Gis

Gis is a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data and associated
attributes which are spatially referenced to the earth. In the strictest sense, it is a
computer system capable of integrating, storing, editing, analyzing, sharing, and
displaying geographically-referenced information. In a more generic sense, GIS is a tool
that allows users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze the spatial
information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. Geographic
information science is the science underlying the geographic concepts, applications and
systems, taught in degree and GIS Certificate programs at many universities

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based information system used to

digitally represent and analyse the geographic features present on the Earth' surface and
the events (non-spatial attributes linked to the geography under study) that taking place
on it. The meaning to represent digitally is to convert analog (smooth line) into a digital
form.

Geographic information system technology can be used for scientific investigations,

resource management, asset management, Environmental Impact Assessment, Urban
planning, cartography, criminology, history, sales, marketing, and logistics

Data representation
GIS data represents real world objects (roads, land use, elevation) with digital data. Real
world objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and
continuous fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are two broad methods used to
store data in a GIS for both abstractions: Raster and vector

Raster
Raster data type consists of rows and columns of cells where in each cell is stored a
single value. Raster data are can be images (raster images) with each pixel (or cell)
containing a color value. Additional values recorded for each cell may be a discrete value,
such as land use, a continuous value, such as rainfall, or a null value if no data is
available. While a raster cell stores a single value, it can be extended by using raster
bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue) colors, colormaps (a mapping between a
thematic code and RGB value), or an extended attribute table with one row for each
unique cell value. The resolution of the raster data set is its cell width in ground units

Raster data is stored in various formats; from a standard file-based structure of TIF,
JPEG, etc. to binary long object (BLOB) data stored directly in a relational database
management system (RDBMS) similar to other vector-based feature classes. Database
storage, when properly indexed, typically allows for quicker retrieval of the raster data
but can require storage of millions of significantly-sized records.

Vector
Vector data type uses geometries such as points, lines (series of point coordinates), or
polygons, also called areas (shapes bounded by lines), to represent objects. Examples
include property boundaries for a housing subdivision represented as polygons and well
locations represented as points. Vector features can be made to respect spatial integrity
through the application of topology rules such as 'polygons must not overlap'. Vector data
can also be used to represent continuously varying phenomena. Contour lines and
triangulated irregular networks (TIN) are used to represent elevation or other
continuously changing values. TINs record values at point locations, which are connected
by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. The face of the triangles represent the
terrain surface.

Advantages and disadvantages

There are advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to
represent reality. Raster data sets record a value for all points in the area covered which
may require more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store
data only where needed. Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay
operations, which are more difficult with vector data. Vector data can be displayed as
vector graphics used on traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that
may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries. Vector data can be easier to register,
scale, and re-project. This can simplify combining vector layers from different sources.
Vector data are more compatible with relational database environment. They can be part
of a relational table as a normal column and processes using a multitude of operators.

Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of
sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and LIDAR,
while platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites.

Raster-to-vector translation
Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For
example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by
generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell
spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion

More advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a technique developed
in the late 1960s by NASA and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false
colour rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional
Fourier transforms.

Since digital data are collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not
be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one
structure to another

Projection:
Projection is a fundamental component of map making. A projection is a mathematical
means of transferring information from a model of the Earth, which represents a three-
dimensional curved surface, to a two-dimensional medium—paper or a computer screen.
Different projections are used for different types of maps because each projection
particularly suits certain uses. For example, a projection that accurately represents the
shapes of the continents will distort their relative sizes. See Map projection for more
information

A map projection is any method used in cartography (mapmaking) to represent the two-
dimensional curved surface of the earth or other body on a plane. The term "projection"
here refers to any function defined on the earth's surface and with values on the plane,
and not necessarily a geometric projection.

Flat maps could not exist without map projections, because a sphere cannot be laid flat
over a plane without distortions. One can see this mathematically as a consequence of
Gauss's Theorema Egregium. Flat maps can be more useful than globes in many
situations: they are more compact and easier to store; they readily accommodate an
enormous range of scales; they are viewed easily on computer displays; they can
facilitate measuring properties of the terrain being mapped; they can show larger portions
of the earth's surface at once; and they are cheaper to produce and transport. These useful
traits of flat maps motivate the development of map projections.

The digital elevation model, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter

horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black.

Need of GIS?
Many professionals, such as foresters, urban planners, and geologists, have recognized the
importance of spatial dimensions in organising & analysing information. Whether a discipline is
concerned with the very practical aspects of business, or is concerned with purely academic
research, geographic information system can introduce a perspective, which can provide valuable
insights as

1. 70% of the information has geographic location as it's denominator making spatial
analysis an essential tool.
2. Ability to assimilate divergent sources of data both spatial and non-spatial (attribute data).
3. Visualization Impact
4. Analytical Capability
5. Sharing of Information

Factors Aiding the rise of GIS.

 Revolution in Information Technology.

• Computer Technology.
• Remote Sensing.
• Global Positioning System.

 Communication Technology.
  Rapidly declining cost of Computer Hardware, and at the same time, exponential growth
of operational speed of computers.
 Enhanced functionality of software and their user-friendliness.
 Visualizing impact of GIS corroborating the Chinese proverb "a picture is worth a
thousand words."
 Geographical feature and data describing it are part of our everyday lives & most of our
everyday decisions are influenced by some facet of Geography

Advantages of GIS
The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring
of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the advantage
mentioned below:

 Planning of project
 Make better decisions
 Visual Analysis
 Improve Organizational Integration

Planning Of Project
Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of project having a large spatial component,
where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps
generation is possible on one or more than one base maps, example: the generation of a land
use map on the basis of a soil composition, vegetation and topography. The unique combination
of certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within
GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width and distance.

Making Decisions
The adage "better information leads to better decisions" is as true for GIS as it is for other
information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system but a tool to
query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has
been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping resolve
territorial disputes, and siting pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion.

Visual Analysis
Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modeling, landscape
can be better visualized, leading to a better understanding of certain relations in the landscape.
Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume
(Example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments,
land leveling) and hydrological modeling becomes easier.

Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences GIS can prove
extremely useful. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact
Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data such as
population distribution, market localization and other related features.

Improving Organizational Integration

Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is
improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to
link data sets together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and
communication. By creating a shared database one department can benefit from the work of
another--data can be collected once and used many times.

As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced,

productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility
company the customer and infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is
planned maintenance, affected people can be informed by computer-generated letters.

Components of GIS
GIS constitutes of five key components:

 Hardware
 Software
 Data
 People
 Method

Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The choice of hardware
system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to Super Computers having capability in Tera
FLOPS. The computer forms the backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets it's input through the
Scanner or a digitizer board. Scanner converts a picture into a digital image for further
processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF, BMP, JPG etc. A
digitizer board is flat board used for vectorisation of a given map objects. Printers and plotters are
the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup.

Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. GIS softwares in use are MapInfo, ARC/Info, AutoCAD Map, etc. The software
available can be said to be application specific. When the low cost GIS work is to be carried out
desktop MapInfo is the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature. If the
user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS, ARC/Info is the preferred option. For the
people using AutoCAD and willing to step into GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option.

Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a
commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data related
to the map objects can also be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with
other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organization to maintain their
data, to manage spatial data.

People
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use
it to help them perform their everyday work. The people who useGIS can be broadly classified
into two classes. The CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to vectorise the map objects. The use of
this vectorised data to perform query, analysis or any other work is the responsibility of a GIS
engineer/user.

Method
And above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules,
which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization. There are various
techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map creation can either
be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorised using the scanned images.
The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by any survey agency or satellite
imagery
GIS Applications
Computerized mapping and spatial analysis have been developed simultaneously in several
related fields. The present status would not have been achieved without close interaction
between various fields such as utility networks, cadastral mapping, topographic mapping,
thematic cartography, surveying and photogrammetery remote sensing, image processing,
computer science, rural and urban planning, earth science, and geography.

The GIS technology is rapidly becoming a standard tool for management of natural resources.
The effective use of large spatial data volumes is dependent upon the existence of an efficient
geographic handling and processing system to transform this data into usable information.

The GIS technology is used to assist decision-makers by indicating various alternatives in

development and conservation planning and by modelling the potential outcomes of a series of
scenarios. It should be noted that any task begins and ends with the real world. Data are
collected about the real world. Of necessity, the product is an abstraction; it is not possible (and
not desired) to handle every last detail. After the data are analysed, information is compiled for
decision-makers. Based on this information, actions are taken and plans implemented in the real
world.

