Rish Rchaeological Esearch: Agazine Igital

Page 1
How long have you had your trowel?

Our events guide for Derry ~ Londonderry City of Culture 2013
Excavations, the story so far.
A series of articles on the excavations of 2011.
Living History at Aughnanure Castle
Bone of contention: the Raynestown idol
A Vernacular Apocalypse Now
Dr Rowan McLaughlin discusses how small vernacular housescould be a
key to a better understanding of rural settlement through the ages.
Bringing our local heritage to the world Autumn 2011
Distributed For Free
Volume 1 No. 1
Issue No. 1
Irish
Archaeological
Research
Magazine
Digital
C ont ent s
Request for Articles
Wearelookingforyourhelp;theIARDigitalMagazineiswrittenbyvolunteers,peoplejustlikeyou.Weare
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itintous.
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IrishArchaeologicalResearchIssue1Oct2011
1
*Requestforarticles 1
*IntroductiontoIAR 2
*SowhoareIrishArchaeologicalResearch? 3
*IARsNightattheMuseum 5
*LivingHistoryatAughnaureCastle 7
*PastPerformance:AgendasIforexperimentalArchaeology 13
*BoneofContention:TheRaystownidol 15
*BeyondtheSummit:RemoteSensing 17
*AVernacularApocalypseNow 25
*ThemBonesThemBonesneed.Examining 32
*Swordplayinthe20thCentury 35
*TheCleaningofaRomancoinusingelectrolysis 39
*MysterysurroundingstrangestoneunearthedonCaveHill,Belfast 42
Welcome to Irish Archaeological Research, a nonprofit, membersupported organisation dedicated to the
preservation,protectionandpromotionofIrelandsrichheritage.BasedinNorthernIreland,IARwasformed
byfourarchaeologistswho,afteryearsofworkinginthecommercialsector,realisedtheneedforamedium
throughwhicharchaeologicalinformationcouldbedisseminatedtobothnationalandinternationalaudiences
withrelativeease.Weaimtodothisthroughourwebsite,blog,onlineforumandthisdigitalmagazine.We
will also be organising various events throughout the year ranging from survey days to archaeological
experiments.
Our primary focus is the education of local communities about heritage in their area, especially where
monumentsareatrisk.HiddenHeritagewilltargetspecificregionswheremonumentshavebeenneglected
orvandalised.Byengagingwithstateauthorities,localschoolsandcommunitygroupswehopetohighlight
theimportanceofthesemonumentstotheirareaandestablishschemeswheremembersofthecommunity
organisethecareandmaintenanceofsaidmonument.
OurfirstHiddenHeritageschemewillbetakingplace inDerry~Londonderryas
part of the celebrations for the first UK City of Culture which was won by
Derry~Londonderryandwilltakeplacethroughout2013.
In partnership with Derry City Council, we will be organising a series of events

basedaroundStBrecansChurchinStColumbsPark,besideEbringtonBarracksontheWatersideareaofthe
city.ThisprojectincludewillalotofcommunityinvolvementsowehopetoseeyouinDerry~Londonderryin
2013.
We have already initiated several new
andinnovativewaystodisseminateour
resultstoawidedemographicsowatch
thisspace!
We hope that this digital magazine will

encourage both prof essi onal
archaeologists and members of the
public to share new discoveries,
theories and ideas with a worldwide
audience.
Introduction to Irish Archaeological Research
ThisistheruinofSt.BrecansChurchinSt.ColumbsPark,Derry~Londonderry.
2
So who are Irish Archaeological Research?
IrishArchaeologicalResearchIssue1Oct2011 IrishArchaeologicalResearchIssue1Oct2011
HereisabriefintroductiontothefourofuswhosetupIAR.
ChristinaO'Regan
I began my archaeological career at University College Cork in 1998. After graduating in 2001, I went on to
workforbothV.J.KeeleyandMargaretGowen&CoonanumberofprojectsintheRepublic.In2003,after
movingtoBelfast,IcompletedaMastersdegreeinEnvironmentalArchaeologyfromQueen'sUniversity.This
was followed by several years working for Northern Archaeological Consultancy Ltd, four of those as a site
director. I have directed numerous intriguing sites, most notably a unique burial cairn in Co. Londonderry
(published in Archaeology Ireland and the Ulster Journal of Archaeology). My primary role within IAR is as
Fieldwork Director though I can also be found coordinating events for schools and pressing the flesh at
archaeologyconferences;nextstop,annualIAIconference,November2011,Cork.
LianneHeaney
IgraduatedfromQueensUniversityBelfastin2000,withaBSc(Hons)inArchaeologyandPalaeoecologyand
in2001withaMSc(Hons)inMaritimeArchaeologyfromtheUniversityofUlster,Coleraine.Ihaveworkedas
a field archaeologist and site director for over 10 years, excavating sites of all periods from Mesolithic to
PostMedieval. I have worked for Northern Archaeological Consultancy since 2002, first as a field
archaeologist,thensitesupervisor,andsitedirector.Between2006and2008,Imanagedandranthepost
excavation unit at NAC and then in 2009 became NACs business manager responsible for the daytoday
runningofthecompanyanddealingwiththefinancialsideofthebusiness.IcurrentlyworkparttimeforNAC
andparttimeforIARasit'sBusinessManager.
