9.9-34
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
If downdrag forces are induced by settlement due to liquefaction, downdrag forces shall be considered in the extreme event limit state design of the pile. Note that the downdrag force during liquefaction may be different than the downdrag force which is applicable during the strength and serviceability limit states, as liquefaction can cause the strength of the soil to change. The downdrag forces calculated for static conditions should not be combined with the downdrag forces resulting from liquefaction when evaluating the extreme event limit state. Figure 9.9.8-2 illustrates how downdrag loads and loss of resistance is to be handled. When downdrag occurs (see Figure 9.9.7-1), the ultimate pile capacity needed is determined as follows: Qult = Loadp/dyn + QDD + Qsdd For the strength and extreme event limit states, if the soil is characterized as cohesive, the pile group capacity should also be checked for the potential for a block failure. Article 10.7.3.10 in the AASHTO specifications applies. See Table 9.9.8-2 to determine the appropriate resistance factor for the strength limit state. Use a resistance factor of 0.9 to 1.0 for the extreme event limit state. Compare the factored loads for each limit state to the factored block resistance. If a block failure appears likely, increase the group size so that a block failure is prevented. For estimating pile quantities, develop unfactored, ultimate pile capacity versus estimated depth curves using a static analysis method (see Figure 9.9.8-2 for example). The Geotechnical Branch may adjust the estimated depth for a given pile capacity based on experience with the soil/rock deposit in question and professional judgment. Determine the estimated pile length, Dest., for the desired ultimate capacity, Qult, from this pile capacity versus depth curve for the purpose of estimating pile quantities. Make sure that Qult is greater than or equal to the factored load per pile divided by the appropriate resistance factor, that is: Qult Loadp/dyn + QDD + Qsdd For the construction specifications, use the estimated pile length determined as illustrated in Figure 9.9.7-1 for the contract pile quantity, and use Qult (unfactored) for the pile capacity which is inserted into the driving formula, wave equation, etc., to determine the penetration resistance required to accept the pile. Note: The estimated pile length will be reasonably accurate if the bias, R, for the static analysis method used to estimate pile lengths and the feasible ultimate pile capacity is approximately the same as the bias, R, for the dynamic analysis method used to determine the factored pile capacity. If the biases for the two methods are not the same, the estimated pile length could be in error for a given level of risk. If the coefficients of variation for the two methods are also significantly different for the two methods, this could accentuate the possible error for a given level of risk. For example, if the dynamic formula tends to predict an average capacity which is approximately the same as the capacity measured from a pile load test, but the static analysis method tends to under-predict the pile capacity measured from a pile load test, the pile depth predicted using the static analysis method illustrated in Figure 9.9.8-2 is likely to be too deep. Note that this is not likely to be an issue when driving the pile to a well defined very dense stratum such as glacially loaded till or bedrock. This pile length prediction accuracy is mainly a concern for friction piles. Therefore, some engineering judgment based on experience may be needed to estimate pile quantities with reasonable accuracy.
July 2000
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Loadp dyn
Loadp dyn
Example Ultimate Pile Capacity Versus Depth Curve for Estimating Pile Lengths Figure 9.9.8-2
QSdd = skin friction which must be overcome during driving through downdrag/liquefaction/scour zone Loadp + QDD = ultimate pile capacity needed to resist all applied axial loads per pile, including downdrag dyn Loadp QDD n Dest. = factored load per pile, not including downdrag = downdrag load per pile = number of piles in pile group for pier = estimated pile length needed to obtain desired ultimate capacity
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
B. Determination of Minimum Pile Tip Elevations Determine the minimum pile depth required to meet settlement, lateral deflection/capacity, and uplift requirements. This would become the minimum pile tip elevation requirement for the contract specifications. Note that lateral loading and uplift requirements may influence (possibly increase) the number of piles required in the group if the capacity available at a reasonable minimum tip elevation is not adequate. This will depend on the soil conditions and the loading requirements. For example, if the upper soil is very soft or will liquefy, making the minimum tip elevation deeper is unlikely to improve the lateral response of the piles enough to be adequate. Adding more piles to the group or using a larger pile diameter to increase the pile stiffness may be the only solution. The various analyses required to establish the minimum tip elevations needed (if minimum tip elevations are in fact needed), are as follows: 1. Uplift for Piles For the strength and extreme limit states, for the pile group size and geometry already determined, calculate for the structure the uplift capacity per pile needed using factored loads. Calculate the uplift resistance available using static analysis methods and using resistance factors appropriate for the static analysis method used, for both limit states. Do this as a function of pile depth. Therefore, Factored uplift capacity, Quf = up qup As = up Qup where, qup = ultimate unit uplift resistance, As is the pile side area, up is as determined from Table 9.9.7-2 for strength limit state conditions, and Qup is the unfactored ultimate uplift capacity. The unit uplift resistance, qup is usually set equal to the unit side friction resistance, qs, for LRFD foundation design, as the resistance factors for uplift in Table 9.9.7-2 already account for the potential for side resistance in uplift being less than the side resistance in compression. If downdrag is likely to occur, either due to long-term settlement or due to liquefaction, the skin friction causing downdrag should be considered to be fully available to resist uplift forces. However, the downdrag force is not subtracted from the uplift force. From these calculations, determine the depth required to obtain the required factored uplift capacity. 2. Lateral Load Analysis for Piles Lateral Load Analysis for Drilled Shafts applies. 3. Pile Group Bearing Capacity and Settlement (Service Limit State) For the service limit state, compare the factored load to the maximum group capacity per AASHTO Articles 10.7.2.1 and 10.7.2.3 to determine the pile depth which will result in the desired maximum settlement. Treat the pile group as an equivalent footing as described in Articles 10.7.2.1 and 10.7.2.3 in the AASHTO Specifications, and calculate the settlement of the group. Do this to get the minimum depth required to prevent the settlement criteria from being exceeded. 4. Group Effects for Uplift AASHTO Article 10.7.3.7.3 applies. 5. Group Effects for Lateral Loads Group Effects for Lateral Loads under Shaft Design applies.
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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
C. Resistance Factors for Pile Foundation Design Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Pile Foundations (adapted from Table 10.5.5-2 in AASHTO LRFD specifications) Table 9.9.8-2
Type of Resistance Bearing Capacity of Single Piles (static analysis methods) qs Method/Soil/Condition Skin Friction in Clay: - -method (Tomlinson, 1987) - -method (Esrig and Kirby, 1979) - -method (Vijayvergiya and Focht, 1972) Skin Friction in Sand: - SPT Method (Meyerhof) - CPT Method - Nordlund Method qp End Bearing in Clay and Rock: - Clay (Skempton, 1951) - Rock (Canadian Geotechnical Society, 1985) End Bearing in Sand: - SPT Method (Meyerhof) - CPT Method - Thurmans Method qs, qp Bearing Capacity of Single Piles (dynamic analysis methods) dyn Side and Base Resistance: - Load test Side Resistance and End Bearing, All Soils: - WSDOT driving formula, per Standard Specifications - ENR driving formula - Wave Equation, without PDA - Wave Equation with PDA (PDA used on one pile/ pier and 2 to 5% of the piles) - PDA with CAPWAP (min. one pile/pier and 2 to 5% of the piles) a-method (clay) b-method (clay) l-method (clay) SPT-method (Meyerhof method for sand) CPT-method (sand) Nordlund Method (sand) CAPWAP Uplift Load Test Clay Sand Clay Clay, sand, and rock (single piles and groups):
#
Resistance Factor 0.70 0.50 0.55 0.45 0.55 + 0.55 0.70 0.50 0.45 0.55 + 0.55 *0.70-0.80 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.60 0.60-0.75 0.60 0.40 0.45 0.35 0.45 + 0.45 ? *0.70-0.80 0.65 0.55 0.55 1.0
up
*For the load test resistance factor, the values shown are more conservative than as provided in the AASHTO specifications. They have been adjusted based on calibration to current WSDOT practice (FS = 2 if load test is conducted). Note that the number of load tests required will depend on the uniformity of the soil/rock conditions and whether or not a well defined bearing stratum is present. Assuming that an appropriate number of load tests are conducted, use the largest resistance factor in the specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor in the range for nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum. For the wave equation and PDA resistance factors, the values shown are more conservative than as provided in the AASHTO specifications. They have been adjusted based on calibration to current WSDOT practice (FS = 2.25 if wave equation and PDA are conducted, and FS = 2.75 if wave equation without PDA is used). For PDA with CAPWAP, calibration of CAPWAP results to pile load test results indicate that a resistance factor as high as 0.75 to 0.8 could be used. However, that calibration assumes that a CAPWAP is performed on every pile, or the soil/rock conditions are perfectly uniform, which in actual applications is never the case. Assuming that the number of piles as specified in the table are tested using a PDA/CAPWAP, use the largest resistance factor in the specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor in the range for nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum. These resistance factors for pile capacity should be considered to be tentative until additional research and comparative designs are accomplished
+
The approach defined above for the use of load test data or PDA/wave equation was also used to determine resistance factors for the Nordlund and Thurman pile capacity methods (current WSDOT practice is to use FS = 2.5 with these methods). Furthermore, statistical analysis provided by the FHWA course manual Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures, 1998, for the Nordlund method confirms that resistance factors for this method should be on the order of 0.55 to 0.6. For lat, the value used will depend on the confidence in the soil parameters.
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July 2000
2.
In most cases, Qult and Qup for the strength, extreme event II, and extreme event I limit states will be the same, as loss of skin friction due to liquefaction downdrag will be taken into account separately. However, if soils are present which weaken but do not liquefy during an earthquake, a separate curve for the extreme event I limit state may be needed. For evaluating uplift, the Geotechnical Branch will provide, as a function of depth, the ultimate unfactored uplift capacity, Qup. This will be provided as a function of depth, or as a single value for a given minimum tip elevation, depending on the project needs, and will be reduced to account for scour and/or liquefaction. Resistance factors will also be provided for strength and extreme event limit states. Resistance factors for bearing capacity for all limit states will also be provided (see Table 9.9.8-2 for an example). If downdrag is an issue, the ultimate downdrag load, QDD, as a function of pile diameter will be provided, as well as the depth zone of the pile which is affected by downdrag, the downdrag load factor, and the cause of the downdrag (settlement due to vertical stress increase, liquefaction, etc.). If liquefaction occurs, the reduction in side friction resistance, Qs, to be subtracted off of the ultimate capacity plots will be provided.