Major areas of application

 Different streams of planning

Urban planning, housing, transportation planning architectural conservation, urban
design, landscape.
 Street Network Based Application
It is an addressed matched application, vehicle routing and scheduling: location and site
selection and disaster planning.
 Natural Resource Based Application
Management and environmental impact analysis of wild and scenic recreational
resources, flood plain, wetlands, acquifers, forests, and wildlife.
 View Shed Analysis
Hazardous or toxic factories siting and ground water modelling. Wild life habitat study and
migrational route planning.
 Land Parcel Based
Zoning, sub-division plans review, land acquisition, environment impact analysis, nature
quality management and maintenance etc.
 Facilities Management
Can locate underground pipes and cables for maintenance, planning, tracking energy
use.

GIS in agriculture
GIS is used in a variety of agricultural applications such as managing crop yields,
monitoring crop rotation techniques, and projecting soil loss for individual farms or entire
agricultural regions.

GIS in business
A GIS is a tool for managing business information of any kind according to where it's
located. You can keep track of where customers are, site businesses, target marketing
campaigns, optimize sales territories, and model retail spending patterns. A GIS gives you
that extra advantage to make you and your company more competitive and successful.
A GIS enables you to better understand and evaluate your data by creating graphic
displays using information stored in your database. With a GIS, you can change the
display of your geographic data by changing the symbols, colors, or values in the
database tables.

GIS in electric/gas utilities

Cities and utilities use GIS every day to help them map and inventory systems, track
maintenance, monitor regulatory compliance, or model distribution analysis, transformer
analysis, and load analysis.

GIS in the environment

GIS is used every day to help protect the environment. As an environmental professional,
you can use GIS to produce maps, inventory species, measure environmental impact, or
trace pollutants. The environmental applications for GIS are almost endless.

GIS in forestry
Today, managing forests is becoming a more complex and demanding challenge. With
GIS, foresters can easily see the forest as an ecosystem and manage it responsibly.

GIS in geology
Geologists use GIS every day in a wide variety of applications. You too can use GIS to
study geologic features, analyze soils and strata, assess seismic information, or create 3-
dimensional displays of geographic features.

GIS in hydrology
You can use GIS to study drainage systems, assess groundwater, and visualize
watersheds, and in many other hydrologic applications.

GIS in land use planning

People use GIS to help visualize and plan the land use needs of cities, regions, or even
national governments.

GIS in local government

People in local government use GIS every day to help them solve problems. Often the
data collected and used by one agency or department can be used by another.

GIS in mapping
Mapping is an essential function of a GIS. People in a variety of professions are using
GIS to help others understand geographic data. You don't have to be a skilled
cartographer to make maps with a GIS.

GIS in the military

Military analysts and cartographers use GIS in a variety of applications such as creating
basemaps, assessing terrain, and aiding in tactical decisions.

GIS in risk management

A GIS can help with risk management and analysis by showing you which areas will be
prone to natural or man-made disasters. Once identified, preventive measures can be
developed that deal with the different scenarios.

GIS in Site Planning

People around the world use GIS to help them locate sites for new facilities or locate
alternate sites for existing facilities.

GIS in transportation
GIS can be used to help you manage transportation infrastructure or help you manage
your logistical problems. Whether monitoring rail systems and road conditions or finding
the best way to deliver your goods or services, GIS can help you.

GIS in the water/wastewater industry

People in the water/wastewater industry use GIS with the planning, engineering,
operations, maintenance, finance, and administration functions of their water/wastewater
networks.

Global Positioning System

Introduction
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a burgeoning technology, which provides unequalled
accuracy and flexibility of positioning for navigation, surveying and GIS data capture. The GPS
NAVSTAR (Navigation Satellite timing and Ranging Global Positioning System) is a satellite-
based navigation, timing and positioning system. The GPS provides continuous three-
dimensional positioning 24 hrs a day throughout the world. The technology seems to be
beneficiary to the GPS user community in terms of obtaining accurate data upto about100 meters
for navigation, metre-level for mapping, and down to millimetre level for geodetic positioning. The
GPS technology has tremendous amount of applications in GIS data collection, surveying, and
mapping.

Geopositioning -- Basic Concepts

By positioning we understand the determination of stationary or moving objects. These can be
determined as follows:

1. In relation to a well-defined coordinate system, usually by three coordinate values and

2. In relation to other point, taking one point as the origin of a local coordinate system.

The first mode of positioning is known as point positioning, the second as relative positioning. If
the object to be positioned is stationary, we term it as static positioning. When the object is
moving, we call it kinematic positioning. Usually, the static positioning is used in surveying and
the kinematic position in navigation.

GPS - Components and Basic Facts

The GPS uses satellites and computers to compute positions anywhere on earth. The GPS is
based on satellite ranging. That means the position on the earth is determined by measuring the
distance from a group of satellites in space. The basic principle behind GPS are really simple,
even though the system employs some of the most high-tech equipment ever developed. In order
to understand GPS basics, the system can be categorised into

FIVE logical Steps

 1. Triangulation from the satellite is the basis of the system.
2. To triangulate, the GPS measures the distance using the travel time of the radio
message.
3. To measure travel time, the GPS need a very accurate clock.
4. Once the distance to a satellite is known, then we need to know where the satellite is in
space.
5. As the GPS signal travels through the ionosphere and the earth's atmosphere, the signal
is delayed.

To compute a positions in three dimensions. We need to have four satellite measurements. The
GPS uses a trigonometric approach to calculate the positions, The GPS satellites are so high up
that their orbits are very predictable and each of the satellites is equipped with a very accurate
atomic clock.

Components of a GPS
The GPS is divided into three major components

 The Control Segment

 The Space Segments
 The User Segment

The Control Segment

The Control Segment consists of five monitoring stations (Colorado Springs, Ascesion Island,
Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and Kwajalein Island). Three of the stations (Ascension, Diego Garcia, and
Kwajalein) serve as uplink installations, capable of transmitting data to the satellites, including
new ephemerides (satellite positions as a function of time), clock corrections, and other broadcast
message data, while Colorado Springs serves as the master control station. The Control
Segment is the sole responsibility of the DoD who undertakes construction, launching,
maintenance, and virtually constant performance monitoring of all GPS satellites.

The DOD monitoring stations track all GPS signals for use in controlling the satellites and
predicting their orbits. Meteorological data also are collected at the monitoring stations, permitting
the most accurate evaluation of tropospheric delays of GPS signals. Satellite tracking data from
the monitoring stations are transmitted to the master control station for processing. This
processing involves the computation of satellite ephemerides and satellite clock corrections. The
master station controls orbital corrections, when any satellite strays too far from its assigned
position, and necessary repositioning to compensate for unhealthy (not fully functioning)
satellites.

The Space Segment

The Space Segment consists of the Constellation of NAVASTAR earth orbiting satellites. The
current Defence Department plan calls for a full constellation of 24 Block II satellites (21
operational and 3 in-orbit spares). The satellites are arrayed in 6 orbital planes, inclined 55
degrees to the equator. They orbit at altitudes of about 12000, miles each, with orbital periods of
12 sidereal hours (i.e., determined by or from the stars), or approximately one half of the earth's
periods, approximately 12 hours of 3-D position fixes. The next block of satellites is called Block
IIR, and they will provide improved reliability and have a capacity of ranging between satellites,
which will increase the orbital accuracy. Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks
(Rubidium and Cesium standards) and has a microprocessor on board for limited self-monitoring
and data processing. The satellites are equipped with thrusters which can be used to maintain or
modify their orbits.

The User Segment

The user segment is a total user and supplier community, both civilian and military. The User
Segment consists of all earth-based GPS receivers. Receivers vary greatly in size and
complexity, though the basic design is rather simple. The typical receiver is composed of an
antenna and preamplifier, radio signal microprocessor, control and display device, data recording
unit, and power supply. The GPS receiver decodes the timing signals from the 'visible' satellites
(four or more) and, having calculated their distances, computes its own latitude, longitude,
elevation, and time. This is a continuous process and generally the position is updated on a
second-by-second basis, output to the receiver display device and, if the receiver display device
and, if the receiver provides data capture capabilities, stored by the receiver-logging unit.

GPS Positioning Types

Absolute Positioning
The mode of positioning relies upon a single receiver station. It is also referred to as 'stand-alone'
GPS, because, unlike differential positioning, ranging is carried out strictly between the satellite
and the receiver station, not on a ground-based reference station that assists with the
computation of error corrections. As a result, the positions derived in absolute mode are subject
to the unmitigated errors inherent in satellite positioning. Overall accuracy of absolute positioning
is considered to be no greater than 50 meters at best by Ackroyd and Lorimer and to be + 100
meter accuracy by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Differential Positioning
Relative or Differential GPS carries the triangulation principles one step further, with a second
receiver at a known reference point. To further facilitate determination of a point's position,
relative to the known earth surface point, this configuration demands collection of an error-
correcting message from the reference receiver.