3
RossBailey
I graduated from Queens University Belfast in 2006, with a BSc (Hons) in Archaeology and Palaeoecology.
Since2006Ihaveworkedonmanysites,bothinthefieldandpreparingimpactassessments.CurrentlyIwork
parttimeforNorthernArchaeologicalConsultancy,andparttimeforIrishArchaeologicalResearch.Myrole
withinIARisprimarilythatofResearchDirector,butIalsocraftreplicaartefactsfordisplay,experimental,and
demonstrationpurposes.
IoriginallystudiedelectronicandcomputersystemsatJordanstownandafteranumberofyearsworkingin
the IT industry I decided to try and follow my childhood ambition to become an archaeologist. I started
workingwithNorthernArchaeologicalConsultancyin2002asageneraloperativeandovertheyearsbecame
asiteassistant,supervisor,assistantdirectorandfinallyasitedirectorin2009.IamIARsTechnicaldirector,
my role in our new social enterprise it to incorporate the latest technological innovations into both
archaeological fieldwork and heritage awareness. I develop all of the companys presence on the web,
designingandbuildingourwebsites,managingourFacebookpageanddevelopingourdigitalmagazine.
GavinDonaghy
4
So who are Irish Archaeological Research?
IARsNightattheMuseum
5
September 23rd was European Culture night and IAR
was firmly ensconced in the Tower Museum in Derry.
Wehadbeeninvitedbythemuseumtoshowcaseour
experienceasfieldarchaeologistsaswellasorganisea
display of artefacts to complement their current
exhibit on megalithic monuments (kindly donated by
NorthernArchaeologicalConsultancyLtd).
TheTowerMuseum,Derry
Throughout the evening it was clear that the display and our
presence created the biggest impact on tourists and children; the
formerbeingstunnedattherichnessandlongevityoftheislands
historywhilethelatterweregreatlyimpressedbythehumanand
animalboneandflintarrowheads.RossBailey(IAR)hadprovided
some replica bronze axe heads as well as a barbandtang
arrowhead,haftedontoanashshaftwithimitationsinew.
6
As well as answering some frequently encountered
queries, How do you know its a hammerstone and
notjustaroundstone?andIsthatpotactuallyworth
anything?, we were able to discuss IARs plans for
heritage events in Derry city with some of her
inhabitants, all of which were greeted with incredible
enthusiasm. We look forward to fulfilling all of our
ambitions and satisfying the lust for heritage
knowledgethatwasevidentthroughouttheevening.
MembersofthepublicenjoyingthedisplayofartefactsandthetouroftheTowerMuseum.
7
LivingHistoryatAughnanureCastle
Jenny Young highlights the importance of archaeology to education and
industrybydescribingthesuccessfuleventsatonemedievalcastle.
There are challenging times ahead for the heritage sector in Ireland. It appears that now, more than ever
before, our heritage must take centre stage in the role of national recovery and employment generation by
creatingsustainabletourismandinwardinvestment.Afterall,thewealthofarchaeologicalricheswepossess
and how they are presented and interpreted to the public, has become an increasingly valuable resource
through growing public interest and recognition of their tourism and educational value. As obvious as this
may appear however, it is our heritage that has endured some sacrifice in the name of fiscal recovery, a
contradictionperhaps,totheveryindustrythathasthesignificantpotentialtorecoverourfinancialstability.
In spite of this, nonetheless, one heritage site in the west of Ireland is confronting the struggle headon.
Faced with these current challenges, Aughnanure Castle, in Connemara, Co. Galway, has become a thriving
centreoftourism,educationandcommunityspirit.
Managed by the Office of Public Works, Aughnanure Castle is a fifteenthcentury OFlaherty tower house
beautifully situated on the banks of the Drimneen river close to the village of Oughterard the gateway to
Connemara.BeingtheonlymedievalcastleopentothepublicintheConnemararegion,itspresencehereisa
vitaloneinbringingvisitorstothearea.Abustling,picturesquevillage,famedforitsfishingonnearbyLough
Corrib,OughterardisnotunlikemostsmallvillagesinIreland,feelingtheeffectsoftheeconomicdownturn.
Its greatest asset however, is certainly the castle, responsible for bringing thousands of visitors to the area
every season, much to the support of the local village businesses and services who graciously benefit from
revenuethisbringstothelocality.
Guided tours of this superbly restored castle and a dedicated schools programme, are just some of the
attractionsofferedatthecastleannualeventsareanother,whicharenowenthusiasticallycelebratedevery
yearinthelocalarea.Theguidesatthecastlehavelongrealisedthepotentialofsuchcommunityeventsand
have always been committed to forging positive links within the local community. It is through this
commitmenttoorganisingeventsthatarealsenseofcommunityspirithasdevelopedinthearea,something
that has contributed to the success of every event held at the castle. From medieval themed festivals for
HeritageWeek,toshowcasinglocalart,tochildrensHalloweenthemedfestivities,thesearejustsomeofthe
yearlyeventsheldatthecastle,allfreeofchargetothepublic.