July 2000
9.9-39
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
If lateral loads imposed by special soil loading conditions such as landslide forces are present, the ultimate lateral soil force or stress distribution, and the load factors to be applied to that force or stress, will be provided. The Geotechnical Branch will also provide group reduction factors for bearing capacity and uplift if necessary, as well as the associated resistance factors, but these will be rarely needed. The Geotechnical Branch will continue to provide P-Y curve data as a function of depth as has been done in the past. Two separate tables will typically be provided, one for static properties and one for dynamic properties (see Section 9.9.6C for an explanation on how they are to be used.) Resistance factors for lateral load analysis will not be provided, as the lateral load resistance factors will typically be 1.0. Minimum tip elevations for the pile foundations will be provided as appropriate. Minimum tip elevations will be based on pile foundation settlement, and, if uplift loads are available, the depth required to provide adequate uplift capacity. Minimum pile tip elevations provided in the Geotechnical Report may need to be adjusted depending on the results of the lateral load and uplift load evaluation performed by the Bridge and Structures Office. If adjustment in the minimum tip elevations is necessary, or if the pile diameter needed is different than what was assumed by the Geotechnical Branch for pile capacity design, the Geotechnical Branch should be informed so that pile driveability, as discussed below, can be re-evaluated. Pile driveability will be evaluated at least conceptually for each project, and if appropriate, a wave equation analysis will be performed and the results of the analysis provided in terms of special requirements for hammer size and pile wall thickness, etc. The maximum driving resistance required to reach the minimum tip elevation will also be provided. Note that it will not be possible to obtain the maximum driving resistance from the pile bearing capacity plots mentioned previously if the pile bearing capacities provided in the plots have been reduced to account for scour and/or liquefaction. A separate determination is required to estimate the maximum driving resistance if the pile capacity versus depth plots include the effects of scour or liquefaction. Once the pile analysis and design are completed in the Bridge and Structures Office, the Geotechnical Branch is to be contacted for final reivew ad comment. Example Presentation of Resistance Factors for Pile Design Table 9.9.8-3 Resistance Factor Limit State Strength Service Extreme Event Bearing Capacity, Qult X X X Uplift, Qup X X
9.9-40
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Example Presentation of Downdrag Loads Table 9.9.8-4 QDDs Static Conditions Pier No. X X X Pile Dia = __ X X X Pile Dia = __ X X X QDDliq Due to Liquefaction Pile Dia = __ X X X Pile Dia = __ X X X
Example Presentation of Skin Friction Loss Due to Downdrag or Scour Table 9.9.8-5 Qs Loss to be Applied to Figure 9.9.8-2 Due to Static Downdrag or Scour for Strength Limit Qult Pier No. X X X Pile Dia = __ X X X Pile Dia = __ X X X Qs Loss to be Applied to Figure 9.9.8-2 Due to Liquefaction Downdrag for Extreme Event Limit Qult Pile Dia = __ X X X Pile Dia = __ X X X
July 2000
9.9-41
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Substructure Design Bearing Capacity, Qult (unfactored) Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
Extreme event Extreme Event I limit (assumes Dia. = ___ for this example that liquefaction Dia. = _____
Elevation or Depth
Elevation or Depth
Extreme Event I limit Extreme event Dia. = ___ for this example (assumes
P65:DP/BDM9
9.9-42
July 2000
Bibliography
10. Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors, Inc., 6060 N. Central Expressway, Dallas, TX 75206, Standards and Specifications for the Drilled Shaft Industry, Revised July 15, 1979. 11. L. C. Reese and S. J. Wright, Drilled Shaft Manual, Volume I, Construction Procedures and Design for Axial Loading, U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Research and Development, Implementation Division, HDV-22, Washington, DC 20590, July 1977. 12. L. C. Reese and J. D. Allen, Drilled Shaft Manual, Volume II, Structural Analysis and Design for Lateral Loading, U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Research and Development, Implementation Division, HDV-22, Washington, DC 20590, July 1977. 13. L. C. Reese, Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles, Software Documentation, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, July 1997. 14. Washington State DOT, Olympia, Washington, Instructions to Engineers Structural Applications Computer Manual. 15. McDonnell Douglas Automation Company, Box 516, St. Louis, MO 63166, ICES STRUDL User Manual, April 19890. 16. Noel J. Everard and Edward Cohen, Ultimate Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns, ACI Publication SP-7. 17. R. J. Woodward, W. S. Gardner and D. M. Greer, Drilled Pier Foundation. 18. Karl Terzaghi, Evaluation of Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction, Geothechnique, Volume V, 1955. 19. Prakash S., Behavior of Pile Groups Subject to Lateral Loads, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois, 1962.
9-99:WORK:BDM3
January 1991
9.99 - 1
January 1991
9.2 - A1
9.2 - A2
January 1991
January 1991
9.2 - A3
9.2 - A4
January 1991
January 1991
9.2 - A5
9.2 - A6
January 1991
January 1991
9.2 - A7
9.2 - A8
January 1991
Factor Charts
January 1991
9.2 - A9
9.2 - A10
January 1991
January 1991
9.2 - A11
Simplified Example for Pile Foundation Design, Including Resistance Factor Calibration
Loose SAND 30 ft
Dense SAND
A pipe pile, closed end, will be used for this example. Assume that the pile supported footing has no bending moments applied to it to keep the example simple. Structural analysis of potential pile options (see AASHTO code for maximum loading allowed for pile stresses and to prevent buckling or crushing) and WSDOT policy indicates that a minimum 18 inch diameter is required for a 300 ton pile and 24 inch diameter is required for a 450 ton pile. Static analysis and previous experience with this bearing stratum indicates that the feasible ultimate pile capacity for the bearing stratum is 300 tons for an 18 inch diameter pipe pile (this is Qult, unfactored). 2. Using a static analysis method (assume SPT method is used), the unfactored ultimate pile capacity versus depth curve is as follows:
Ultimate Pile Capacity (tons) 100 200 300
10 20 Depth (ft) 30 40 50
July 2000
9.9-A-1
Simplified Example for Pile Foundation Design, Including Resistance Factor Calibration
The WSDOT driving formula will be used as the quality control method for pile capacity in the field. For this method, dyn = 0.5 for Strength I (see calibration in Steps 3.a to 3.d below), and dyn = 1.0 for Extreme I. a. Pile capacity data which illustrates accuracy of WSDOT formula:
New (1998) Standard Specifications Equation - End of Driving Data - Ultimate Capacity 3500
3000 2500 2000 1500 Steam Hammers OE Diesel Hammers CE Diesel Hammer Rult = FE Ln 10N F = 3.3 (steam) F = 3.1 (OE Diesel) F = 2.4 (CE Diesel) 95% Confidence
Spe 1000 500 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Load Test R - Davisson's Criteria (kips) ult 3500
b.
Parameters for calibration to determine resistance factor: Parameter Bias Factor for Resistance, R COVR QD/QL QD COVQD QL COVQL T FS Definition Ratio of measured to predicted resistance, using log normal mean values Log normal coefficient of variation for resistance prediction Dead load to live load ratio Bias factor for structure dead load, using log normal mean values Log normal coefficient of variation for structure dead load Bias factor for structure live load, using log normal mean values Log normal coefficient of variation for structure live load Target reliability index ASD factor of safety typically used in practice Value 0.97 0.356 Typical value is 3.0 1.05 (assume CIP concrete structure) 0.10 (assume CIP concrete structure) 1.15 0.18 2 to 2.5 for pile groups 2.5 to 3.0
9.9-A-2
July 2000
Simplified Example for Pile Foundation Design, Including Resistance Factor Calibration
)]
0.97(2.5)(3.0 + 1) 1 + 0.12 + 0.182 ln 1 + 0.356 2 1.05(3.0) + 1.15 = = 1.93 2 2 2 ln (1 + 0.356 )(1 + 0.1 + 0.18 )
For FS = 3.0, = 2.39 (Note: The FS of 3.0 was used when our standard specifications specified the use of the ENR equation, which has a much higher coefficient of variation and tended to over-predict capacity (bias of 0.8, COVR of 0.61, implying a = 1.11 for FS = 3.0) than our current driving formula. We now use FS = 2.5 with our current driving formula.) In conclusion, a = 2.0 appears adequate for this analysis considering previous practice. d. Check R implied by current ASD safety factor:
dyn =
)]
D = LRFD specified load factor for dead load = 1.25 L = LRFD specified load factor for live load = 1.75
dyn
1 + 0.12 + 0.182 0.97(1.25(3.0) + 1.75) 1 + 0.356 2 = 0.535 = (1.05(3.0) + 1.15) exp 2.0 ln (1 + 0.3562 )(1 + 0.12 + 0.182 )
July 2000
9.9-A-3
Simplified Example for Pile Foundation Design, Including Resistance Factor Calibration
6. 7.
Determining the estimated pile length from the figure in step 2, Dest. = 50 ft. For the contract, the pile quantities will be based on an estimated pile length of 50 ft, and the pile capacity shown in the plans will be 300 tons ultimate. The pier will have a seven pile group, because the extreme event limit state controls design in this case. A pile group settlement analysis was performed with the tips up in the loose sand (depth of 25 ft) and with the pile tips 5 ft into the dense sand (depth of 35 ft). Group settlement in the first case was determined to be 1.5 inches, and in the second case was just below 1 inch. Therefore, minimum pile tips will be specified in the contract, but must check lateral load capacity and deflection, and uplift requirements before selecting a final minimum tip elevation. The uplift load per pile based on factored loads was determined to be 30 tons from the structural analysis for the strength limit state. For the extreme event limit state, the uplift load per pile was determined to be 100 tons.