Differential-mode positioning relies upon an established control point. The reference station is
placed on the control point, a triangulated position, the control point coordinate. This allows for a
correction factor to be calculated and applied to other roving GPS units used in the same area
and in the same time series. Inaccuracies in the control point's coordinate are directly additive to
errors inherent in the satellite positioning process. Error corrections derived by the reference
station vary rapidly, as the factors propagating position errors are not static over time. This error
correction allows for a considerable amount of error of error to be negated, potentially as much as
90 percent
 GPS setu

Factors that affect GPS

There are a number of potential error sources that affect either the GPS signal directly or your
ability to produce optimal results:

 Number of satellites - minimum number required:

You must track atleast four common satellites - the same four satellites - at both the
reference receiver and rover for either DGPS or RTK solutions. Also to achieve
centimeter -level accuracy, remember you must have a fifth satellite for on-the fly RTK
initialization. This extra satellite adds a check on the internal calculation. Any additional
satellites beyond five provide even more checks, which is always useful.

 Multipath - reflection of GPS signals near the antennae:

Multipath is simply reflection of signals similar to the phenomenon of ghosting on our
television screen. GPS signals may be reflected by surfaces near the antennae, causing
error in the travel time and therefore error in the GPS positions.

 Ionosphere - change in the travel time of the signal:

Before GPS signals reach your antenna on the earth, they pass through a zone of
charged particles called the ionosphere, which changes the speed of the signal. If your
reference and rover receivers are relatively close together, the effect of ionosphere tends
to be minimal. And if you are working with the lower range of GPS precisions, the
ionosphere is not a major consideration. However if your rover is working too far from the
reference station, you may experience problems, particularly with initializing your RTK
fixed solution.

 Troposphere - change in the travel time of the signal:

Troposphere is essentially the weather zone of our atmosphere, and droplets of water
 vapour in it can effect the speed of the signals. The vertical component of your GPS
answer (your elevation) is particularly sensitive to the troposphere.

 Satellite Geometry - general distribution of the satellites:

Satellite Geometry - or the distribution of satellites in the sky - effects the computation of
your position. This is often referred to as Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP).

PDOP is expressed as a number, where lower numbers are preferable to higher

numbers. The best results are obtained when PDOP is less than about 7.

PDOP is determined by your geographic location, the time of day you are working, and
any site obstruction, which might block satellites. You can use planning software to help
you determine when you'll have the most satellites in a particular area.

When satellites are spread out, PDOP is Low (good).

When satellites are closer together, PDOP is High (weak).

 Satellite Health - Availability of Signal:

While the satellite system is robust and dependable, it is possible for the satellites to
occassionally be unhealthy. A satellite broadcasts its health status, based on information
from the U.S. Department of Defense. Your receivers have safeguards to protect against
using data from unhealthy satellites.

 Signal Strength - Quality of Signal :

The strength of the satellite signal depends on obstructions and the elevation of the
satellites above the horizon. To the extent it is possible, obstructions between your GPS
antennae and the sky should be avoided. Also watch out for satellites which are close to
the horizon, because the signals are weaker.

 Distance from the Reference Receiver :

The effective range of a rover from a reference station depends primarily on the type of
accuracy you aere trying to achieve. For the highest real time accuracy (RTK fixed),
roveres should be within about 10-15 Km (about 6-9 miles) of the reference station. As
the range exceeds this recommended limit, you may failto initialize and be restricted to
RTK float solutions (decimeter accuracy).

 Radio Frequency (RF) Interference:

RF interference may sometimes be a problem both for your GPS reception and your
radio system. Some sources of RF interference include:

• Radio towers

• Transmitters

• Satellite dishes

• Generators

One should be particularly careful of sources which transmit either near the GPS
frequencies (1227 and 1575 MHz) or near harmonics (multiples) of these frequencies.
One should also be aware of the RF generated by his own machines.
  Loss of Radio Transmission from Base:
If, for any reason, there is an interruption in the radio link between a reference receiver
and a rover, then your rover is left with an autonomous position. It is very important to set
up a network of radios and repeaters, which can provide the uninterrupted radio link
needed for the best GPS results.

Reference Station Equipment:

 GPS receiver
 GPS antenna
 Radio and antenna, Power supply, & Cables

Radios
We have seen that each GPS rover must receive information from the reference station to
achieve accurate positions. To maintain constant communication between your reference station
and rover, you need these items at the reference station and at each rover:

 Radio
 Radio Antenna
 Cables

The radios are cabled directly into the GPS receiver. Power may be provided to the radio through
the GPS receiver. At the reference site, GPS data is broadcast through the radio. At the rover site,
the reference GPS data is received by the radio and routed into the rover receiver, where it is
processed together with rover's GPS data/ The rover radio can also draw power from the GPS
receiver.

Repeater Radios: If, for any reason, the reference station transmission cannot reach your rovers,
then you must use one or more repeaters. A repeater relays the data from your reference or
another repeater. The maximum number of repeaters you can use depends on your type of radio.
Repeaters differ from your reference and rover radios in two important ways: they must have their
own source of power, and they can be moved as the needs change. The radios draw very low
power, but they require uninterrupted power. Because repeaters may need to be moved to
accommodate your needs, batteries or compact solar power units are normally used.

Frequency and Bandwidth: Most radios used in GPS fall within one of the following frequency
ranges:

 150-174 MHz (VHF)

 406-512 MHz (UHF)
 902-928 MHz (spread spectrum)

The lower-frequency radios (150-174 MHZ) tend to have more power, due to design and legal
issues (not Physics), However, the bandwidth, which determines the amount of data you can
transmit, is narrower in these lower ranges (also due to design, not physics).

In the nominal 450 MHz and 900 MHz ranges, the bandwidth is wider. This has positive effects
both on the amount of data transmitted and on the number of repeaters possible within the radio
network.

Radio Range
To guarantee steady, uninterrupted transmission over the radio, one should be aware of some of
the factors that affect the radio's effective range.
  Antenna Height: raising the radio antenna is the easiest and most effective way to
increase range.
 Antenna design: radiating patterns vary, depending on the antenna design. For best
performance, be sure you understand how yoour antenna transmits signals.
 Cable length and type: radio signals suffer loss in cables, so keep the length to a
minimum. If you must use long cables, use low-loss cables.
 Output power: doubling output power does not double your effective range. Be sure one
understands the relationship between power and gain before the best system is decided.
 Obstructions: Buildings, walls and even the machines can block or interrupt radio
transmission. The repeaters should be carefully used to help minimize the effect of
obstructions.

Grounding
The radio antenna may be a target for lightning. To avoid damage, you may wish to ground your
reference station antenna.

GPS Applications
One of the most significant and unique features of the Global Positioning Systems is the fact that
the positioning signal is available to users in any position worldwide at any time. With a fully
operational GPS system, it can be generated to a large community of likely to grow as there are
multiple applications, ranging from surveying, mapping, and navigation to GIS data capture. The
GPS will soon be a part of the overall utility of technology.

There are countless GPs applications, a few important ones are covered in the following
passage.

Surveying and Mapping

The high precision of GPS carrier phase measurements, together with appropriate adjustment
algorithms, provide an adequate tool for a variety of tasks for surveying and mapping. Using
DGPs methods, accurate and timely mapping of almost anything can be carried out. The GPS is
used to map cut blocks, road alignments, and environmental hazards such as landslides, forest
fires, and oil spills. Applications, such as cadastral mapping, needing a high degree of accuracy
also can be carried out using high grade GPS receivers. Continuous kinematic techniques can be
used for topographic surveys and accurate linear mapping.

Navigation
Navigation using GPS can save countless hours in the field. Any feature, even if it is under water,
can be located up to one hundred meters simply by scaling coordinates from a map, entering
waypoints, and going directly to the site. Examples include road intersections, corner posts, plot
canters, accident sites, geological formations, and so on. GPS navigation in helicopters, in
vehicles, or in a ship can provide an easy means of navigation with substantial savings.

Remote Sensing and GIS

It is also possible to integrate GPS positioning into remote-sensing methods such as
photogrammetry and aerial scanning, magnetometry, and video technology. Using DGPS or
kinematic techniques, depending upon the accuracy required, real time or post-processing will
provide positions for the sensor which can be projected to the ground, instead of having ground
control projected to an image. GPS are becoming very effective tools for GIS data capture. The
GIS user community benefits from the use of GPS for locational data capture in various GIS
applications. The GPS can easily be linked to a laptop computer in the field, and, with appropriate
software, users can also have all their data on a common base with every little distortion. Thus
GPS can help in several aspects of construction of accurate and timely GIS databases.

Geodesy
Geodetic mapping and other control surveys can be carried out effectively using high-grade GPs
equipment. Especially when helicopters were used or when the line of sight is not possible, GPS
can set new standards of accuracy and productivity.

Military
The GPS was primarily developed for real time military positioning. Military applications include
airborne, marine, and land navigation.