CommunityInvolvement
The involvement of the local community is vital in
raising awareness of the castle as well as
maintaining its reputation, especially in terms of
the various events held there. The local resource
centre, arts and heritage groups and local tourist
centre, are all involved in the goingson at
Aughnanure and have undoubtedly contributed to
anincreasedsenseofcommunitywithinthearea.
However small their involvement it, has a lasting

impact. For instance, the Oughterard Flower Club
has been decorating the castle for Heritage Week
for the past number of years, something that has
become synonymous with the event, generating
interestwithagroupofpeoplewhoordinarily,may
not have visited the site. Furthermore, the local
resourcecentreprovidesvolunteersfromitsyouth
club to participate in the annual childrens
Halloween festivities. These volunteers, who age
between15and17,enthusiasticallyengagewiththechildreninthevariousgamesandactivitiesorganisedfor
the event. Including the local youth in the organisation of an event not only gives them some sense of
responsibility, but is also a very positive step in creating awareness and appreciation of heritage in the
youngsters,withoutthemevenrealisingit.
The local Oughterard Heritage Club is another community initiative that has strong links with the castle. In
2009 they showcased their archive of old photos in the castle for the community to view for the first time,
projectedontothemedievalcastlewalls.Thiswasacollectiontheyhadspentaccumulatingovermanyyears
and had recentlydigitized and restored the collection.Ascreening of John FordsThe Rising of the Moon
was also shown a short film shot on location at Aughnanure in the 1950s, starring Cyril Cusack and Noel
Purcell.
The Head Guide at Aughnanure Castle, Janet Schley, sees the benefits of such involvement with the
community. The main objective of all the events we organise at the castle is to increase community
involvementintheirlocalheritagesite.
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EducationalBenefits
Moreover, heritage sites, like Aughnanure Castle, have much to offer our educational system. In order to
safeguardIrelandsheritageresourceandtouseitasaneconomicadvantageitiscrucialthatsocietyisaware
ofthewealthofculturalheritagethatsurroundsthem.Whatbetterwaytoraisethisawarenessthantotap
into the natural inquisitiveness of children and open up to them an appreciation of the culture, history and
archaeologyoftheirlocalenvironment.
Thisisexactlywhatthecastleisstrivingto
achieve. The promotion of learning that
engages childrens interest in their
heritageandtobroadentheirexperiences
ofthisheritageiscentraltothesuccessful
school tour programme at Aughnanure
Castle.Inrecentyearsthisimportanceof
school children learning in the real
environment, outside the classroom, has
hadwidespreadattention.Inlightofthis,
the OPW introduced the free educational
visits for schools scheme whereby school children gain free access to all OPW heritage sites throughout the
country,somethingthathasbeenwhollyappreciatedbyschoolsinthecurrentclimate.Theschemeaimsto
enhance students appreciation of their local heritage and surroundings through a visit to a heritage site.
ThroughparticipatinginschoolbasedactivitiesatAughnanureCastle,childrenlearnabouthistoricaleventsin
a fun and interactive manner, and it is through eagerly partaking in the many workshops on offer, their
interest is engaged with thesite. It isnowonder then,that repeat visits by the same schools are seenyear
afteryearatthecastle.
Both the school tours and events held at the castle shed light on the present and give meaning to the past
while linking children to the stories of the generations who were here before them. These are the rewards
that heritage sites and their associated events can offer children, and Aughnanure Castle delivers these
rewards100%.
9
Events are aimed to reach everyday families in the local area who maybe have never visited the site before
andwhocouldenjoythebenefitsofhavingaheritagesiteontheirdoorstep,consequentlybuildingapositive
relationship with the site for the future, says Schley. Indeed, with high visitor numbers for every event
illustrating their popularity,with on average 80% of visitors being local families. The locals wholeheartedly
getinvolvedandengagewitheachotherinarelaxedandinformalsetting,instillingarealsenseofcommunity
at the site, making multiple visits to the site throughout the season. To the guides of the castle, this is
success.
Children are opened up to an appreciation of the history and archaeology of their local environment. It is
importanttherefore,thatthisvaluableculturallegacyisunderstoodandcherished,andthatthisappreciation
ispassedontofuturegenerations.
Inthiscontextofschooling,learningaboutheritageoutsideandonsiteisapowerfulandcreativeantidoteto
thetargetdrivenandacademicfocusofmuchschoolwork,andcanencouragechildrentodevelopasenseof
ownership and responsibility for their heritage and environment. When working within the confines of the
classroom,andtakingintoaccounttheincreasingimpactofvirtuallearningenvironments,itseemsasvitalas
ever to take school children outdoors as part of their overall education and development. More that just
fulfillingalearningoutcome,avisittoaheritagesiteprovidesexercise,freshairandasharedsenseofplace
andwonderthatwillimpactuponyoungpeoplesvaluesandinterests.