8.
9.
10. Calculate the depth required to obtained the required uplift capacity, using static analysis methods. The resistance factor from the AASHTO LRFD design specifications, using the SPT method, static, is 0.35 for the strength limit state and 1.0 for the extreme event limit state.
9.9-A-4
July 2000
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Appendix A Simplified Example for Pile Foundation Design, Including Resistance Factor Calibration
Factored Pile Uplift Capacity (tons) 50 30 0.35Qult for strength limit state 100 150
10 20 Depth (ft) 30 40 50
From this figure, the minimum depth required is 31 ft for the strength limit state and 35 ft for the extreme event limit state. 11. Lateral load analysis for deflection and fixity indicates that the pile tips must be at least 27 ft deep. Uplift requirements for the extreme event limit state appears to control the minimum depth required, considering settlement, uplift, and lateral load requirements. Therefore, select a minimum tip elevation based on a minimum pile depth of 35 ft. 12. Based on the pile capacity vs. depth plot and a required minimum penetration of 35 ft, which is less than the estimated tip elevation, overdriving will not be required. Therefore, use a pile capacity of 300 tons ultimate for sizing the pile hammer and pile wall thickness required for constructability.
July 2000
9.9-A-5
Appendix A Design Aids 10.1-A1-1 through 7 Abbreviations 10.1-A2 Structural Steel 10.1-A3 Footing Layout Appendix B Examples 10.1-B1 Footing Layout
10-CON:V:BDM10
October 1993
10.0 - i
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Detailing Practice 10.0 10.1 Detailing Practice Drawings
The following is to provide the novice with basic information on computer drafting and the fundamentals of file management, and plotting for this activity. Drafting and plotting of drawings is done from BREWS (BRidge Engineers WorkStation) terminals. These terminals operate on the VMS operating system, and GDS is the drafting software used by the Bridge Division. GDS is designed with built-in macros that retrieve information based on filenames that you select from menus or input in batch mode. STDROOT:[FGB]TBFF.FGB is an example of a filename, where: STD: is the root directory where all the files for the STD job are kept. A job is generally defined as the work to be done for a particular L-XXXX (where L = Location and XXXX = the accounting number assigned to the job) is the subdirectory where all drawing files are kept. is the user's name for the file. This has a 32 character limit and the first 8 characters must be unique. is the file extension. FBG is always the GDS extension for all drawings.
Drawings
Please note that all colons, brackets and periods must be used as shown in the example. Directories provide a convenient way to keep job files together, but only if they are used with consistency and updated regularly (clean out obsolete files etc.). Users should choose directory names that are relative to the job they are working on (State Route numbers, bridge numbers, ramp designations, acronyms). This makes it easier for someone to find files that pertain to your job should you be unavailable. Using directories is also important in terms of achieving job files. It is easy to transfer all files that pertain to a job (and only those files that pertain to the job) to a tape when these files are consolidated in one directory. A user can have personal directories or the computer support personnel can set up a job directory to be used by a group of users. To call up a CAD sheet, first select the job directory listing menu in the lower left of the GDS window. A listing of job directories appear on the screen; choose the proper job and then, from the next menu, the CAD sheet file you want.
October 1993
10.1 - 1
Drawings
PLAN
D. Lettering 1. General a. Text # 4 Ames Lettering Guide Manual, CBR 35 CADD. Titles #6 Ames Lettering Guide Manual, CBR 70 CADD. Underline all titles with a single line having the same weight as the lettering used. Use "bas TITLE". b. c. 2. Lettering shall be upper case only, slanted at approximately 68 degrees angle on the Ames Lettering Guide and of uniform height. Lettering shall be oriented so as to be read from the bottom right edge of the sheet.
Dimensioning a. A dimension shall be shown once on a drawing, unless repeating it is necessary for clarity. Duplication and unnecessary dimensions should be avoided. All dimension figures shall be placed above the dimension line, and so that they may be read from the bottom of the right edge of the sheet, as shown in the following detail:
10.1 - 2
October 1993
b. c. d. e. f.
Reinforcing bar clearances need not be specified on plans unless different from the general Notes. When details or structural elements are complex, utilize two drawings. One for dimensions and the other for reinforcing bar details. Dimensions 12 inches or more shall be given in feet and inches unless the item dimensioned is conventionally designated in inches (for example, 16 pipe). In dimensions more than 1 foot, fractions less than 1 inch shall be proceeded by 0 (for example, 3-03/4. Placement of dimensions outside the view, preferably to the right or below, is desirable. However, in the interest of clarity and simplicity it may be necessary to place them otherwise. Examples of dimensioning placement are shown on Figure 10.1.1-1.
October 1993
10.1 - 3
Figure 10.1.1-1
10.1 - 4
October 1993
Drawings
2.
3.
When drawing structural sections showing reinforcing steel, the outline of the section shall be a heavier line weight than the rebar. The Mark No. bubble for reinforcing steel shall be a rectangle. use [ ] to create text rectangles. Epoxy coated reinforcement shall be denoted by a triangle in the following manner.
42
F. Scale
#6
When selecting a scale, it should be kept in mind that the drawing will be reduced. Generally, the minimum scale for a section detail with rebars is 3/8 inch = 1 foot. The scale used on steel bridge plans will be 3/4 inch = 1 foot minimum.
October 1993
10.1 - 5
Sections and views may be enlarged to show more detail, but the number of different scales used should be kept to a minimum. G. Graphic Symbols 1. Graphic symbols shall be in accordance with the following: a. b. 2. Structural Steel Detailing: AISC Steel Construction Manual see structural steel chart. Welding symbols: See Lincoln Welding Chart.
H. Structural/Architectural Sections, Views, and Details 1. 2. A section cuts through the structure; a view is from outside the structure; a detail shows a structural element in more detail usually a larger scale. Whenever possible, sections and views shall be taken looking to the right ahead on station or down. Care shall be taken to ensure that the orientation of a detail drawing is identical to that of the plan, elevation, etc., from which it is taken. On plan and elevation drawings where it is impossible to show cut sections and details, the section and detail drawing should immediately follow the plan and elevation drawing unless there are a series of related plans. If it is impractical to show details on a section drawing, a detail sheet should immediately follow the section drawing. In other words, the order should be from general plan to more minute detail. Structural and architectural sections, views, and details shall be identified by a circle divided into upper and lower halves. Examples are shown in Figure 10.1.1-3. 5. 6. I. Breaks are allowable in lines provided that their intent is clear. Each pier shall be detailed separately as a general rule. If the intermediate piers are identical except for height, then they can be shown together.
3.
4.
Revisions 1. Manual Techniques a. b. Pencil on paper can simply be erased and done over. Ink on film can be washed off with plain water. Older drawings may need to soak awhile or use rubbing alcohol, but this is preferable to erasing, which will remove the matte finish and make the area difficult to draw on. Photo lines can usually be eradicated using chemical eradicators (Solutions A and B) available from the vault. This preserves the surface finish. If the chemical is ineffective, check to see if the print is reverse reading in which case the eradicator must be applied to the back. (Reverse reading film positives are actually preferable so that changes are not made on the same surface from which the lines are removed.) Erasing on the front of a mylar sheet should be a last resort as it removes the surface finish.
c.
10.1 - 6
October 1993
Figure 10.1.1-2
October 1993
10.1 - 7
Figure 10.1.1-3
10.1 - 8
October 1993
Drawings
Plastic lead on film must be erased with a soft eraser, taking care to avoid removing the surface finish. Film surface damaged by erasing may be restored by careful roughening with a hand eraser. A chemical solution called sepia eradicator can be used to eradicate lines on sepias. The Bridge Branch seldom uses sepias, but if needed, this solution may be obtained from the stockroom if no one in Bridge has a bottle.
2. 3.
Cadd sheets shall be changed on the cadd film and replotted. Plan Revisions Versus Addendums a. All changes to plans require initials of the Bridge Engineer or the Unit Design Supervising Engineer. The locations of all changes (except deletions) shall be shaded so they can be easily found. Shading on preliminary plans is removed before printing the ad copies. The old method of using a number enclosed in a circle enclosed in a triangle is no longer acceptable. Use the revision block in the left margin to record changes, including the due date and description of each change, made after the preliminary plan is signed by the Bridge Engineer, but before the ad copy. This left margin block is also removed before printing the ad copies. The Olympia Service Center Plans Branch places a border along the bottom of the plan sheets. This border contains blocks where the Plans Branch assigns sheet numbers, a contract number, a title, and a revision block for the contract plans. For changes made after the ad copy is mailed out (addendum) fill in the revision block, including the due date and description of each addendum. Also, include the contract title, contract number, and sheet number assigned by the Plans Branch (e.g., if bridge sheet number 4 of 7 was assigned plan sheet number 18 or 30 by the Plans Branch, it must remain plan sheet 18 of 30 if revised).
b.
c.
J.
Care of Original Manual Drawings 1. 2. 3. 4. Original manual drawings should be handled with care to avoid damaging them in any way. Original manual drawings should be stored flat, either in a designated file or in the drafters desk. If it is necessary to leave an original manual drawing out overnight, it should be covered to reduce exposure to mishap. An original manual drawing shall not be used for review or checking. All review or checking shall be done from prints.
May 1995
10.1 - 9
10.1 - 10
May 1995
Drawings
Items not normally on the preliminary plan which should be added are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Test hole locations (designated by 3/16 inch circles, quartered) to plan view. Elevation view of footings, seals, piles, etc. Show elevation at bottom of footing and, if applicable, the type and size of piling. General notes above legend in upper right-hand corner usually in place of the typical section. Title LAYOUT in the title block and sheet number in the space provided. Other features, such as lighting, conduit, signs, excavation, riprap, etc., as determined by the designer. The layout check list can be used for reference. See Chapter 2.
October 1993
10.1 - 11
Drawings
Changes are made to the master CADD standard file upon the receipt of the revision from the BDM coordinator with his signature/initials and current date of the new revision.