Future of GPS Technology Barring significant new complications due to S/A (Selective
Availability) from DOD, the GPS industry is likely to continue to develop in the civilian community.
There are currently more than 50 manufacturers of GPs receivers, with the trend continuing to be
towards smaller, less expensive, and more easily operated devices. While highly accurate,
portable (hand-held) receivers are already available, current speculation envisions inexpensive
and equally accurate 'wristwatch locators' and navigational guidance systems for automobiles.
However, there is one future trend that will be very relevant to the GIS user community, namely,
community base stations and regional receive networks, as GPS management and technological
innovations that will make GPS surveying easier and more accurate.

www.gps.gov/

GPS

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S. space-based radionavigation

system that provides reliable positioning, navigation, and timing services to
civilian users on a continuous worldwide basis -- freely available to all. For
anyone with a GPS receiver, the system will provide location and time. GPS
provides accurate location and time information for an unlimited number of
people in all weather, day and night, anywhere in the world

The GPS is made up of three parts: satellites orbiting the Earth; control and
monitoring stations on Earth; and the GPS receivers owned by users. GPS
satellites broadcast signals from space that are picked up and identified by GPS
receivers. Each GPS receiver then provides three-dimensional location (latitude,
longitude, and altitude) plus the time.

Individuals may purchase GPS handsets that are readily available through
commercial retailers. Equipped with these GPS receivers, users can accurately
locate where they are and easily navigate to where they want to go, whether
walking, driving, flying, or boating. GPS has become a mainstay of transportation
systems worldwide, providing navigation for aviation, ground, and maritime
operations. Disaster relief and emergency services depend upon GPS for location
and timing capabilities in their life-saving missions. Everyday activities such as
banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids, are
facilitated by the accurate timing provided by GPS. Farmers, surveyors, geologists
and countless others perform their work more efficiently, safely, economically,
and accurately using the free and open GPS signals.

What is GPS?
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S.-owned utility that provides users
with positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services. This system consists of
three segments: the space segment, the control segment, and the user segment.
The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control
segments.

The space segment consists of a nominal constellation of 24 operating satellites

that transmit one-way signals that give the current GPS satellite position and
time.

The control segment consists of worldwide monitor and control stations that
maintain the satellites in their proper orbits through occasional command
maneuvers, and adjust the satellite clocks. It tracks the GPS satellites, uploads
updated navigational data, and maintains health and status of the satellite
constellation.

The user segment consists of the GPS receiver equipment, which receives the
signals from the GPS satellites and uses the transmitted information to calculate
the user’s three-dimensional position and time.

GPS Services

GPS satellites provide service to civilian and military users. The civilian service is
freely available to all users on a continuous, worldwide basis. The military service
is available to U.S. and allied armed forces as well as approved Government
agencies

A variety of GPS augmentation systems and techniques are available to enhance

system performance to meet specific user requirements. These improve signal
availability, accuracy, and integrity, allowing even better performance than is
possible using the basic GPS civilian service

The outstanding performance of GPS over many years has earned the confidence
of millions of civil users worldwide. It has proven its dependability in the past
and promises to be of benefit to users, throughout the world, far into the future

The Future of GPS

The United States is committed to an extensive modernization program,

including the implementation of a second and a third civil signal on GPS
satellites. The second civil signal will improve the accuracy of the civilian service
and supports some safety-of-life applications. The third signal will further
enhance civilian capability and is primarily designed for safety-of-life
applications, such as aviation.
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Policy

U.S. law and policy on GPS emphasize continuity of service, open access to civil
signals, and technological leadership. In 1996, the United States issued a national
policy statement on the management and use of space-based positioning,
navigation and timing services, which include GPS and augmentations. It
underscored the dual use (civilian-military) nature of GPS and established a joint
civil-military national management structure to oversee its operation

U.S. policy was expanded in 2004 in response to changing international

conditions and the incredible growth in the types and complexities of GPS
applications. This policy reaffirms the United States commitment to provide
reliable civil space-based positioning, navigation, and timing services through
GPS on a continuous, worldwide basis -- freely available to all. The policy also
calls for improving the performance of GPS and cooperating with other nations.

GPS Augmentations

To meet the specific user requirements for positioning, navigation, and timing
(PNT), a number of augmentations to the Global Positioning System (GPS) are
available. An augmentation is any system that aids GPS by providing accuracy,
integrity, reliability, availability, or any other improvement to positioning,
navigation, and timing that is not inherently part of GPS itself. Such
augmentations include, but are not limited to:

Nationwide Differential GPS System (NDGPS): The NDGPS is a ground-

based augmentation system operated and maintained by the Federal Railroad
Administration, U.S. Coast Guard, and Federal Highway Administration, that
provides increased accuracy and integrity of the GPS to users on land and water.
Modernization efforts include the High Accuracy NDGPS (HA-NDGPS) system,
currently under development, to enhance the performance and provide 10 to 15
centimeter accuracy throughout the coverage area. NDGPS is built to
international standards, and over 50 countries around the world have
implemented similar systems

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS): The WAAS, a satellite-based

augmentation system operated by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA), provides aircraft navigation for all phases of flight. Today, these
capabilities are broadly used in other applications because their GPS-like signals
can be processed by simple receivers without additional equipment. Using
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards, the FAA continues to
work with other States to provide seamless services to all users in any region.
Other ICAO standard space-based augmentation systems include: Europe's
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS), India's GPS and
Geo-Augmented Navigation System (GAGAN), and Japan's Multifunction
Transport Satellite (MTSAT) Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS). All of these
international implementations are based on GPS. The FAA will improve the
WAAS to take advantage of the future GPS safety-of-life signal and provide better
performance and promote global adoption of these new capabilities

Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS): The U.S. CORS

network, which is managed by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric
Administration, archives and distributes GPS data for precision positioning and
atmospheric modeling applications mainly through post-processing. CORS is
being modernized to support real-time users

Global Differential GPS (GDGPS): GDGPS is a high accuracy GPS

augmentation system, developed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) to
support the real-time positioning, timing, and orbit determination requirements
of the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) science
missions. Future NASA plans include using the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite
System (TDRSS) to disseminate via satellite a real-time differential correction
message. This system is referred to as the TDRSS Augmentation Service Satellites
(TASS)

International GNSS Service (IGS): IGS is a network of over 350 GPS

monitoring stations from 200 contributing organizations in 80 countries. Its
mission is to provide the highest quality data and products as the standard for
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) in support of Earth science research,
multidisciplinary applications, and education, as well as to facilitate other
applications benefiting society. Approximately 100 IGS stations transmit their
tracking data within one hour of collection

There are other augmentation systems available worldwide, both government

and commercial. These systems use differential, static, or real-time techniques

U.S. Policy on International Cooperation

The U.S. Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Policy underscores

the importance that all global navigation satellite systems and their
augmentations be compatible with GPS

The agreement in 2004 between the United States and the European Union
(E.U.) on GPS and Galileo recognized the benefits of interoperable systems. The
parties agreed to pursue a common, open, civil signal on both Galileo and future
GPS satellites, in addition to ongoing cooperation on the GPS-based EGNOS
augmentation system.

The United States has a long cooperative relationship with Japan on GPS. In
addition to the Multifunction Transport Satellite (MTSAT) Satellite
Augmentation System (MSAS), the parties are working towards developing a
GPS-compatible regional satellite "mini-" constellation known as the Quasi
Zenith Satellite System (QZSS).
The United States is also consulting closely with India on its development of its
GAGAN space-based augmentation system, and with the Russian Federation on
compatibility and interoperability between GPS and Russia's satellite navigation
system, GLONASS.

The U.S. Department of Defense also cooperates with numerous countries to

ensure that GPS provides military space-based PNT service and interoperable
user equipment to its coalition partners around the world.

Space-based PNT services must serve global users with transparent interfaces
and standards. The U.S. policy is to provide space-based PNT services on a
continuous worldwide basis, freely available to all for civil, commercial, and
scientific uses, and provide open, free access, to information necessary to develop
and build equipment to use these services

Applications

Timing

In addition to longitude, latitude, and altitude, the Global Positioning System

(GPS) provides a critical fourth dimension – time. Each GPS satellite contains
multiple atomic clocks that contribute very precise time data to the GPS signals.
GPS receivers decode these signals, effectively synchronizing each receiver to the
atomic clocks. This enables users to determine the time to within 100 billionths
of a second, without the cost of owning and operating atomic clocks

Precise time is crucial to a variety of economic activities around the world.