ButitsnotallseriouslearningthatgoesonatAughnanureCastle.Itsinthesummertimeduringtheschool
holidaysthatthesitereallycomesalive,especiallyduringthemonthofAugust.Theguidesgearupforwhat
istheirbusiestweekintheseasonandhighlightoftheyearHeritageWeek.Theannualmedievalthemed
opendayonthefirstSundayofHeritageWeekiswellrenowned,withbothlocalandforeignvisitorscoming
in their droves to partake in the FREE fun and frolics on the grounds of the castle. Its not just the locals
however,whorecognisedthesuccessoftheHeritageWeekeventsatthecastle.
10
11
In 2010, Aughnanure Castle won Best Childrens Event in
the Heritage Councils inaugural National Heritage Week
Awards for the Medieval Madness event. The castle
groundsweretransformedintoamedievalspectaclearena
for the main event of the day the Childrens Medieval
Tournament. Hundreds of children in full warrior costume
took part in training workshops and then competed
against each other in a series of challenges in order to be
inauguratedasChieftainandPirateQueenoftheCastle.A
highly successful event, and as the only OPW Heritage Site
inthecountrytosnagtheaward,itprovesthatsmallismighty.
TheguidesarenowbusypreparingfortheirannualHalloweeneventonOctober23rd,tofinishupthe2011
seasonwithabang.Storytelling,music,facepainting,costumes,competitions,treasurehuntsandgameswill
enchantthelocalchildrenonceagain,andonceagainthedoorswillbeopenfreegratis.Butwhydotheydo
it? To show people that theres another side to heritage sites; that theyre not just sterile exhibitions but
instead, theyre fun and interactive places where history comes alive. Theyre for everyone. And we love to
showpeopleexactlythat,saysSchley.
Livinghistoryitseems,isawinningtoolinincreasingawareness,appreciationandeducationofourheritage
and to highlight its importance in the tourism sector. It is in this context that the importance of our built
heritageandthepartitplaysinbothlocalandinternationalcommunitiesmustbeutilizedtoitsfullpotential.
Itisalsoworthreemphasisingthatthetourismsectorwillbeofcriticalimportancetothereestablishmentof
financialstabilityinthiscountryinyearstocome.AughnanureCastlewillkeepcontributingtothisprocess,
throughitsexcellentvisitorfacilities,educationalprogramme,rangeofeventsandthevalueformoneythatit
represents.Andofcourse,initsunrelentingpassioninthenameofIrishheritage.AstheancientOFlaherty
mottogoesFortuneFavourstheBraveandfortunehascertainlyfavouredthoseinthissmalltowerhousein
Connemara.
(PhotosbyCarolineWalsh&JennyYoung)

12
AughnanureCastle~ContactDetails
Address:Oughterard,Co.Galway.
TelephoneNo:+35391552214.
FaxNo:+35391557244.
Email:aughnanurecastle@opw.ie
OpeningTimes:
21stAprto26thOctDaily09.3018.00
AdmissionFees
EAdult:3.00
Sen/Group:2.00
Child/Student:1.00
Family:8.00

During the course of our professional lives as archaeologists, all of us at IAR have come across artefacts or
sites that we would love to understand better. Excavations give us a through the keyhole glimpse at the
past,anditisalltoo easytofallintothetrapofextrapolatingtoo muchofthebiggerpicturefromthatone
glimpse, based on general assumptions about how we think things would have worked. Experimental
research,ifnothingelse,atleastallowsustohaveabetterideaofwhatmayormaynothavebeenpractical,
givingusamorerealisticunderstandingofhowpartsofthebiggerpicturemayhavelooked.Theauthor,for
example,usedtobeundertheassumptionthatwhilstflintarrowheadsmaybemorethansharpanddeadly
enoughtohuntwith,theywerealsorathertoofragiletobeverydurable,particularlyifastrayarrowthudded
intoatreeorembeddeditselfdeeplyintobone.Instead,when
thematterwasputtothetest,evenarrowheadsofquitepoor
quality chert (and, it must be admitted, not amazing quality
knapping) remained intact after burying themselves over half
theirdepthinsolidwoodorsplittingthroughpigribs,andalso
remained perfectly usable for a good quantity of shots
afterwards. Likewise, little effective difference was found
between deliberately shaped arrowheads and those which
were merely pointed pieces of flint or chert opportunistically
scavenged from the debitage produced when knapping other
objects.
All of the above was noted during a day of fairly elementary
testing.Theresultswereinformativeandtherewassomething
particularly fun and satisfying about watching a flintheaded
arrow embed itself in the target; its an element of fun and
satisfactionthatwewouldliketosharewithourmembers.We
believe that there is no better way of educating and engaging
the public than to actively involve them in events, so it is our
hope to run regular experimental days for our members and
thepublic.
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Past Performances: Agendas for
Experimental Archaeology
Ross Bailey, ResearchDirectorofIAR,describeshowweintendtoexploreand
expand the body of archaeological data through exciting and original
experiments.