10.1.5 Plotting
The user can plot either interactively in GDS or use the SPLOT command after a VMS prompt. Plotting may take as long as 20 minutes, so be patient. It depends on how many plots are already waiting. To see a listing of plot files waiting type PLIST at the VMS prompt. See section 10.1.3 for plotting bar lists.
10.1 - 12
October 1993
Drawings
October 1993
10.1 - 13
Abbreviations
A. General 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Because different words sometimes have identical abbreviations, the word should be spelled out where the meaning may be in doubt. A few standard signs are in common use in the office of Bridge and Structures. These are listed with the abbreviations. A period should be placed after all abbreviations, except as listed below. Apostrophes are usually not used. Exceptions: pavt., reqd., rdway. Abbreviations for plurals are usually the same as the singular. Exceptions: figs., no., ctrs., pp. Abbreviations in titles should be avoided if possible.
B. List of abbreviations commonly used on bridge plan sheets: A about abutment adjust, adjacent aggregate alternate ahead aluminum Americal Society for Testing and Materials American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and angle point approved approximate area asbestos cement pipe asphalt concrete Asphalt concrete pavement asphalt treated base at avenue average B back back of pavement seat bearing begin horizontal curve (Point of Curvature) begin vertical curve bench mark between bituminous surface treatment bottom boulevard bridge bridge drain
abt. abut. adj. agg. alt. ahd. al. ASTM AASHTO & A.P. apprd. approx. A Asb. Cp AC ACP ATB @ (used only to indicate spacing or pricing, otherwise spell out). Ave. avg. bk. B.P.S. Brg. P.C. BVC BM betw. or btwn. BST bot. Blvd. Br. Br. Dr.
April 1991
10.1 - A1 - 1
Design Aids
10.1 - A1 - 2
April 1991
Design Aids
April 1991
10.1 - A1 - 3
Design Aids
incl. in. or I.D. I.F. int. interm. inv. jt. jct. km. kips, K. LO lt. L.C. L.F. longit. L.S. maint. mall. MH mfr. max. MHW MHHW MLW MLLW m. mi. mph mm. min. min. or misc. mod. Mon. N.G.V.D. NF NS N. NB NTS #, No.; Nos.
10.1 - A1 - 4
April 1991
Design Aids
O.G. oz. O.D. O.F. O to O O-Xing OH p.; pp. pavt. Ped. % PP PS&E or PL pt. PCC P.C. P.I. PRC P.T. PVC POC POT PVC PCC lb., lbs., # psf, lbs./ft.2,lbs./ ,#/ psi, lbs./in.2, lbs./ ,#/ PP P.C. pres. P.S. P.C.P. P.S.P.&L. quant. qt. R. RR Rwy. R. reg. reinf. RC RCB RCP reqd. Ret. Wall
April 1991
10.1 - A1 - 5
Design Aids
10.1 - A1 - 6
April 1991
Design Aids
var. vert. BV VCP vol. or V W.S. wt. WSP W.W.F. W. W.M. W.W. w/ w/o yd., yds. yr.
10-1-A1:V:BDM10
April 1991
10.1 - A1 - 7
Structural Steel
Flat pieces of steel are termed plates, bars, sheets, or strips, depending on their dimensions. Bars and plates aregenerally classified as follows:
Bars: Plates: up to 6 inches wide, .203 in. (3/16 inch) and over in thickness 6 inches to 8 inches wide, .230 in. (7/32 inch) and over in thickness over 8 inches wide, .230 in. (7/32 inch) and over in thickness over 48 inches wide, .180 in. (11/64 inch) and over in thickness
Thinner pieces up to 12 inches wide are strips and over 12 inches are sheets. A complete table of clasification may be found in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Ed. page 6-3. The following table shows the usual method of labeling some of the most frequently used structural steel shapes. Note that the inches symbol () is omitted, but the foot symbol () is used.
April 1991
10.1 - A2
Footing Layout
The Footing Layout is a plan of the bridge limiting the details shown to those needed to locate the footings. The intent of the footing layout is to minimize the possibility of error at this initial stage of construction. Other related information and/or details such as pile locations, pedestal sizes, and column sizes are considered part of the pier drawing and should not be included in the footing layout. The Footing Layout should be shown on the layout sheet if room allows. It need not be in the same scale. When the general notes and footing layout cannot be included on the first (layout) sheet, the footing layout should then be included on the second sheet. Longitudinally, footings should be located using the survey line to reference such items as the footing, centerline pier, centerline column, or centerline bearing, etc., as shown on the pier details sheet. Appendix 10.5-B1-1 is an example of a footing layout showing: The basic information needed. The method of detailing from the survey line. Notes: 1. 2. When seals are required, their locations and sizes should be clearly indicated on the footing layout. This example shows a complicated geometry as the result of the combined efforts of a horizontal curve and the presence of the sharp skew. This is the reason for the odd dimensions shown in factuions of an inch. In most designs the footing layout would be much simpler.
10-1-A3:V:BDM10
April 1991
10.1 - A3
P:DP/BDM11
August 1998
11.0-i
General Considerations
11-1:P:BDM11
August 1998
11.1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Quantities 11.2 Computation of Quantities Computation of Quantities
11.2.1 Responsibilities
A. Design Unit The Design Unit is responsible for alerting the Bridge Projects Unit when alterations are made after turn-in to the design features and quantities which will affect the cost of the structure. B. Bridge Projects Unit The Bridge Projects Unit will not be responsible for computing quantities. However, they will be responsible for ensuring that the quantities listed in the Bid Proposal correspond to those received from the Design Unit.
11.2.4 Accuracy
A. Preliminary Quantities Quantities used for cost estimates during the conceptual stage of the design are expected to have an accuracy of 10 percent. The first iteration of quantities, after the preliminary plan has been completed, is expected to have an accuracy of 5 percent.
August 1998
11.2-1
Computation of Quantities
11.2.5 Excavation
A. Structure Excavation, Class A Excavation necessary for the construction of bridge piers and reinforced concrete retaining walls is classified as Structure Excavation, Class A. Payment for such excavation is generally at the unit contract price per cubic yard. The quantity of excavation to be paid for is measured as outlined in Section 209.4 of the Standard Specifications. Computation of the quantity shall follow the same provisions. Designers shall familiarize themselves with this section of the Standard Specifications. Any limits for structure excavation not conforming to the limits specified in the Standard Specifications shall be shown in the Plans. Structure excavation for footings and seals shall be computed using a horizontal limit of 1 foot 0 inches outside and parallel to the neat lines of the footing or seal or as shown in the Plans. The upper limit shall be the ground surface or stream bed as it exists at the time the excavation is started. See Figure 11.2.6-1(A), (B), and (C).
Figure 11.2.6-1
11.2-2
August 1998
Structure excavation for the construction of wing walls shall be computed using limits shown in Figure 11.2.6-2.
Figure 11.2.6-2
Figure 11.2.6-3
August 1998
11.2-3
When bridge approach fills are to be constructed in the same contract as the bridge and the foundation conditions do not require full height fills to be placed prior to the construction of the pier, the approach fill is constructed in two stages, i.e., constructed up to the bottom of footing or 1 foot above the bottom of footing and then completed after the bridge construction. (The Materials Laboratory shall be consulted on the staging method.) The structure excavation shall be computed from the top of the first stage fill. The bottom of a spread footing will be placed 1 foot 0 inches below the top of the first stage fill. See Figure 11.2.6-4(A). The bottom of footings supported on piling will be placed at the top of the first stage fill; therefore, no structure excavation is required (see Figure 11.2.6-4(B)). The limits for stage fills shall be shown in the Plans with the structure excavation, if any.
Figure 11.2.6-4 Prior to pier construction, when (1) a full height fill with or without surcharge is required for settlement, or (2) the original ground line is above the finish grade line, structure excavation shall be computed to 1 foot 0 inches below the finish grade (pavement) line (see Figure 11.2.6-5).
Figure 11.2.6-5
11.2-4
August 1998
Computation of Quantities
Figure 11.2.6-6 C. Shaft Excavation Excavation necessary for the construction of shaft foundations is generally measured by the cubic yard and paid for at the unit contract price per cubic yard for Soil Excavation for Shaft Including Haul. The usual limits for computing shaft excavation shall be the neat lines of the shaft diameter and from the bottom elevation of the shaft as shown in the Plans to the ground surface as it exists at the time of shaft excavation. The methods of measurement and payment and the limits for shaft excavation shall be specified in the Special Provisions.
August 1998
11.2-5
For the purpose of estimating the cost for cofferdams or for shoring or extra excavation, Class A, it is necessary to compute the peripheral area of an assumed sheet pile enclosure of the excavated area. While payment for Shoring or Extra Excavation, Class A, is made at a lump sum contract price, the costs are a function of overall height of excavation. In general, each side of the excavation for each pier shall be categorized into an average overall height range as shown on Form 230-031 (i.e., less than 6 feet, 6 to 10 feet, 10 to 20 feet, or greater than 20 feet), the area for the side computed using the appropriate width times the average overall height, the overall area for the side shall be entered in the category that matches the sides average overall height. These calculations are required for each pier of the bridge as applicable. See accompanying Figure 11.2.6-7 and sample calculation. For excavation in the dry, the peripheral area shall be the perimeter of the horizontal limits of structure excavation times the height from the bottom of the footing to the ground surface at the time of excavation. For excavation in water, the peripheral area shall be the perimeter of the horizontal limits of structure excavation times the height from the bottom of the seal to 2 feet above the seal vent elevation. For shaft-type foundations, it is not necessary to compute the area for shoring because the cost for shoring is normally included in the contract price for shaft excavation.
Figure 11.2.6-7
11.2-6
August 1998
Computation of Quantities
August 1998
11.2-7
Computation of Quantities
DP:BDM11
11.2-8
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Quantities Not Included in Bridge Quantities List
The following is a list of items for which the Bridge and Structures Office is relying on the Region to furnish plans, specifications and estimates.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
DOT
Form 230-038 EF Revised 2/97
Bridge Quantities
Bridge and Structures St. Item No.