Communication systems, electrical power grids, and financial networks all rely on
precision timing for synchronization and operational efficiency. The free
availability of GPS time has enabled cost savings for companies that depend on
precise time and has led to significant advances in capability

For example, wireless telephone and data networks use GPS time to keep all of
their base stations in perfect synchronization. This allows mobile handsets to
share limited radio spectrum more efficiently. Similarly, digital broadcast radio
services use GPS time to ensure that the bits from all radio stations arrive at
receivers in lockstep. This allows listeners to tune between stations with a
minimum of delay

Companies worldwide use GPS to time-stamp business transactions, providing a

consistent and accurate way to maintain records and ensure their traceability.
Major investment banks use GPS to synchronize their network computers located
around the world. Large and small businesses are turning to automated systems
that can track, update, and manage multiple transactions made by a global
network of customers, and these require accurate timing information available
through GPS
The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) uses GPS to synchronize
reporting of hazardous weather from its 45 Terminal Doppler Weather Radars
located throughout the United States

Instrumentation is another application that requires precise timing. Distributed

networks of instruments that must work together to precisely measure common
events require timing sources that can guarantee accuracy at several points. GPS-
based timing works exceptionally well for any application in which precise timing
is required by devices that are dispersed over wide geographic areas. For
example, integration of GPS time into seismic monitoring networks enables
researchers to quickly locate the epicenters of earthquakes and other seismic
events

Power companies and utilities have fundamental requirements for time and
frequency to enable efficient power transmission and distribution. Repeated
power blackouts have demonstrated to power companies the need for improved
time synchronization throughout the power grid. Analyses of these blackouts
have led many companies to place GPS-based time synchronization devices in
power plants and substations. By analyzing the precise timing of an electrical
anomaly as it propagates through a grid, engineers can trace back the exact
location of a power line break

Some users, such as national laboratories, require the time at a higher level of
precision than GPS provides. These users routinely use GPS satellites not for
direct time acquisition, but for communication of high-precision time over long
distances. By simultaneously receiving the same GPS signal in two places and
comparing the results, the atomic clock time at one location can be
communicated to the other. National laboratories around the world use this
"common view" technique to compare their time scales and establish
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). They use the same technique to disseminate
their time scales to their own nations

New applications of GPS timing technology appear every day. Hollywood studios
are incorporating GPS in their movie slates, allowing for unparalleled control of
audio and video data, as well as multi-camera sequencing. The ultimate
applications for GPS, like the time it measures, are limitless

As GPS becomes modernized, further benefits await users. The addition of the
second and third civilian GPS signals will increase the accuracy and reliability of
GPS time, which will remain free and available to the entire world

Benefits
Widespread availability of atomic clock time, without the atomic clocks

Precise synchronization of communications systems, power grids, financial

networks, and other critical infrastructure
More efficient use of limited radio spectrum by wireless network

Improved network management and optimization, making traceable time tags

possible for financial transactions and billi

Communication of high-precision time among national laboratories using

“common view” techniques

Roads and Highways

It is estimated that delays from congestion on highways, streets, and transit

systems throughout the world result in productivity losses in the hundreds of
billions of dollars annually. Other negative effects of congestion include property
damage, personal injuries, increased air pollution, and inefficient fuel
consumption

The availability and accuracy of the Global Positioning System (GPS) offers
increased efficiencies and safety for vehicles using highways, streets, and mass
transit systems. Many of the problems associated with the routing and dispatch
of commercial vehicles is significantly reduced or eliminated with the help of
GPS. This is also true for the management of mass transit systems, road
maintenance crews, and emergency vehicles

GPS enables automatic vehicle location and in-vehicle navigation systems that
are widely used throughout the world today. By combining GPS position
technology with systems that can display geographic information or with systems
that can automatically transmit data to display screens or computers, a new
dimension in surface transportation is realized

A geographic information system (GIS) stores, analyzes, and displays

geographically referenced information provided in large part by GPS. Today GIS
is used to monitor vehicle location, making possible effective strategies that can
keep transit vehicles on schedule and inform passengers of precise arrival times.
Mass transit systems use this capability to track rail, bus, and other services to
improve on-time performance

Many new capabilities are made possible with the help of GPS. Instant car pools
are feasible since people desiring a ride can be instantly matched with a vehicle in
a nearby area

Using GPS technology to help track and forecast the movement of freight has
made a logistical revolution, including an application known as time-definite
delivery. In time-definite delivery, trucking companies use GPS for tracking to
guarantee delivery and pickup at the time promised, whether over short distances
or across time zones. When an order comes in, a dispatcher punches a computer
function, and a list of trucks appears on the screen, displaying a full array of
detailed information on the status of each of them. If a truck is running late or
strays off route, an alert is sent to the dispatcher

Many nations use GPS to help survey their road and highway networks, by
identifying the location of features on, near, or adjacent to the road networks.
These include service stations, maintenance and emergency services and
supplies, entry and exit ramps, damage to the road system, etc. The information
serves as an input to the GIS data gathering process. This database of knowledge
helps transportation agencies to reduce maintenance and service costs and
enhances the safety of drivers using the roads

Research is underway to provide warnings to drivers of potential critical

situations, such as traffic violations or crashes. Additional research is being
conducted to examine the potential for minimal vehicle control when there is a
clear need for action, such as the pre-deployment of air bags. The position
information provided by GPS is an integral part of this research

GPS is an essential element in the future of Intelligent Transportation Systems

(ITS). ITS encompasses a broad range of communications-based information and
electronics technologies. Research is being conducted in the area of advanced
driver assistance systems, which include road departure and lane change collision
avoidance systems. These systems need to estimate the position of a vehicle
relative to lane and road edge with an accuracy of 10 centimeters

With the continuous modernization of GPS, one can expect even more effective
systems for crash prevention, distress alerts and position notification, electronic
mapping, and in-vehicle navigation with audible instructions

Benefits

Higher levels of safety and mobility for all surface transportation system users

More accurate position determination to provide greater passenger information

More effective monitoring to ensure schedule adherence, creating a transit

system more responsive to transportation users needs

Better location information with electronic maps to provide in-vehicle navigation

systems for both commercial and private users

Increased efficiencies and reduced costs in surveying roads

Space

Earth orbit

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is revolutionizing and revitalizing the way
nations operate in space, from guidance systems for crewed vehicles to the
management, tracking, and control of communication satellite constellations, to
monitoring the Earth from space. Benefits of using GPS include:

Navigation solutions -- providing high precision orbit determination, and

minimum ground control crews, with existing space-qualified GPS units

Attitude solutions -- replacing high cost on-board attitude sensors with low-cost
multiple GPS antennae and specialized algorithms

Timing solutions -- replacing expensive spacecraft atomic clocks with low-cost,

precise time GPS receivers

Constellation control -- providing single point-of-contact to control for the orbit

maintenance of large numbers of space vehicles such as telecommunication
satellites

Formation flying -- allowing precision satellite formations with minimal

intervention from ground crews

Virtual platforms -- providing automatic "station-keeping" and relative position

services for advanced science tracking maneuvers such as interferometry

Launch vehicle tracking -- replacing or augmenting tracking radars with higher

precision, lower-cost GPS units for range safety and autonomous flight
termination

The moon, mars and beyond

The U.S. vision for space exploration, being implemented by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), includes developing innovative
technologies, knowledge, and infrastructures for returning to the Moon and
preparing the way for future human missions to Mars and beyond. The vision will
stimulate new research that will literally become the final frontier in navigation.
Drawing on the experience with GPS, one could imagine creating a GPS-like
network of satellites around the Moon and Mars. A Lunar or Martian network
could provide an integrated communications and navigation infrastructure to
support exploration and science missions both in lunar orbit and on the surface
of the Moon and Mars.

NASA is also studying the utility of placing GPS-like beacons on satellites

destined for the Sun-Earth Lagrangian points. Geodetic reference points could be
established at these locations to support the future exploration of the Solar
System

Benefits

Providing high precision positioning with minimum ground control

Replacing high cost, and high mass, on-board sensors

Aviation

Aviators throughout the world use the Global Positioning System (GPS) to
increase the safety and efficiency of flight. With its accurate, continuous, and
global capabilities, GPS offers seamless satellite navigation services that satisfy
many of the requirements for aviation users. Space-based position and navigation
enables three-dimensional position determination for all phases of flight from
departure, en route, and arrival, to airport surface navigation.