Thearcheryisoneactivitywhichwewillcertainlyrevisit,during
which we plan to finish the proceedings by loosing a set of
flintheaded arrows into a pig carcass, which will then be
cremated. Not only do we intend to examine how the
arrowheads themselves hold up to the impacts and cremation,
butalsohowmuchofthedamagefromthearrowheadsremains
visible and diagnostically recognisable on the bone fragments
left after cremation. We have much more planned for the
future constructing some of the smaller sizes of ring barrows
and surveying them immediately, then repeating the survey
seasonafterseasontoatleastapproximatelygaugehowquickly
suchsmallmonumentscandisappearbackintothelandscapeif
not cared for and maintained; toughened leather shields from the Bronze Age, such as the one found at
Clonbrin, have been at times tested against bronze weapons, but never against their resistance to
flintheaded arrows testing this would be a simple addition to our other research using flint arrowheads,
and the construction of these toughened leather
shields would make for an interesting activity in
itself. These are only the tip of the iceberg. With
enough member support we hope to progress to
largerandlongertermprojects.
In addition to experiments such as those mentioned

above, we also intend to run other activities which,
thoughtheymaynotlendasmuchfoodforthought
as the results of the experiments, will give our
members a feel for parts of the lifestyles of our
ancestors onepiece leather moccasins, for
example,arefoundintheprehistoryofalmostevery
cultureinsomevariation,withlittleeffectivedifferencebetweenthem,andwemayrunanactivitysessionon
making them. The sling is another object which appears in many cultures, including our own, which is so
simple of construction that it is difficult to trace in archaeological remains, and we may devote another
practicalsessiontothemakingofslingsinvariouswaysandallowingmemberstogetafeelfortheiruse.
Asalreadymentioned,itisimportanttousthattheseactivitiesarenotonlyusefulandinformative,butalso
engaging and enjoyable for our members and the public. As such, we are always open to suggestions for
furtherpracticalandexperimentalactivities,andlookforwardtoworkingwithasmanyofourmembersand
thepublicaspossibleinthehopefullynottoodistantfuture.
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The site at Raynestown 1, an unbroken concentric double ring ditch, was excavated between July and
September 2006, in advance of the M3 CloneeNorth of Kells Motorway. Excavation produced over 1200
sherds of late Bronze Age pottery, and a large quantity of animal bone including two antler picks and two
antlerwedges.Onlyonceexcavationhadbeencompleted,andcleaningoftheanimalbonehadcommenced
offsite,wastheenigmaticidoldiscovered.
Inearly2008,astheanimalboneswerebeingcleanedinpreparationforspecialistanalysis,onebonestood
out as being particularly unusual. It was identified by zooarchaeologist Joseph Owens as one of 43 1st
phalanges (toe bones) from cattle, and appeared to have been decorated with a series of swirls and wavy
lines. Thefront(anterior) and rear(posterior) surfacesappear to have been polished inpreparation for the
applicationofthedesign,whichisvisibleonbothfacesbutalsoextendspartiallyaroundtothesidesfromthe
frontsurface.Therearsurfacedecorationismoreworn,andcomprisesmostlywavylines,whereasthefront
surfacehasmostlycirculardecorationsurroundedbywavylines.
Thebonewaspassedaroundtheoffice,andalthoughvarioustheorieswereputforward,nobodycouldrecall
havingseensuchadecoratedbonebefore,andcertainlynotfromaBronzeAgesite.
15
BoneofContention:TheRaynestownidol
StuartD.ElderonanintriguingartefactfoundduringtheM3excavations
Itsdiscoverypromptedaflurryofactivity,asboththezooarchaeologistandtheauthorscouredtheinternet,
office and personal libraries, and contacted numerous prehistory specialists and researchers looking for
references tosimilar artefacts. The search came up short however, with nocomparable bones havingbeen
reported from Ireland previously. The search was then, logically, extended to the United Kingdom, where
many parallel traditions throughout the prehistoric period are known to have existed, and again, many
specialistsintheUniversity,Museumsandprivatesectorwereconsulted.
16
Research has turned up references from Orkney of four inscribed cattle phalanges with Pictish designs,
including two from the Broch of Burrian (Iron Age
stone tower house) in North Ronaldsay. Another
reference from 1889 notes that one or two bones
of the foot of an ox are covered with concentric
circles, apparently for ornamentation. This latter
reference relates to a collection of artefacts in the
museum at Leewarden in The Netherlands,
recovered from local terpen mounds (manmade
mounds situated in wetlands). Aside from cattle
toebones,thedecorationontheRaynestownartefactsharesanumberofsimilaritiestoMegalithic(rock)art,
particularlytheeyesandbrowlinesfromStone5atNewgrangeSiteK,andboneandstoneartefactsfrom
theIberianpeninsula.
Thejuryisout,however,onwhetherthedesignsareinfactdeliberatelyinscribedontheRaynestownpiece,
oraretheresultofeithertransferredimpressionsfromproximitytoanotherdecoratedobject(nocandidate
wasfoundduringexcavation),oriscausedbysomesortofmicrobialorrootaction.Perhapstheonlywayto
definitivelyanswerthisburningquestionistohavetheobjectexaminedunderScanningElectronMicroscope
(SEM)orpossiblyby3DLaserScanning.Theformerwillbeabletodeterminethedepthandprofileshapeof
the incisions, if indeed they are, and possibly help to determine the implement likely to have been used to
createthem.Laserscanningmayhelptopickupanydecorationnotvisibletothenakedeye,andindoingso
deliver a clearer picture ofhow the decoration may have originally appeared. Also of importance would be
theradiocarbondatingoftheboneitself;therewasnodatablematerialfromthesoillayerinwhichthebone
was recovered from, but the layer above was dated to 840780 cal BC, putting it in the Late Bronze Age
period.