0001(E) 0001(M) 0061 0061
Item Use
Std. Item GSP Item
Item Description
Mobilization Removing Portion of Existing Bridge Type Area
Greater than 12/305 mm long: Drilled Holes: Less than 12/305 mm long: Number Diameter Number Diameter Length Inch/mm Inch/mm LF/M Inch/mm Inch/mm Core Drilled Holes: Less than 12/305 mm long: Number Diameter Inch/mm Inch/mm Inch/mm 0071 0071 GSP Item Removing Existing Bridge Type Sp. Prov. Area SF/SM L.S. Area SF/SM CY/CM Number Inch/mm Inch/mm Greater than 12/305 mm long: Diameter Inch/mm Inch/mm Inch/mm L.S. Length LF/M LF/M LF/M LF/M LF/M
4006/8331
Std. Item
Structure Excavation Class A Incl. Haul Unsuitable: Pier Soil CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM Cofferdam: Pier Soil CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM Rock CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM
4010/8835
GSP Item
CY/CM
Page 1 of 6
Item Use
Std. Item
Item Description
Shoring or Extra Excavation Class A Dry:
Quantity
Unit of Measure
L.S.
AVERAGE O VERALL HEIGHT 6 ft./2 m to 10 ft./3 m 10 ft./3 m to* 20 ft./6 m SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM >20 ft./6 m * SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM
Pier
Cofferdam:
AVERAGE O VERALL HEIGHT <6 ft./2 m SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM 6 ft./2 m to 10 ft./3 m SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM 10 ft./3 m to * 20 ft./6 m SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM >20 ft./6 m * SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM
Pier
*I NDICATE 4030 GSP Item Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Std. Item Sp. Prov. GSP Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Sp. Prov. Rock Bolt
AVERAGE HEIGHT
Each CY/CM CY/CM Diam. Shaft Diam. Shaft Diam. Shaft LF/M LF/M Each LF/M LB/KG CY/CM LF/M LF/M Each LF/M Each Each LF/M Each Each LF/M LF/M Each Each Each Each
------4151/8426
Soil Excavation For Shaft Including Haul Rock Excavation For Shaft Including Haul Furnishing and Placing Temp. Casing For Furnishing Permanent Casing For Placing Permanent Casing For CSL Access Tube St. Reinf. Bar For Shaft Conc. Class 4000P For Shaft Excavation For Piling Preboring For Pile Furnishing and Driving Concrete Test Pile Furnishing Concrete Piling Driving Concrete Pile Diameter Diameter
--4055/8355 4060/4060 4070/8363 4080/4080 4085/4085 4090/8373 4095/4095 4100/4100 4105/8381 4106/8383 4108/4108 4110/4110 4116/4116
Furnishing and Driving Steel Test Pile Furnishing Steel Piling Driving Steel Pile Furnishing and Driving Timber Test Pile Furnishing Timber Piling - Untreated Furnishing Timber Piling - Creosote Treated Driving Timber Pile - Untreated Driving Timber Pile - Creosote Treated Pile Splice - Timber Pile Tip
--
Page 2 of 6
11.2-A2-2
August 2000
Item Use
Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Sp. Prov.
Item Description
Furnishing Prestressed Hollow Concrete Piling Placing Prestressed Hollow Concrete Pile Driving Prestressed Hollow Concrete Pile Pile Loading Test No. of Tests Each Pile Size Ton/Tonne
Quantity
Unit of Measure
LF/M Each Each LF/M
Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item GSP Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item GSP Item GSP Item Std. Item GSP Item GSP Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item
Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For Traffic Barrier Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For Bridge St. Reinf. Bar For Bridge St. Reinf. Bar For Traffic Barrier St. Reinf. Bar For Wire Mesh Lean Concrete Conc. Class Conc. Class 4000/28 for Bridge Conc. Class 4000/28 for Traffic Barrier Conc. Class 4000/28 for Conc. Class 3000/20 for Bridge Conc. Class 3000/20 for Conc. Class 5000/35 for Bridge Conc. Class 5000/35 for Conc. Class 4000W/28W for Bridge Conc. Class 4000W/28W for Conc. Class EA Conc. Class HE Conc. Class Cylinder Concrete Fractured Fin Finish Structural Carbon Steel Structural Low Alloy Steel Structural High Strength Steel Cast Steel Forged Steel Cast Iron Malleable Iron Ductile Iron Cast Bronze Page 3 of 6 LS
LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG SY/SM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM SY/SM LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG
-4322/8452 4202/8442 4202/8442 4320/8441 4200/8440 4325/8477 4205/8475 4324/8468 4204/8466 4183/4183 4185/4185
-4184/4184 4188/4188 4230/4230 4235/4235 4240/4240 4246/4536 4251/8540 4256/8546 4261/8549 4267/8552 4271/8555
DOT Form 230-031 EF
Revised 8/2000
August 2000
11.2-A2-3
Item Use
Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item
Item Description
Timber and Lumber - Untreated Timber and Lumber - Creosote Treated Timber and Lumber - Salts Treated Superstructure Bridge Plan Area Roadway Deck Bridge Plan Area Electrical Conduit Diameter Inch Length LF/M SF/SM
Quantity
Unit of Measure
MBM/M3 MBM/M3 MBM/M3
LS
LF/M SF/SM LF/M
4390/8595
GSP Item
GSP Item GSP Item GSP Item GSP Item GSP Item GSP Item Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov.
Steel Handrail Bridge Rail - Low Fence Type Bridge Rail - High Fence Type Bridge Railing Type Bridge Grate Inlet Pigmented Sealer Structural Earth Wall
---
Page 4 of 6
11.2-A2-4
August 2000
Item Description
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bar Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bar (Traffic Barrier) Steel Reinforcing Bar Steel Reinforcing Bar (Traffic Barrier) Conc. Class Conc. Class 4000D/28D Conc. Class 4000/28 Conc. Class 4000/28 (Traffic Barrier) Conc. Class 5000/35 Conc. Class Fractured Fin Finish Structural Carbon Steel Structural Low Alloy Steel Structural High Strength Steel Cast Steel Forged Steel Cast Iron Malleable Iron Ductile Iron Cast Bronze Timber and Lumber - Untreated Timber and Lumber - Creosote Treated Timber and Lumber - Salts Treated Glulam Deck Panels Electrical Conduit Diameter Inch Length LF/M LS
Quantity
Unit of Measure
LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM CY/CM SY/SM LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG LB/KG MBM/M3 MBM/M3 MBM/M3 MBM/M3 LF/M
GSP Item GSP Item GSP Item Std. Item GSP Item GSP Item Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. GSP Item
Steel Handrail Bridge Rail - Low Fence Type Bridge Rail - High Fence Type Bridge Railing Type Traffic Barrier Special Bridge Drain Modify Bridge Drain Plugging Existing Bridge Drain Bridge Grate Inlet
Page 5 of 6
August 2000
11.2-A2-5
Item Use
GSP Item
Item Description
Expansion Joint System Type Type Type
Quantity
Unit of Measure
LF/M
LF/M LF/M LF/M LF/M LF/M CF/M3 SY/SM SY/SM SY/SM L.S. Inch/mm L.S. Inch/mm SY/SM SY/SM Each Each Each Each Each Each LF/M LF/M LF/M LF/M LF/M LF/M LB/KG SF/SM LF/M SF/SM LF/M SF/SM LF/M LF/M
Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov.
Expansion Joint Modification Type Modified Concrete Overlay Finishing and Curing Modified Concrete Overlay Scarifying Concrete Surface Polymer Concrete Overlay Further Deck Preparation Volume CF/CM Avg. Depth Bridge Deck Repair Volume CF/CM Avg. Depth Pigment Sealer Membrane Waterproofing (Deck Seal) Pot Bearing Disc Bearing Spherical Bearing Cylindrical Bearing Elastomeric Bearing Pad Fabric Pad Bearing Prestressed Conc. Girder Series W42G/W42MG Prestressed Conc. Girder Series W50G/W50MG Prestressed Conc. Girder Series W58G/W58MG Prestressed Conc. Girder Series W74G/W74MG Prestressed Conc. Girder Series W83G/W83MG Prestressed Conc. Girder Series W95G/W95MG Prestressing Precast Prestressed Slab Volume CF/CM Length CF/CM Length Precast Prestressed Tri Beam Volume Precast Prestressed Double Tee Beam Volume CF/CM Length CY/CM Length
4445/4445
GSP Item
-4455/8643
GSP Item GSP Item Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Std. Item GSP Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Std. Item Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov. Sp. Prov.
Page 6 of 6
11.2-A2-6
August 2000
P:DP/BDM12
August 1998
12.0-i
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Construction Costs 12.0 12.1 Construction Costs Introduction
The construction costs itemized in Appendix A are to aid the user in estimating the cost of bridge projects. The costs are based on historical data retrieved from recent WSDOT Contracts. Requests for cost estimates from outside offices should be submitted in writing to the Bridge Projects Unit and a written response will be sent within a reasonable time. Estimates requiring input from the Bridge Design Section will take longer due to project schedule priorities. Telephone requests for cost estimates from outside the Bridge and Structures Office shall be referred to the Bridge Projects Unit. All cost estimates prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office should have the concurrence of the Bridge Projects Engineer.
Introduction
12-1:P:BDM12
August 1998
12.1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Construction Costs 12.2 Factors Affecting Costs Factors Affecting Costs
12-2:P:BDM12
August 1998
12.2-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Construction Costs 12.3 Development of Cost Estimates
Estimates prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office shall include mobilization but not sales tax, engineering, construction contingencies, or inflation.