The trend toward an Area Navigation concept means a greater role for GPS. Area
Navigation allows aircraft to fly user-preferred routes from waypoint to waypoint,
where waypoints do not depend on ground infrastructure. Procedures have been
expanded to use GPS and augmented services for all phases of flight. This has
been especially true in areas that lack suitable ground based navigation aids or
surveillance equipment

New and more efficient air routes made possible by GPS are continuing to
expand. Vast savings in time and money are being realized. In many cases,
aircraft flying over data-sparse areas such as oceans have been able to safely
reduce their separation between one another, allowing more aircraft to fly more
favorable and efficient routes, saving time, fuel, and increasing cargo revenue

Improved approaches to airports, which significantly increase operational

benefits and safety, are now being implemented even at remote locations where
traditional ground-based services are unavailable. In some regions of the world,
satellite signals are augmented, or improved for special aviation applications,
such as landing planes during poor visibility conditions. In those cases, even
greater precision operations are possible

The good news for the aviation community is that GPS is being constantly
improved and modernized. A main component of the ongoing civilian
modernization effort is the addition of two new signals. These signals
complement the existing civilian service. The first of these new signals is for
general use in non-safety critical applications. The second new signal will be
internationally protected for aviation navigational purposes. This additional
safety-of-life civilian signal will make GPS an even more robust navigation
service for many aviation applications

The second safety-of-life signal will enable significant benefits above and beyond
the capabilities of the current GPS services. The availability of this signal offers
increased instrument approach opportunity throughout the world by making the
use of dual-frequency avionics possible. Dual frequency means that errors that
occur in the signals due to disturbances in the ionosphere can be significantly
reduced through the simultaneous use of two signals. This will improve the
overall system robustness, to include accuracy, availability, and integrity, and will
allow a precise approach capability with little or no ground infrastructure
investment

Reliance on GPS as the foundation for today and tomorrow's air traffic
management system is a major part of many national plans. Those aviation
authorities that are moving forward with GPS have observed and documented
reductions in flight time, workload, and operating costs for both the airspace user
and service provider. GPS also serves as an essential component for many other
aviation systems, such as the Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System
(EGPWS) that has proven successful in reducing the risk of Controlled Flight into
Terrain, a major cause of many aircraft accidents

Benefits
Continuous, reliable, and accurate positioning information for all phases of flight
on a global basis, freely available to all

Safe, flexible, and fuel-efficient routes for airspace service providers and airspace
users

Potential decommissioning and reduction of expensive ground based navigation

facilities, systems, and services

Increased safety for surface movement operations made possible by situational

awareness

Reduced aircraft delays due to increased capacity made possible through reduced
separation minimums and more efficient air traffic management, particularly
during inclement weather

Increased safety-of-life capabilities such as EGPWS

Agriculture

The development and implementation of precision agriculture or site-specific

farming has been made possible by combining the Global Positioning System
(GPS) and geographic information systems (GIS). These technologies enable the
coupling of real-time data collection with accurate position information, leading
to the efficient manipulation and analysis of large amounts of geospatial data.
GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for farm planning,
field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable rate
applications, and yield mapping. GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility
field conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness
In the past, it was difficult for farmers to correlate production techniques and
crop yields with land variability. This limited their ability to develop the most
effective soil/plant treatment strategies that could have enhanced their
production. Today, more precise application of pesticides, herbicides, and
fertilizers, and better control of the dispersion of those chemicals are possible
through precision agriculture, thus reducing expenses, producing a higher yield,
and creating a more environmentally friendly farm

Precision agriculture is now changing the way farmers and agribusinesses view
the land from which they reap their profits. Precision agriculture is about
collecting timely geospatial information on soil-plant-animal requirements and
prescribing and applying site-specific treatments to increase agricultural
production and protect the environment. Where farmers may have once treated
their fields uniformly, they are now seeing benefits from micromanaging their
fields. Precision agriculture is gaining in popularity largely due to the
introduction of high technology tools into the agricultural community that are
more accurate, cost effective, and user friendly. Many of the new innovations rely
on the integration of on-board computers, data collection sensors, and GPS time
and position reference systems

Many believe that the benefits of precision agriculture can only be realized on
large farms with huge capital investments and experience with information
technologies. Such is not the case. There are inexpensive and easy-to-use
methods and techniques that can be developed for use by all farmers. Through
the use of GPS, GIS, and remote sensing, information needed for improving land
and water use can be collected. Farmers can achieve additional benefits by
combining better utilization of fertilizers and other soil amendments,
determining the economic threshold for treating pest and weed infestations, and
protecting the natural resources for future use

GPS equipment manufacturers have developed several tools to help farmers and
agribusinesses become more productive and efficient in their precision farming
activities. Today, many farmers use GPS-derived products to enhance operations
in their farming businesses. Location information is collected by GPS receivers
for mapping field boundaries, roads, irrigation systems, and problem areas in
crops such as weeds or disease. The accuracy of GPS allows farmers to create
farm maps with precise acreage for field areas, road locations and distances
between points of interest. GPS allows farmers to accurately navigate to specific
locations in the field, year after year, to collect soil samples or monitor crop
conditions

Crop advisors use rugged data collection devices with GPS for accurate
positioning to map pest, insect, and weed infestations in the field. Pest problem
areas in crops can be pinpointed and mapped for future management decisions
and input recommendations. The same field data can also be used by aircraft
sprayers, enabling accurate swathing of fields without use of human “flaggers” to
guide them. Crop dusters equipped with GPS are able to fly accurate swaths over
the field, applying chemicals only where needed, minimizing chemical drift,
reducing the amount of chemicals needed, thereby benefiting the environment.
GPS also allows pilots to provide farmers with accurate maps

Farmers and agriculture service providers can expect even further improvements
as GPS continues to modernize. In addition to the current civilian service
provided by GPS, the United States is committed to implementing a second and a
third civil signal on GPS satellites. The first satellite with the second civilian
signal was launched in 2005. The new signals will enhance both the quality and
efficiency of agricultural operations in the future

Benefits

Precision soil sampling, data collection, and data analysis, enable localized
variation of chemical applications and planting density to suit specific areas of
the field

Accurate field navigation minimizes redundant applications and skipped areas,

and enables maximum ground coverage in the shortest possible tim

Ability to work through low visibility field conditions such as rain, dust, fog and
darkness increases productivity

Accurately monitored yield data enables future site-specific field preparation

Elimination of the need for human "flaggers" increases spray efficiency and
minimizes over-spray

Marine

The Global Positioning System (GPS) has changed the way the world operates.
This is especially true for marine operations, including search and rescue. GPS
provides the fastest and most accurate method for mariners to navigate, measure
speed, and determine location. This enables increased levels of safety and
efficiency for mariners worldwide

It is important in marine navigation for the ship's officer to know the vessel's
position while in open sea and also in congested harbors and waterways. While at
sea, accurate position, speed, and heading are needed to ensure the vessel
reaches its destination in the safest, most economical and timely fashion that
conditions will permit. The need for accurate position information becomes even
more critical as the vessel departs from or arrives in port. Vessel traffic and other
waterway hazards make maneuvering more difficult, and the risk of accidents
becomes greater
Mariners and oceanographers are increasingly using GPS data for underwater
surveying, buoy placement, and navigational hazard location and mapping.
Commercial fishing fleets use GPS to navigate to optimum fishing locations, track
fish migrations, and ensure compliance with regulations

An enhancement to the basic GPS signal known as Differential GPS (DGPS)

provides much higher precision and increased safety in its coverage areas for
maritime operations. Many nations use DGPS for operations such as buoy
positioning, sweeping, and dredging. This enhancement improves harbor
navigation

Governments and industrial organizations around the world are working together
to develop performance standards for Electronic Chart Display and Information
Systems, which use GPS and/or DGPS for positioning information. These
systems are revolutionizing marine navigation and are leading to the replacement
of paper nautical charts. With DGPS, position and radar information can be
integrated and displayed on an electronic chart, forming the basis of the
Integrated Bridge System which is being installed on commercial vessels of all
types

GPS is playing an increasingly important role in the management of maritime

port facilities. GPS technology, coupled with geographic information system
(GIS) software, is key to the efficient management and operation of automated
container placement in the world's largest port facilities. GPS facilitates the
automation of the pick-up, transfer, and placement process of containers by
tracking them from port entry to exit. With millions of container shipments being
placed in port terminals annually, GPS has greatly reduced the number of lost or
misdirected containers and lowered associated operation costs.

GPS information is embedded within a system known as the Automatic

Identification System (AIS) transmission. The AIS, which is endorsed by the
International Maritime Organization, is used for vessel traffic control around
busy seaways. This service is not only vital for navigation, but is increasingly used
to bolster the security of ports and waterways by providing governments with
greater situational awareness of commercial vessels and their cargo.