One of the most important technical achievements in archaeology in the last few decades has been the
developmentofwhatisknownasremotesensing.Thiscategoryincludesanumberoftechnologies,suchas
resistivityandgroundpenetratingradar,whicharedesignedtoseeundertheground.Assuch,theyallow
archaeologiststoidentifyfeaturesotherwiseinvisibleonthegroundsurface,whichinturnmakesexcavation
morepreciseandefficient.Mosttechniquesarenotasubstituteforexcavation,sincetheydontallowdating
(which relies on samples, stratigraphy, and/or associated artefacts) or understanding the exact character of
the feature (for example, the presence of postholes, burnt material, etc.), but they nevertheless can add
significantinformationtotheinterpretationofasite.
Nowhere is this more apparent than in the study of the royal sites of the Iron Age (ca. 600 BCE 400 CE).
These sites, called royal because they were (incorrectly) identified as the residences of kings in Early
Christian documents, include Tara, Co. Meath; Navan Fort, Co. Armagh; Rathcroghan, Co. Roscommon; and
DnAilinne, Co. Kildare.While they turnout not to beancientpalaces, they are instead ceremonial places,
associatedwiththereligiousandpoliticalelitesatthetopofIronAgesociety.Atthesesites,ritualsofvarious
kinds were conducted, consolidating elite power, creating a sense of shared community, and forming the
basisofregionalidentityontheeveoftheearlymedievalperiod.
Whiletherehasbeenexcavationtovaryingdegreesatalloftheroyalsites,someofthemostcomprehensive
work has been carried out through remote sensing. Research at Tara by Conor Newman and Joe Fenwick
(Newman 1997, Fenwick and Newman 2002), at Navan by a number of archaeologists (see Lynn 1997 and
2003 for summaries of this work), and, most recently, at Rathcroghan (Waddell, Fenwick and Barton 2009)
have all contributed important features to the understanding of both how the sites differ and the
characteristics that they share. Because of the success of this work, a project was also carried out at Dn
Ailinnebetween20062008,fundedbytheHeritageCouncil.
This was a joint project which included researchers from George Washington University and New York
University, both in the U.S., and the archaeology department at NUI Galway. The formal publication of this
project, which is described below, can be found in The Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 34, No. 4, 2009
(pleasecontacttheauthorforelectroniccopiesofthispublication).
17
Beyond the Summit: Remote Sensing
Susan A. Johnston describes the results of a noninvasive survey at one of
Irelandsimpressivehilltopenclosures
DnAilinne,Co.Kildare
The site of Dn Ailinne is on Knockaulin Hill in Knockaulin townland, Co. Kildare, about 2km southwest of
Kilcullen(IrishNationalGridE282030N207880).Thesummitrisesto180mabovesealevel,givingextensive
views ofthesurroundinglandscape,includingthecentrallowlandsandtheflat pasturelands oftheCurragh.
KnockaulinHillhaslongbeenidentifiedastheroyalsiteofDnAilinnenotedinmedievaldocumentssuchas
the9thcenturyFlire engusso,whereitisdescribed,alongwiththeotherroyalsites,asyieldingitspagan
powertoChristianity(inthiscase,tothenearbymonasteryofSt.Brigid).Thisidentificationledtoexcavation
on the summit of the hill from 19671974 by Bernard Wailes of the University of Pennsylvania. The
excavations showed that the hill had been used in the second and third millennia, indicated by scattered
debris and one or possibly two small burials from both the Neolithic and Bronze Age, but it was in the Iron
Age that it saw its main florescence. Probably in the early centuries CE, a series of timber palisades was
constructed, forming the backdrop for ceremonial activity occurring on the hilltop. The artefacts recovered
were mostly personal possessions, including an iron sword, a bronze spearhead, glass and bronze jewellery,
and other objects of bone and ceramic (Johnston and Wailes 2007). The plan of the various palisades is
shownhere,withdifferentcoloursrepresentingdifferentphasesofuse.
18

Thisexcavationnecessarilyfocused onthesummitofthehillasthemostlikelyplacetorecoverevidenceof
ancient activity. This left about 85% of the site largely unknown. As shown in this aerial photo, there are
essentiallynosurfacefeaturesonthehill.Thereisthebankandditchthatsurroundsthehilltop,nowmarked
by the growth of trees and other plants, and the surface itself undulates, hinting at features beneath the
ground.Thisraisesanobviousquestionwerethereotherstructureswithinthebankandditch,orwasthe
sitebeyondthesummitemptyoffeatures,perhapsleftopenforlargescaleceremonies?
RemoteSensingatDnAilinne
In order to investigates this question, we began a remote sensing survey of the whole interior of the site in
2006. While other techniques were used, the primary focus was a magnetometer survey. This technology
measures the magnetic signature of the ground surface. When people alter the ground, digging up dirt,
puttingitback,buildingstructures,etc.,itchangesthemagneticreadingoftheaffectedsoils,causingthemto
give different readings than the natural soils. These readings are entered into a computer, which converts
them to a greyscale image; the stronger the reading, the darker the colour. In this way, features under the
surfaceshowupasdarkmarksagainstthelighterbackground(seeGaffneyandGater2003foradiscussionof
magnetometryandotherremotesensingtechniques).