12.3.1 Types
A. Prospectus and Project Summary Estimates Conceptual cost estimates are prepared when little information about the project is available. Use the construction costs in Appendix A, assuming the worst case conditions, unless actual conditions are known. An example of a worst case condition is pile supported footings. In remote areas, or for small projects, use the high end of the cost range. Use mid-range costs for usual conditions. To cover unforeseen project modifications, add a 20 percent estimate contingency to a prospectus estimate and a 10percent estimate contingency to a project summary estimate. These contingencies can be adjusted depending on the preliminary information available. B. Preliminary Design Estimates Preliminary design estimates are prepared during the preliminary design stage when the type and size of bridge is known. Limited foundation information is sometimes available at this stage. The construction costs in Appendix A shall be used with an appropriate inflation factor, assuming the worst case conditions, unless foundation conditions are known, along with a minimum of 10 percent contingency to cover scope creep. For bridge rehabilitation projects, add a minimum 20 percent contingency amount to specific items, such as mechancical rehabilitation and structural steel repair, to cover potential increases in costs that often surface after indepth inspections are completed. C. Estimate Updates During Design During the design period, the designer should keep the Bridge Projects Unit informed of significant changes to the design that might affect the cost. Examples of significant changes are: deeper than expected footing and seals, use of piles when none were expected, change of substructure types, and changes to superstructure. This is a critical element in the project budgeting process. D. Contract Estimates The contract estimate is prepared by the Bridge Projects Unit after the Plans and Final Quantities have been submitted to the Bridge Projects Unit for final processing. The contract estimate is prepared using the quantities furnished by the Design Section, unit bid prices from Appendix A, other historical data, and the judgment of the engineer preparing the estimate. Unique, one-of-a-kind projects require special consideration and should include an appropriate construction cost contingency.
12.3.2 Responsibilities
A. Bridge Projects Unit The Bridge Projects Unit is responsible for preparing the prospectus, project summary, preliminary, and final contract estimates and updating the preliminary estimate as needed during the design phase of the project. The Bridge Projects Unit assists the regions and outside agencies, such as counties and cities, to prepare conceptual design report and preliminary estimates when requested in writing.
August 1998
12.3-1
12.3.3 Documentation
Whenever a cost estimate is prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office for an outside office, a Cost Estimate Summary sheet (Form 230-040) shall be filled out by the engineer preparing the estimate. The Cost Estimate Summary shall be maintained in the Job File. During the design stage, the summary sheet shall be maintained by the Structural Design Unit. It is the design unit supervisors responsibility to ensure the summary sheet is up to date when the job file is submitted to the Bridge Projects Unit.
12.3-2
August 1998
DP:BDM12
August 1998
12.3-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Construction Costs Bridge and Structures Estimating Aids
BRIDGE AND STRUCTURES (Note: Unit struture costs include mobilization but do not include sales tax, engineering, or contingency) LOW PRESTRESSED CONCRETE GIRDERS SPAN 50-140 FT. Water Crossing w/piling Water Crossing w/spread footings Dry Crossing w/piling Dry Crossing w/spread footings REINFORCED CONCRETE AND POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE BOX GIRDER-SPAN 50-200 FT. Water Crossing w/piling Water Crossing w/spread footings Dry Crossing w/piling Dry Crossing w/spread footings REINFORCED CONCRETE FLAT SLAB SPAN 20-60 FT. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SLABS SPAN 13-69 FT. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DECKED BULB-TEE GIRDER SPAN 40-115 FT. STEEL GIRDER SPAN 60-400 FT. STEEL TRUSS SPAN 300-700 FT. STEEL ARCH SPAN 30-400 FT. CONCRETE BRIDGE REMOVAL WIDENING EXISTING CONCRETE BRIDGES (Including Removal) RAILROAD UNDERCROSSING SINGLE TRACK RAILROAD UNDERCROSSING DOUBLE TRACK SF SF SF SF SF SF SF 80.00 75.00 80.00 65.00 45.00 50.00 80.00 100.00 95.00 100.00 90.00 60.00 70.00 90.00 130.00 120.00 120.00 110.00 80.00 95.00 115.00 SF SF SF SF $ 75.00 70.00 75.00 60.00 $ 90.00 80.00 85.00 70.00 $ 110.00 100.00 100.00 90.00 AVERAGE HIGH
SF SF SF SF SF LF LF
105.00
160.00
10.00 100.00
25.00 130.00
40.00 185.00
July 2000
12.3-A1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Construction Costs Bridge and Structures Estimating Aids
BRIDGE AND STRUCTURES (Continued) LOW PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE REINFORCED CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRETE RIGID FRAME (TUNNEL) REPLACING EXISTING CURBS & BARRIER WITH NEW JERSEY BARRIER (INCLUDING REMOVAL) REINFORCED CONCRETE RETAINING WALL (EXPOSED AREA) SOLDIER PILE TIEBACK WALL (EXPOSED AREA) MSE WALL PRECAST CONCRETE PANELS MSE WALL WELDED WIRE MSE WALL CIP CONCRETE FACE SOIL NAIL WALL CONCRETE FACING PERMANENT GEOSYNTHETIC WALL CONCRETE CRIB WALL CONCRETE HEADERS SF SF LF 100.00 $ 70.00 AVERAGE $ 80.00 80.00* 150.00 200.00 HIGH $ 90.00
SF
35.00
50.00
65.00
SF
100.00
120.00
150.00
SF SF SF SF SF SF
13 11 30 20 11 20
24 18 35 30 15 30
35 25 40 40 30 40
*Based on limited cost data. Check with the Bridge Support Engineer. Bridge areas are computed as follows: Typical Bridges: Width x Length Width: Total width of deck, including portion under the barrier. Length: Distance between back of pavement seats, or for a bridge having wingwalls, 3-0 behind the top of the embankment slope; typically end of wingwall to end of wingwall, reference Standard Plans H9. Special Cases: Widenings Actual area of new construction. Tunnel Outside dimension from top of footing to top of footing over the tunnel roof, i.e., including walls and top width. For small jobs (less than $100,000), use the high end of the cost range as a starting point.
P65:DP/BDM12
12.3-A1-2
July 2000
July 2000
12.3-A2-1
10% of all of above shaft ______ 0.45 0.60 100.00 100.00 300.00 300.00 350.00 100.00 100.00 0.60 0.80 150.00 150.00 400.00 400.00 450.00 130.00 175.00
P65:DP/BDM12
12.3-A2-2
July 2000
Lin. Ft. Lin. Ft. Lin. Ft. Lin. Ft. Lin. Ft. Lin. Ft.
Lbs.
0.80
1.35
Lbs. Lbs. MBM MBM MBM MBM MBM Lin. Ft. Lin. Ft. Lin. Ft. Lin. Ft. Each Each Cu. Yd. Cu. Yd. Cu. Yd. Cu. Yd.
1.00 2.00 1,500.00 1,800.00 1,000.00 1,400.00 1,900.00 250.00 20.00 500.00 100.00 250.00 1,200.00 500.00 600.00 450.00 400.00
1.40 4.00 2,000.00 2,500.00 1,500.00 1,800.00 2,500.00 350.00 50.00 2,000.00 200.00 500.00 1,500.00 600.00 700.00 550.00
500.00
July 2000
12.3-A3-1
P65:DP/BDM12
12.3-A3-2
July 2000
24.00 25.00 28.00 30.00 32.50 42.50 47.50 53.00 60.00 77.00
For holes greater than 1-foot deep up to 20 feet deep, use 1.5 above prices. If drilling through steel reinforcing, add $16.00 per lineal inch of steel drilled. Removal of Rails and Curbs Removal of Rails, Curbs, and Slab Further Deck Preparation Bridge Deck Repair Removing ACP from bridge deck Lin. Ft. Sq. Ft. Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. Sq. Yd. $ 80.00 25.00 100.00 110.00 6.00 $130.00 50.00 150.00 160.00 10.00
P65:DP/BDM12
July 2000
12.3-A4
P:DP/BDM13
August 1998
13.0-i
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Construction Specifications and Estimates 13.0 13.1 Construction Specifications and Estimates General
Introduction The Bridge Projects Unit prepares the specifications and estimates (S&E) for all structural projects designed or reviewed by the Bridge and Structures Office. The preparation includes reviewing the job file, plans, PS&E check list, Not Included in Bridge Quantities List, foundation report, and preparing the cost estimates, specifications, and working day schedules; and submitting the PS&E package to the Region or Plans Branch. For projects designed by a Bridge Design Unit, the Bridge Projects Unit normally has three weeks to prepare the S&E package and submit it to the Bridge and Structures Engineer and another week to submit it to the Region or Plans Branch. For projects designed by a consultant, the Bridge Projects Unit normally has three weeks to review and comment on the 90 percent design package. After the consultant submits the 100 percent design package, the Bridge Projects Unit has three weeks to prepare the S&E package and submit it to the Bridge and Structures Engineer and another week to submit it to the Region or Plans Branch.
13.2
Definitions
A. Standard Specifications Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction, provisions and requirements for the prescribed work. B. Amendments Approved revisions or supplements to specific sections of the standard specifications. C. Special Provisions Supplemental specifications and modifications to the standard specifications and the amendments to the standard specifications that apply to an individual project. D. Addendum A written or graphic document issued to all bidders and identified as an addendum prior to bid opening, which modifies or supplements the bid documents and becomes a part of the contract. E. AD Copy The AD copy is the contract document advertised to prospective bidders. F. The governing order is as follows: Special Provisions, Contract Plans, then Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction.
13.3
Reviewing a Project
A. Job File Check for the items of work that need to be included in the PS&E; items that need special provisions or cost estimates; and items that require additional research and information. Check that the job file fly leaf information has been completed by the designer (Form 221-076).
August 1998
13-1
D. Summary of Quantities (Form 230-031) Verify that the Summary of Quantities is labeled as Supervisors Bridge Quantities. That is, the supervisor shall summarize the quantities and resolve all discrepencies between the designer and checker. E. Plans Check the plans for materials, special items, stage construction, standard notes and consistent terminology, etc. F. Not Included in Bridge Quantities (Form 230-038) (see example 13.0 B-3) Check for items shown on the plans that will be included in regions PS&E work such as items outside the structure limits. These shall be listed on the Not Included in Bridge Quantities List. For example: temporary traffic barrier, gravel backfill for walls, etc. G. Foundation Report Check that recommended foundation types and elevations are shown on the plans. Obtain a copy of the final Foundation Report for the S&E file. Check for settlement period of embankment, special excavation, etc., that need special provisions and/or cost estimates. Check for the number of test holes and the locations listed on the layout sheet against the final Foundation Report.