AIS uses a transponder system that operates in the VHF maritime band and is
capable of communicating ship to ship as well as ship to shore, transmitting
information relating to ship identification, geographic location, vessel type, and
cargo information -- all on a real-time, wholly automated basis. Because the
ship's GPS position is embedded in these transmissions, all essential information
about vessel movements and contents can be uploaded automatically to
electronic charts. The safety and security of vessels using this system is
significantly enhanced

Finally, with the modernization of GPS, mariners can look forward to even better
service. In addition to the current GPS civilian service, the United States is
committed to implementing two additional civilian signals. Access to the new
signals will mean increased accuracy, more availability, and better integrity for all
users

Benefits

Allows access to fast and accurate position, course, and speed information, saving
navigators time and fuel through more efficient traffic routing

Provides precise navigation information to boaters

Improves precision and efficiency of buoy positioning, sweeping, and dredging

operations

Enhances efficiency and economy for container management in port facilities

Increases safety and security for vessels using the AIS

Rail

Rail systems in many parts of the world use the Global Positioning System (GPS)
in combination with various sensors, computers, and communication systems to
improve safety, security, and operational effectiveness. These technologies help
to reduce accidents, delays, operating costs, and dangerous emissions, while
increasing track capacity, customer satisfaction, and cost effectiveness. Integral
to the efficient operation of rail systems is the requirement for accurate, real-time
position information of locomotives, rail cars, maintenance-of-way vehicles, and
wayside equipment

Ensuring high levels of safety, improving the efficiency of rail operations, and
expanding system capacity are all key objectives of today’s railroad industry.
Unlike most other modes of transportation, there is little flexibility in managing
rail traffic. Most rail systems are comprised of long stretches of a single set of
tracks. Trains bound for thousands of destinations must simultaneously share the
use of these single line tracks

Precise knowledge of where a train is located is essential to prevent collisions,

maintain smooth flow of traffic, and minimize costly delays due to waiting for
clearance for track use. Only the skill of the crews, accurate timing, a dynamic
dispatching capability, and a critical array of “meet and passes” locations on short
stretches of parallel tracks, allow rail dispatchers to guide their trains safely
through. It is therefore critical for safety and efficiency reasons to know the
position and performance of these trains both individually and system-wide
GPS also contributes to dependable scheduling through train location awareness,
enhancing connectivity with other modes of transportation, such as rail station to
airport transfers

An enhancement to the basic GPS signal known as Differential GPS (DGPS)

improves accuracy and safety within its coverage areas. The enhanced position
information enables the dispatcher to determine on which of two parallel tracks a
train is located. When coupled with other location and navigation devices to
account for time in tunnels, behind hills, and other obstructions, DGPS can
provide a reliable and accurate position-locating capability for rail traffic
management systems

Differential GPS is an essential element of the Positive Train Control (PTC)

concept being adopted in many parts of the world. This concept involves
providing precise railroad position information to sophisticated command and
control systems to produce the best operating plan to include varying train speed,
re-routing traffic, and safely moving maintenance crews onto and off tracks.

A PTC system can track the location and speed of a train more accurately than
was previously possible, providing train movement information to rail
management personnel who can then enforce speeds and limits of authority, as
necessary. By providing better tracking of train location and speed, PTC increases
operational efficiency, allows higher track capacity, enhances crew, passenger,
and cargo safety, and also results in a safer environment for personnel working
on the track

Differential GPS can also aid in surveying and mapping track structure for
maintenance and future system planning. By using DGPS, one can precisely
locate mileposts, signal masts, switch points, bridges, road crossings, signal
equipment, etc. GPS can satisfy the high level of accuracy needed for operation in
terminal areas and rail yards, where dozens of tracks may run in parallel

Finally, with the modernization of GPS, rail operators can look forward to
providing better service. In addition to the current GPS civilian service, the
United States is committed to implementing two additional civilian signals.
Access to the new signals will mean increased accuracy, more availability, and
better integrity for all users.

Benefits

Enhanced levels of safety

Increased capacity and efficiency for all rail users.

Dependable schedule and equipment location awareness

Improved track, traffic, and train sensor information that flows together and
produces a constantly updated plan to manage operations

Increased situational awareness for improved safety of trains and maintenance

crews

Environment

To sustain the Earth’s environment while balancing human needs requires better
decision making with more up-to-date information. Gathering accurate and
timely information has been one of the greatest challenges facing both
government and private organizations that must make these decisions. The
Global Positioning System (GPS) helps to address that need

Data collection systems provide decision makers with descriptive information

and accurate positional data about items that are spread across many kilometers
of terrain. By connecting position information with other types of data, it is
possible to analyze many environmental problems from a new perspective.
Position data collected through GPS can be imported into geographic information
system (GIS) software, allowing spatial aspects to be analyzed with other
information to create a far more complete understanding of a particular situation
than might be possible through conventional means

Aerial studies of some of the world’s most impenetrable wilderness are conducted
with the aid of GPS technology to evaluate an area’s wildlife, terrain, and human
infrastructure. By tagging imagery with GPS coordinates it is possible to evaluate
conservation efforts and assist in strategy planning

Some nations collect and use mapping information to manage their regulatory
programs such as the control of royalties from mining operations, delineation of
borders, and the management of logging in their forests

GPS technology supports efforts to understand and forecast changes in the

environment. By integrating GPS measurements into operational methods used
by meteorologists, the atmosphere’s water content can be determined, improving
the accuracy of weather forecasts. In addition, the proliferation of GPS tidal
tracking sites, and improvement in estimating the vertical component of a site’s
position from GPS measurements, present a unique opportunity to directly
observe the effects of ocean tides

GPS receivers mounted on buoys track the movement and spread of oil spills.
Helicopters use GPS to map the perimeter of forest fires and allow efficient use of
fire fighting resources

The migratory patterns of endangered species, such as the mountain gorillas of

Rwanda, are tracked and mapped using GPS, helping to preserve and enhance
declining populations
In earthquake prone areas such as the Pacific Rim, GPS is playing an increasingly
prominent role in helping scientists to anticipate earthquakes. Using the precise
position information provided by GPS, scientists can study how strain builds up
slowly over time in an attempt to characterize, and in the future perhaps
anticipate, earthquakes

Another benefit to using GPS is timeliness with which critical products can be
generated. Because GPS data are in a digital form available at all times and in all
parts of the world, they can be captured and analyzed very quickly. This means
that it is possible for analysis to be completed in hours or days rather than weeks
or months, thus ensuring that the final product is timelier. With the rapid pace of
change in the world today, these savings in time can be critical

The modernization of GPS will further enhance the support of GPS technology to
the study and management of the world’s environment. The United States is
committed to implementing two additional civilian signals that will provide
ecological and conservation applications with increased accuracy, availability,
and reliability. Tropical rain forest ecology, for example, will benefit from the
increased availability of GPS within heavy foliage areas and the reduction of
spatial error in fine-scale vegetation mapping

Benefits

GPS data collection systems complemented with GIS packages provide a means
for comprehensive analysis of environmental concerns

Environmental patterns and trends can be efficiently recognized with GPS/GIS

data collection systems, and thematic maps can be easily created

GPS data can be quickly analyzed without the preliminary requirement for field
data transcription into a digitized form

Accurate tracking of environmental disasters such as fires and oil spills can be
conducted more efficiently

Precise positional data from GPS can assist scientists in crustal and seismic
monitoring

Monitoring and preservation of endangered species can be facilitated through

GPS tracking and mapping
public safety and disaster relief

A critical component of any successful rescue operation is time. Knowing the

precise location of landmarks, streets, buildings, emergency service resources,
and disaster relief sites reduces that time -- and saves lives. This information is
critical to disaster relief teams and public safety personnel in order to protect life
and reduce property loss. The Global Positioning System (GPS) serves as a
facilitating technology in addressing these needs

GPS has played a vital role in relief efforts for global disasters such as the tsunami
that struck in the Indian Ocean region in 2004, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita that
wreaked havoc in the Gulf of Mexico in 2005, and the Pakistan-India earthquake
in 2005. Search and rescue teams used GPS, geographic information system
(GIS), and remote sensing technology to create maps of the disaster areas for
rescue and aid operations, as well as to assess damage

Another important area of disaster relief is in the management of wildfires. To

contain and manage forest fires, aircraft combine GPS with infrared scanners to
identify fire boundaries and “hot spots.” Within minutes, fire maps are
transmitted to a portable field computer at the firefighters’ camp. Armed with
this information, firefighters have a greater chance of winning the battle against
the blaze

In earthquake prone areas such as the Pacific Rim, GPS is playing an increasingly
prominent role in helping scientists to anticipate earthquakes. Using the precise
position information provided by GPS, scientists can study how strain builds up
slowly over time in an attempt to characterize, and in the future perhaps
anticipate, earthquakes

Meteorologists responsible for storm tracking and flood prediction also rely on
GPS. They can assess water vapor content by analyzing transmissions of GPS data
through the atmosphere

GPS has become an integral part of modern emergency response systems --

whether helping stranded motorists find assistance or guiding emergency
vehicles

As the international industry positioning standard for use by emergency and

other specialty vehicle fleets, GPS has given managers a quantum leap forward in
efficient operation of their emergency response teams. The ability to effectively
identify and view the location of police, fire, rescue, and individual vehicles or
boats, and how their location relates to an entire network of transportation
systems in a geographic area, has resulted in a whole new way of doing business.
Location information provided by GPS, coupled with automation, reduces delay
in the dispatch of emergency services.