Belowistheplanofthesitesinterior,madeduringtheexcavationsandshowingtheareawherethesewere
concentrated(afewareasalsopartiallyexcavatedareomitted).Belowisthemagnetometerimagecreated
over our three summers of work. The image shows a large number of potential features, which in and of
itself answers the question posed before the interior of the site beyond the summit was heavily used in
antiquity.
19
Itcanbedifficulttointerpretamagnetometerimageatfirst,sothereisanotherimagebelowwithwhatwe
think are the important features outlined in black (comparing this to the unmarked image shows we didnt
make these up!). These features are numbered to make it easier to discuss them. The first thing that is
immediately obvious is the dark inverted L shape to the east of the site, labelled 19. This feature may be
natural, since the rock on the hill lies very near the surface in places, and it seems to be continuous with
another diagonal line to the northwest. However, given how strong the reading is (and so how dark it
appears), this also may be something that has a strong magnetic content, such as a metal or even glass
workingarea.Onlyfurtherexcavationwillallowustoknowforcertain.
Other features that are clearly
artificial are the many circles and
semicircles that are scattered
throughoutthesite(e.g.8,10,11,13,
16, and 17). Given that the Iron Age
palisades on the summit are circular,
it is likely that these smaller ones
belong to the same period. Again,
excavation will tell us more. One of
themostobviousfeaturesisthelarge
onethatcirclesthesummitofthehill
(6 on the marked image). This
feature, which we have called the
summitenclosure,appearstobepart
of what was called the Rose Phase in
the plan given above (the pink one
that resembles a figureofeight). If
this plan is superimposed on the
image, the integration is clear. The
arms of the entrance feature which
wererevealedthroughexcavationcontinueintowhatislabelled7onthemarkedimage,andtheseendatthe
summitenclosure.
ThiswaspresumablypartofalargecomplexthatdominatedthesummitduringthispartoftheIronAge.As
the earlier excavations revealed, however, this was eventually dismantled and replaced by the structure of
theMauvephase(theoneinpurpleontheplan).Whetherthesummitenclosurewasleftinplaceduringthis
phaseornotisstillunknown.
20
Onesetofcircularfeaturesthatmayproveimportantisthelineofatleastthreeatthesouthernendofthe
interior,marked15.Therelationshipbetweentheseandthesummitenclosureisunclear,butsomeofthem
mayrununderneathitorpossiblyontopofit.Basedonthelineararrangement,theymayberingditchesand
so may contain burials. An association with burials is characteristic of all four royal sites; some are actually
within the site, as with the passage tomb on the hill of Tara (OSullivan 2005), and all four royal sites are
situated in landscapes which contain a concentration of burials from various prehistoric periods (Johnston
2006).
Another interesting feature
revealedinoursurveyissomewhat
more difficult to see, but is
definitely there. That is the very
largecirclethatislabelled9.Itcan
be traced in several places around
the interior, and what makes it
particularly interesting is that it
seems to run underneath the bank
andditchwhichdelimittheinterior
oftheIronAgesite.Thisisseenon
the extra piece of the image which
istotheright.Thispartisoutside
the entrance to site, through the
bank and ditch, and what appears
to be a continuation of feature 9
can be seen on it. If it runs under
the bank and ditch then it must be
earlier than the Iron Age boundary
ofDnAilinne.DoesitbelongtoanearlierphaseoftheIronAge,orisitevenearlier,perhapsconnectedto
theBronzeAgeorNeolithicperiodswhenthesitewasalsoinuse?Excavationwilltellusmore.
Another intriguing result of our work concerns what is known as St. Johns Well. This is a small depression
thatwasartificiallyenlargedsometimeinthepast.Whentherehasbeenacontinuousstretchofrainydays,
thewellfillswithwater.Thismaybesignificantbecausewetplacesarewellknowntohavebeenimportant
religiousplacesforIronAgepeoples.
Artefacts,food(e.g.butter),and,onrareoccasions,peopleweredepositedintobogs,rivers,andstreamsas
partoftherituallifeoftheIronAge.
21
22
While it is too small to be shown in the image, there is a strong magnetic reading at the centre of the well,
which may come from some kind of structure built there as part of religious ritual. There are not many
religiousstructuresknownfromIronAgeIreland,sothiswouldbeofparticularsignificancetoourknowledge
oftheperiod.
Finally, it is worth noting the

faint lines that are continuous
over the interior surface. These
are the remains of ploughing, in
a pattern called ridge and
furrow. They may date to any
time from the medieval period
to the 19th century, though the
close spacing suggests they are
postmedieval. The fact that
they go in several different
directions suggests multiple
phases of ploughing, perhaps
due to different field
arrangementsatdifferenttimes.
Thelateragriculturaluse ofDn
Ailinneisalsoshownbythefield
boundaries (the straight lines
numbered 14), three of which
converge just northwest of the
sites centre. These three appear on the Irish Ordnance Survey maps of the 19th and early 20th centuries,
andsodateatleasttothisperiod(andpossiblyearlier).