13.4
13-2
August 1998
13.5
13.6
August 1998
13-3
13.7
13.8
13-4
August 1998
13.9
P:DP/BDM13
August 1998
13-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Construction Specifications and Estimates Construction Time Rates
Operation Substructure Structure Exc. & Shoring *Seals *Footings *Abutment Walls *Wingwalls *Retaining Walls with Footings *Columns Falsework for X-beams *X-beams Driving Test Piles Furnishing Piles Precast Concrete Cast-in-Place Concrete Steel Timber Driving Piles Concrete Steel Timber Prestressed Girders Girder Fabrication Set Girders *Slab & Diaphragms Box Girders Span Falsework *Bottom Slab *Webs, Diaphragms, and X-beams *Top Slab Stress and Grout Strands Strip Falsework T-Beam Span Falsework *Girders, Diaphragms, and Slab Strip Falsework Flat Slab Span Falsework *Slab and X-beams Strip Falsework Steel Girder Girder Fabrication Girder Erection *Slab Painting Miscellaneous *Traffic Barrier *Traffic Railing & Sidewalk *Concrete Overlay Expansion Joint Replacement * Concrete ** All times are based on 8-hour work days
13-6A:P:BDM13
Units** C.Y./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day Each/Day Days Days Days Days L.F./Day L.F./Day L.F./Day Days L.F./Day C.Y./Day S.F./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day C.Y./Day LBS/Day S.F./Day S.F./Day C.Y./Day S.F./Day S.F./Day C.Y./Day S.F./Day Days L.F./Day C.Y./Day S.F./Day L.F./Day L.F./Day S.Y./Day Days/Lane Closure
Minimum Output 20 10 6 4 1 4 3 13 16 1 40 15 30 20 100 100 100 70 200 6 150 3 5 7 4,500 1,500 500 6 1,000 100 6 300 200 50 6 1,000 20 15 200 4
Maximum Output 150 20 14 19 2 17 8 4 20 2 20 2 2 2 200 200 200 35 1,450 18 900 11 25 12 8,000 3,000 1,000 15 2,000 600 15 1,000 110 200 15 3,000 80 60 300 6
Average Output 80 15 10 7 1.5 11 4 10 18 1 30 5 10 5 150 150 150 45 550 11 700 8 18 9 6,000 2,200 700 10 1,500 250 10 500 150 100 10 2,000 40 35 250 8
August 1998
13.6-A1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Construction Specifications and Estimates Cost Estimate Summary
P:DP/BDM13
August 1998
13.0-B2
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix B Construction Specifications Project Cost vs. Time Chart
P:DP/BDM13
August 1998
13.0-B3
August 1998
14.0-i
Contents
P:DP/BDM14 9807-0802
14.0-ii
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.0 14.1 Bridge Rating General
Bridge Rating is a procedure to evaluate the adequacy of various structural components to carry predetermined applied loads. The WSDOT Bridge Preservation Section is responsible for the bridge inventory and load rating of existing and new bridges in accordance with the NBIS and the AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges, latest edition. As presently required, only elements of the superstructure will be rated. Generally, superstructure shall be defined as all structural elements above the column tops including drop cross-beams. Load rating shall be part of structural design for all, widened (one lane width or more throughout the length of the bridge), or rehabilitated bridges where the rehabilitation alters the load carrying capacity of the structure. The carrying capacity of a widened or rehabilitated structure shall equal or exceed the capacity of the existing structure. The Bridge Design Section generally will not be required to load rate new bridges/designs. However, for the more complex structures where computer models are used in the design/analysis, a copy of the computer models shall be made and submitted to the Bridge Load Rating Engineer in the Bridge Preservation Section. In order to provide a baseline rating for new bridges, the bridge designer shall make rating calculations and complete a Bridge Rating Summary (see Appendix 14.0-A5) as part of the design process. The designer shall place the original rating calculations and report and a copy of the bridge plans in an Accopress-type binder (see Section 14.4). When the bridge design is complete, the designer shall forward the completed bridge rating package to the Bridge Projects Unit, then the Bridge Projects Unit will forward the rating package to the Bridge Preservation Section. The bridge rating will go into service at the completion of bridge construction. The Bridge Preservation Section shall then be responsible to maintain an updated bridge load rating throughout the life of the bridge based on current bridge condition (see Appendix 14.0-A1). Conditions of existing bridges change resulting in the need for reevaluation of their load rating. Such changes may be caused by damage to structural elements, extensive maintenance or rehabilitative work, or any other deterioration identified by the Bridge Preservation Section through their regular inspection program. This criteria applies only to concrete and steel bridges. For timber bridges, rating procedure shall be as per Chapters 6 and 7 of the 1994 AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges.
General
14.1.1
Rating Procedure
Structural elements as defined above shall be evaluated for flexural, vertical shear, and torsional capacities based on Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) as outlined in the AASHTO 1989 Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete Bridges and Load Factor Design (LFD) as outlined in the 1994 AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges. Consider all reinforcing, including temperature/distribution reinforcing, in the rating analysis. By definition, the adequacy or inadequacy of a structural element to carry a specified truck load will be indicated by the value of its rating factor (RF); that is, whether it is greater or smaller than 1.0. For a specific loading, the lowest RF value of the structural elements will be the overall rating of the bridge.
August 1998
14.1-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.1.1.1 Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR)
For HS-20, AASHTO-1, AASHTO-2, and AASHO-3 trucks, the basic rating equation shall be: R.F. = (for flexure)
M CAP D M DL P M P L M ( L + I )
General
V CAP DV DL PV P LV ( L + I )
For Overload (OL)-1 and Overload-2 trucks, the basic rating equation shall be:
M CAP D M D P M P L M ( L + I ) AASHTO - Truck
R.F. = (for vertical shear) Where: R.F. MCAP * MDL MP * M(L+I) f D L P I VCAP VDL VP V(L+I) = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Rating Factor (Ratio of Capacity to Demand) Ultimate Bending Moment Capacity Calculated Dead Load Bending Moment Secondary Bending Moment Due to Prestressing Calculated Live Load and Impact Bending Moment Resistance Factor (Capacity Reduction Factor) Dead Load Factor Live Load Factor Prestress Factor Impact Ultimate Shear Capacity Calculated Dead Load Shear Force Calculated Prestressing Shear Force Calculated Live Load Plus Impact Shear Force
14.1-2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.1.1.2 Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR)
For HS-20 Inventory and HS-20 Operating Ratings, the basic equation shall be: R.F. = Where: R.F. Rn D L S I A1 A2 = = = = = = = = Rating Factor (Ratio of Capacity to Demand) Nominal Capacity of the Member Unfactored Dead Load Moment or Shear Unfactored Live Load Moment or Shear Unfactored Prestress Secondary Moment or Shear Impact Factor to Be Used With the Live Load Effect Factor for Dead Load (see Section 14.1.4.2) Factor for Live Load (see section 14.1.4.2)
R n A1D S A 2 L (1 + I )
General
Additional rating consideration shall be given to prestressed and post-tensioned members and is discussed in further detail in Section 14.2.1.2.
14.1.2
Live Loads
The vehicles specified in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete Bridges represent legal weights and are to be used to determine posting limits. The two overload vehicles represent extremes in the limits of permitted vehicles in Washington State. The HS-20 vehicle and lane load as specified in the AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges are to be used in reporting the inventory and operating ratings to the National Bridge Inventory. For new designs, the number of lanes shall be the actual designated lanes as shown on the bridge layout (not the number of lanes as per AASHTO Specification 3.6). For existing bridges, the number of lanes shall be the actual striped lanes at the time of rating. When multiple lanes are considered, apply the appropriate multilane reduction factor given in Section 14.1.7. Load distribution methods are discussed under specific bridge types. Do not consider sidewalk live loads in rating analysis.
14.1.2.1
14.1.2.2
Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR) for National Bridge Inventory (NBI)
The live load to be used in the basic rating equation should be the HS-20 truck (Figure 14.1.2-4) or lane loading (Figure 14.1.2-3) as defined in the AASHTO Design Specifications. Where the effects are greater than those produced by HS-20 truck, the bridge should also be rated using the lane loading.
August 1998
14.1-3
General
14.1.4 14.1.4.1
14.1-4
August 1998
General
Figure 14.1.2-1
August 1998
14.1-5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating Lane Load Rating (for LRFR) General
Figure 14.1.2-2
Figure 14.1.2-3
Figure 14.1.2-4
14.1-6
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.1.4.2 Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR)
Dead Load Live Load Operating Inventory A1 = 1.30 A2 = 1.30 A2 = 2.17
General
14.1.5
14.1.6 14.1.6.1
February 2000
14.1-7
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.1.6.2 Load Factor Rating (LFDR)
Impact is expressed as a fraction of the live load stress, and shall be determined by the following formula: *I = Where: I = Impact Fraction (maximum 30%) L = Length in Feet of the Portion of the Span That is Loaded to Produce the Maximum Stress in the Member. *AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges 3.8.2.1.
50 L + 125
General
14.1.7
14.1.8
P:DP/BDM14 9807-0802
14.1-8
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.2 14.2.1 14.2.1.1 Special Rating Criteria Prestressed Concrete Bridges Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR)
For prestressed concrete members, rating is to be determined by the service load method for bending moments.* For prestressed girders designed for continuous of live load and impact, rate the negative moment zone at interior supports as a conventional reinforced concrete member, considering only the deck reinforcement (by load factor method). For loading conditions that produce positive moment at the supports, the prestressed girders extended strands can be considered as positive reinforcement. Rating for shear in the girder shall begin at a distance h/2 from the centerline of the pier (h = overall girder depth). When rating for AASHTO vehicles, allowable stresses shall be: Tensile stress for top and bottom = 6(fc)1/2 Compressive stress = 0.4 fc When rating for overload trucks (OL-1 and OL-2), allowable stresses shall be: Tensile stress for top and bottom = 1.15 [6(fc)1/2] Compressive stress = 0.53 (1.3 fc) For all loadings, prestress losses shall be as per design or current AASHTO Design Specifications. *When the rating for the overload vehicles is less than 1.0, a check by the ultimate load method shall also be made. The rating recorded on the summary sheet shall be the value determined by the ultimate load method divided by 1.30 but no greater than 1.0.