Incorporation of GPS in mobile phones places an emergency location capability

in the hands of everyday users. Today’s widespread placement of GPS location
systems in passenger cars provides another leap in developing a comprehensive
safety net. Today, many ground and maritime vehicles are equipped with
autonomous crash sensors and GPS. This information, when coupled with
automatic communication systems, enables a call for help even when occupants
are unable to do so
The modernization of GPS will further facilitate disaster relief and public safety
services. The addition of new civil signals will increase accuracy and reliability all
over the world. In short, GPS modernization translates to more lives saved and
faster recovery for victims of global tragedies

Benefits

Deliver disaster relief to areas in a more timely and accurate manner, saving lives
and restoring critical infrastructure

Provide position information for mapping of disaster regions where little or no

mapping information is available

Enhance capability for flood prediction and monitoring of seismic precursors and
events

Provide positional information about individuals with mobile phones and in

vehicles in case of emergency

Surveying and mapping

As technology evolves and expands throughout the world, the surveying and
mapping community is steadily redefining the tools required to increase
productivity and obtain highly accurate data

Using the near pinpoint accuracy provided by the Global Positioning System
(GPS) with ground augmentations, highly accurate surveying and mapping
results can be rapidly obtained, thereby significantly reducing the amount of
equipment and labor hours that are normally required of other conventional
surveying and mapping techniques. Today it is possible for a single surveyor to
accomplish in one day what used to take weeks with an entire team. GPS is
unaffected by rain, wind, or reduced sunlight, and is rapidly being adopted by
professional surveyors and mapping personnel throughout the world

GPS provides accurate three-dimensional positioning information for natural and

artificial features that can be displayed on maps and models of everything in the
world - mountains, rivers, forests, endangered animals, precious minerals and
many other resources. GPS position information for these features serves as a
prime input to geographic information systems (GIS), that assemble, store,
manipulate, and display geographically referenced information

GPS has played a vital role in relief efforts for global disasters such as the tsunami
that struck in the Indian Ocean region in 2004, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita that
wreaked havoc in the Gulf of Mexico in 2005, and the Pakistan-India earthquake
in 2005. Search and rescue teams used GPS position information to create maps
of the disaster areas for rescue and aid operations, as well as to help assess
damage

Throughout the world, government agencies, scientific organizations, and

commercial operations are using the surveys and maps deriving from GPS and
GIS for timely decision-making and wiser use of resources. Any organization or
agency that requires accurate location information can benefit from the efficiency
and productivity provided by the positioning capability of GPS

Unlike traditional techniques, GPS surveying is not bound by constraints such as

line-of-sight visibility between reference stations. Also, the spacing between
stations can be increased. The increased flexibility of GPS also permits survey
stations to be established at easily accessible sites rather than being confined to
hilltops as previously required

Remote GPS systems may be carried by one person in a backpack, mounted on

the roof of an automobile, or fastened atop an all-terrain vehicle to permit rapid
and accurate field data collection. With a GPS radio communication link, real-
time, continuous centimeter-level accuracy makes possible a productivity level
that is virtually unattainable using optical survey instruments

With the modernization of GPS even further enhancements are in the works. In
addition to the current GPS civilian service, the United States is committed to
implementing two additional civilian signals. The extra signals will, for example,
provide a means for correcting errors caused by the ionosphere, thus improving
positioning accuracy. The new signals will also improve the availability and
overall integrity of the system for all users

Benefits

Provides significant productivity gains over traditional surveying by eliminating

many of its inherent limitations, such as the requirement for a line of sight
between surveying points

Provides accurate positioning of natural and artificial features that can be used to
create maps and models that are used for a wide range of services such as disaster
relief and public safety

Gives decision-makers timely and valuable information for wise use of resources

Yields highly accurate surveying results in real-time at the centimeter-level

Allows surveyors to work uninterrupted in periods of poor weather conditions or

reduced sunlight

Recreation
The Global Positioning System (GPS) has eliminated many of the hazards
associated with common recreational activities by providing a capability to
determine a precise location. GPS receivers have also broadened the scope and
enjoyment of outdoor activities by simplifying many of the traditional problems,
such as staying on the “correct trail” or returning to the best fishing spot.

Outdoor exploration carries with it many intrinsic dangers, one of the most
important of which is the potential for getting lost in unfamiliar or unsafe
territory. Hikers, bicyclists, and outdoor adventurers are increasingly relying on
GPS instead of traditional paper maps, compasses, or landmarks. Paper maps are
often outdated, and compasses and landmarks may not provide the precise
location information necessary to avoid venturing into unfamiliar areas. In
addition, darkness and adverse weather conditions may also contribute to
imprecise navigation results

GPS technology coupled with electronic mapping has helped to overcome much
of the traditional hardships associated with unbounded exploration. GPS
handsets allow users to safely traverse trails with the confidence of knowing
precisely where they are at all times, as well as how to return to their starting
point. One of the benefits is the ability to record and return to waypoints.
Similarly, fishermen typically use GPS signals as a means to continually stay
apprised of location, heading, bearing, speed, distance-to-go, time-to-go, chart
plotting functions, and most importantly, returning to a location where the fish
are plentiful

An advantage in newer GPS receivers is the capability to transfer data to and

from a computer. Outdoor enthusiasts can download waypoints from an exciting
adventure and share them. An example of this is a web site based in Malaysia
dedicated to GPS for mountain biking enthusiasts. Riders post waypoint files
marking their favorite rides allowing other riders to try out the trails

Golfers use GPS to measure precise distances within the course and improve their
game. Other applications include skiing, as well as recreational aviation and
boating

GPS technology has generated entirely new sports and outdoor activities. An
example of this is geocaching, a sport which rolls a pleasurable day’s outing and a
treasure hunt into one. Another new sport is geodashing, a cross-country race to
a predefined GPS coordinate

GPS modernization efforts, designed to enhance more serious applications than

recreation have provided direct and indirect benefits to the user. Various GPS
augmentation systems that were developed in several countries for commerce
and transportation are also being widely used by outdoor enthusiasts for
recreational purposes. Modernization plans for GPS will result in even greater
reliability and availability for all users, such as under a denser forest cover -- just
the environment in which many adventurers most need this capability
Benefits

Highly accurate all-weather positioning information using GPS receivers helps

outdoor adventurers with safer exploration anywhere in the world

Ability to return to favorite fishing spots, trails, campsites or other locations with
precision year after year, despite changing terrain conditions

New and interesting activities (based solely on the capabilities of GPS) are
developed every day by outdoor enthusiasts and shared with others

Relatively small, portable, and affordable handsets can be used for multiple types
of recreation activities

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS). Utilizing a constellation of at least 24 medium Earth orbit
satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, the system enables a GPS receiver to
determine its location, speed/direction, and time

Developed by the United States Department of Defense, it is officially named NAVSTAR

GPS (Contrary to popular belief, NAVSTAR is not an acronym, but simply a name given
by Mr. John Walsh, a key decision maker when it came to the budget for the GPS
program[1]). The satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force 50th
Space Wing. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$750 million per
year,[2] including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development.
Despite these costs, GPS is free for civilian use as a public good

GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-
making, land surveying, commerce, and scientific uses. GPS also provides a precise time
reference used in many applications including scientific study of earthquakes, and
synchronization of telecommunications networks

Simplified method of operation

A GPS receiver calculates its position by measuring the distance between itself and three
or more GPS satellites. Measuring the time delay between transmission and reception of
each GPS microwave signal gives the distance to each satellite, since the signal travels at
a known speed. These signals also carry information about the satellites' location and
general system health (known as almanac and ephemeris). By determining the position
of, and distance to, at least three satellites, the receiver can compute its position using
trilateration.[3] Receivers typically do not have perfectly accurate clocks and therefore
track one or more additional satellites, using their atomic clocks to correct the receiver's
own clock error
Applications

The Global Positioning System, while originally a military project, is considered a dual-
use technology, meaning it has significant applications for both the military and the
civilian industry

Military

Concerning military applications, GPS allows accurate targeting of various military

weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles and precision-guided munitions. It is used to
navigate and coordinate the movement of troops and supplies

The GPS satellites also carry nuclear detonation detectors, which form a major portion of
the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System.

Civilian

Many civilian applications benefit from GPS signals, using one or more of three basic
components of the GPS; absolute location, relative movement, time transfer

The ability to determine the receiver's absolute location allows GPS receivers to perform
as a surveying tool or as an aid to navigation. The capacity to determine relative
movement enables a receiver to calculate local velocity and orientation, useful in vessels
or observations of the Earth. Being able to synchronize clocks to exacting standards
enables time transfer, which is critical in large communication and observation systems.
An example is CDMA digital cellular. Each base station has a GPS timing receiver to
synchronize its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell hand off
and support hybrid GPS/CDMA positioning of mobiles for emergency calls and other
applications

Finally, GPS enables researchers to explore the Earth environment including the
atmosphere, ionosphere and gravity field. GPS survey equipment has revolutionized
tectonics by directly measuring the motion of faults in earthquakes

To help prevent civilian GPS guidance from being used in an enemy's military or
improvised weaponry, the US Government controls the export of civilian receivers. A
US-based manufacturer cannot generally export a GPS receiver unless the receiver
contains limits restricting it from functioning when it is simultaneously (1) at an altitude
above 18 kilometers (60,000 ft) and (2) traveling at over 515 m/s (1,000 knots