General
14.2.1.2
August 1998
14.2-1
General
F d + F p Fs F1
0.6f c F d F p F s F1
0.4 f c 1 F d F p F s 2 F1 0.8f y F d + F p F s F1
To establish the operating rating for Prestressed Concrete, use the lowest rating factor, from the basic rating equation, shown in Section 14.1.1.2, and the following equation should be used: R.F. = (Prestressing Steel Tension) Where: R.F. fc Fd Fp Fs Fl f*y = = = = = = = Rating Factor (Ratio of Capacity to Demand) Concrete Compressive Strength Unfactored Dead Load Stress Unfactored Stress Due to Prestress Forces After All Losses Unfactored Stress Due to Secondary Prestress Forces Unfactored Live Load Stress Including Impact Prestress Steel Yield Stress (per AASHTO 9.1.2)
0.9f y F d + F p F s F1
14.2.2
14.2.2.1
Concrete Decks
For all concrete roadway deck slabs, except flat slab bridges, that are designed per current AASHTO criteria for HS-20 loading or heavier, loading will be considered structurally sufficient and need not be rated. However, for existing roadway slabs having any of the following conditions, rating will be required: 1. 2. 3. Slab was designed for live loads lighter than HS-20. Slab overhang is more than half the girder spacing. Bridge Inspection Report Code is below 4 (field 8 or 508 visual deck condition).
14.2-2
August 1998
General
When rating of the slab is required, live load shall include all vehicular loads as specified in Section 14.1.2 and load distribution shall be per current AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
14.2.2.2
Concrete Crossbeams
For concrete crossbeams integral with the superstructure (raised crossbeam) on new bridges, rating will be for the number of designated lanes (see 14.1.2). For existing structures, ratings will be for the number of striped lanes. Live loads conforming to these lane configurations can be applied to the crossbeam as moving point loads at any location between curbs which produce the maximum effect. When rating for shear in crossbeams, current AASHTO Design Specifications requires shear design to be at the face of support if there is a concentrated load within a distance d from the face of support. This requirement is new relative to earlier editions of AASHTO Design Specifications which allowed shear reinforcement design to be at a distance d from the face of support. When rating existing crossbeams which show no indication of distress on the latest inspection report, but have a rating factor of less than one (1.0), a more detailed/accurate shear analysis should be performed. One acceptable method is the truss analogy as published in Bibliography 14.99-1(1). For existing box girder and integral T-beam crossbeams, in lieu of this detailed analysis, dead and live loads can be assumed as uniformly distributed and the shear rating performed at a distance d from the face of support.
14.2.2.3
In-Span Hinges
For in-span hinges, rating for shear and bending moment should be performed based on the reduced cross-sections at the hinge seat. Diagonal hairpin bars are part of this rating as they provide primary reinforcement through the shear plane.
14.2.3
14.2.4
14.2.5
14.2.6
Steel Structures
On existing bridges, checking of fatigue and servicability shall not be part of the rating evaluation.
August 1998
14.2-3
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.2.6.1 Steel Floor Systems
Floorbeams and stringers shall be rated as if they are simply supported. Assume the distance from outside face to outside face of end connections as the lengths for the analysis. For steel floorbeams on new bridges, rate for the number of designated lanes (see 14.1.2). For existing structures, rate for the number of striped lanes. Live loads conforming to these lane configurations can be applied to the floorbeam as moving point loads at any location between curbs which produce the maximum effect. The end connections for stringers and floorbeams shall be rated. Do not rate connections unless there is evidence of deterioration.
General
14.2.6.2
14.2.7
Timber Structures
Unless the species and grade is known, assume Douglas fir, select structural for members installed prior to 1955 and Douglas fir, No. 1 after 1955. The allowable stresses for beams and stringers, as listed in the AASHTO Standard Design Specifications, should be used. The inventory rating for HS-20 vehicle is calculated using allowable stresses as directed in the AASHTO Standard Design Specifications. For calculating the operating rating for the HS-20 vehicle, the 3 AASHTO, and two overload vehicles, use 133 percent of the inventory allowable stress. The nominal dimensions should be used to calculate deadload, and the net dimensions to calculate section modulus. If the member is charred, it may be assumed the 1/4-inch of material is lost on all surfaces. Unless the member is notched or otherwise suspect, shear need not be calculated. When calculating loads, no impact is assumed and distribution factors are selected assuming one traffic lane where the roadway is less than 20 feet wide or two or more traffic lanes where the roadway is 20 feet or wider.
14.2.8
14.2-4
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.2.9 Other Special Cases
For nonredundant structures such as through girder, arches, and/or any superstructure with less than three main load carrying members, rating shall be on the per member basis.
General
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August 1998
14.2-5
14.2-6
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.3 Load Rating Software
Use the current version of BRIDG for Windows software for all applicable ratings. The capabilities and release dates of the BRIDG software are as follows: Release Version BRIDG v.105. BRIDG v.11.0. BRIDG v.97 *Tenative release dates. Release Date July 1996 December 1995 September 1997 Rating Capabilities LRFD and LF of concrete bridges. LRFD and LF of steel girder bridges. LRFD and LF of concrete, steel girder, and steel truss bridges.
General
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August 1998
14.3-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Criteria Bridge Rating 14.4 Load Rating Reports
Rating reports shall consist of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A Bridge Rating summary sheet as shown on Appendix 14.0-A5 reflecting the lowest rating factor, including superstructure components not analyzed by BRIDG, for each loading condition. A brief report of any anomalies in the ratings and an explanation of the cause of any rating factor below 1.0. Hard copy of computer output files (RPT files) used for rating, and any other calculations or special analysis required. A complete set of plans for the bridge. Two 3.5-inch data diskettes which contains the final versions of all input files (BDF files) created in performing the load rating.
General
All reports shall be bound in Accopress-type binders. When the load rating calculations are produced as part of a design project (new, widening, or rehabilitation,) the load rating report and design calculations shall be bound separately. Any questions on the BRIDG Program or load rating can be directed to the bridge Load Rating Engineer.
14.99
Bibliography
1. Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges (1994) AASHTO, 444 North Capitol Street NW, Suite 249, Washington, D.C. 20001.
P:DP/BDM14 9807-0802
August 1998
14.4-1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Bridge Rating Load Rating Flow Chart
No
Complete
yes
List of missing Load Ratings Distributed quarterly to the Bridge Design Engineer
August 1998
14.0-A1
14.0-A2
August 1998
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Bridge Rating Bridge Inspection Report Condition Codes Bridge Inspection Report Condition Codes
9 8 7 6 5 4 Not applicable. Very good condition. No defects. Bridge can carry normal traffic levels. No action required to monitor or repair. Good condition. Minor defects with potential for minor repair. Bridge can carry normal traffic levels. Record and monitor bridge conditions. Satisfactory condition. Moderate defects with potential for major repair. Bridge is adequate for normal traffic levels. Record and monitor bridge conditions and/or add to repair schedule. Fair condition. Moderate defects with potential for minor rehabilitation. Bridge is minimally adequate for highway traffic. Monitor bridge conditions and/or add to repair schedule. Poor Condition. Major defects requiring major repair. Bridge is marginally adequate for truck traffic. Make repairs as soon as possible.
3* Serious condition. Major defects. Member is failing. Bridge is inadequate for truck traffic. Repair bridge immediately or restrict truck traffic. 2* Critical condition. Major defects. Member has failed. Bridge is inadequate for all highway traffic. Repair bridge immediately or close bridge. 1* Imminent failure. Bridge is closed and inadequate for all highway traffic. Bridge cannot be rehabilitated. 0* Failed. Bridge is closed and inadequate for all highway traffic. Bridge is beyond repair. *These codes are used to rate the condition of primary bridge members only (i.e., trusses, beams, abutments, etc.). For changing values in the rating factor equation, a condition code of 7 or 8 corresponds to good or fair condition. A condition code of 5 or 6 corresponds to a deteriorated condition; generally the report would identify the deficient structural elements with specifics such as section loss. A condition code of 4 or less corresponds to a heavily deteriorated condition. The report should state the specific element with its section loss. Inspection is considered to be estimated except in a specific case associated with identifiable deteriorated and/or deteriorating structures. Maintenance is considered intermittent unless specifically directed in unusual circumstances.
August 1998
14.0-A3
14.0-A4
August 1998
NBIS Rating Inventory Operations _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
August 1998
14.0-A5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL Appendix A Bridge Rating 3D Live Load Modeling Guidelines for Truss Bridges Live Load Criteria
The live loads to be considered and the application thereof, shall be consistent with those described in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and concrete Bridges and the WSDOT Bridge Design Manual. To summarize the criteria: In computing load effects, one vehicle shall be considered present in each rating lane. The positioning of the vehicle in each rating lane shall be according to AASHTO specifications. These specifications require the vehicle to be positioned in such a way as to produce the extreme structural response under consideration. For the purpose of load rating, the number of rating lanes shall be considered the number of striped lanes. The rating lanes shall be positioned between the curbs in accordance with the AASHTO specifications.
14.0-A6
August 1998
LSSF LSSF < 0.25 0.25 LSSF 1.0 LSSF > 1.0
Lane Group Positioning Center of the bridge Left Edge, Center, Right Edge Left Edge, Left Quarter Point, Center, Right Quarter Point, Right Edge
This method of transverse placement will be used to determine the Inventory and Operating Ratings for reporting to the National Bridge Inventory. This method will also be used to determine if the bridge needs further investigation by the WSDOT Bridge Preservation office. This investigation will determine the need for posting, restriction to permit (a.k.a. overload) vehicles, and need for retrofit or rehabilitation.
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August 1998
14.0-A7