Whatitallmeans
Even without followup excavation, there is still a great deal of information to be gained from using remote
sensingtechnology.OnethingthatisobviousisthatthespaceinsidethebankandditchatDnAilinneheld
many structures at any given time and rarely, if ever, was left open and free of buildings. This seems to be
trueoftheotherroyalsitesaswell.Descriptionsofthewaysthesestructuresmighthavebeenexperienced
by ritual participants has been proposed for both Tara (Newman 2007) and Navan (Lynn 2003). At Dn
Ailinne, this might also have incorporated the space outside the bank and ditch. The survey outside the
originalentranceshowedanumberoffeaturesthatmayhavebeenintegratedwiththoseinsideinwayswe
areonlybeginningtounderstand.
TheorganizationofinternalspaceatDnAilinnehasimplicationsfortheactivityassociatedwiththesite.The
interpretationsindicatedbytheexcavatedevidencearethatDnAilinnewasusedforceremonialpurposes
religious, economic, political, or some combination of these which may have changed depending on time
andneed.Risingupfromthesurroundinglandscape,thetimberstructuresvisibleonthesummitwouldhave
been an imposing sight, making a clearly symbolic statement associated with these ceremonial activities.
Sincewedonthavedirectdatingevidenceformostofthesebuildings,wecantbecertainwhatwouldhave
beenvisibleatthesitewhenthevarioustimberstructureswereinuse,andsoitisonlypossibletospeculate
whatsortsofritualmighthaveoccurred.IfthereissomethingatthecentreofSt.JohnsWell,depositswithin
it would have been part of this activity. Burial ritual was also practiced at Dn Ailinne. The excavations
indicated the possibility of two burials there, one from the Neolithic and one from the earlier Bronze Age
(Johnston and Wailes: 2007: 76, 823), and there are burials in the surrounding landscape (Clancy 2006).
There is also evidence of burial associated with the other royal sites. The passage tomb at Tara (OSullivan
2005), with burials from both the Neolithic and Bronze Age, has already been noted and there are many
probable burials in the surrounding landscape there and at Rathcroghan (Newman 1997; Waddell, Fenwick
andBarton2009).PrehistoricburialsarealsorecordedfromthesurroundingareaatNavanFortandpossibly
withintheenclosureaswell(Lynn1997).Ifthecircularfeaturesatthesouthernendofthesummitenclosure
atDnAilinneareringditchesanddocontainburialsthenthisshowsaritualfunctionsharedwiththeother
royalsites.
Other rituals may have involved movement

through the internal and external space of
the site, choreographed to incorporate
whateverstructures,pastandpresent,were
visible at the time. At Dn Ailinne,
depending on the specific phase, this would
haveincludedthesummitenclosureandthe
figureofeight structure of the Rose phase,
as well as possibly earlier structures which
might still have been visible. Given the
number of features identified in this survey,
the possibilities for ritual expression at Dn
Ailinnewereonlylimitedbytheimagination
of those who constructed and experienced
theceremoniesonthehill.
23
Acknowledgements
ThisprojectwasajointeffortincludingDr.PamCrabtreeandDr.DouglasCampanafromNewYorkUniversity,
andDr.RoseanneSchotandDr.GerardDowlingfromNUIGalway.Fundingforthemagnetometersurveywas
provided by Heritage Council. Frank Coyne, Aegis Archaeology Ltd., provided the aerial photograph of the
site.IwouldalsoliketothanktheThompsonfamilyofKnockaulin,Kilcullen,whoallowedustoworkontheir
land; Robert Shaw (the Discovery Programme) and Conor Newman (NUI Galway) who established the initial
survey grid; Joe Fenwick and the Department of Archaeology, NUI Galway, who provided technical support;
ZenobieGarrett,whosetirelessandgoodhumouredassistanceinthefieldwasinvaluable;andthepeopleof
Kilcullen and the Kilcullen Heritage Group, particularly Nessa Dunlea, Desmond Travers, Kieran Forde, and
Brian Byrne (A Kilcullen Diary), whose warm hospitality, energy, and tireless devotion to promoting public
awarenessofDnAilinneandtheworkcarriedoutthereovermanyyearsmakeitsuchfuntoworkthere.
References
Clancy,Pdraig.2006.TheCurragh:APrehistoricLandscape.InKildare:HistoryandSociety.WilliamNolan
andThomasMcGrath(eds.),pp.3567.GeographyPublicatons:Dublin.
Fenwick,JoeandNewman,Conor.2002.GeomagneticsurveyontheHillofTara,Co.Meath,19989.
DiscoveryProgrammeReportsNo.6,RoyalIrishAcademy:Dublin.
Gaffney,ChrisandGator,John.2003.RevealingtheBuriedPast.Tempus:Stroud.
Johnston,SusanA.2006.RevisitingtheIrishroyalsites.Emania20:5359
Johnston,SusanA.andWailes,Bernard.2007.DnAilinne:ExcavationsatanIrishRoyalSite,19681975.
UniversityofPennsylvaniaMuseum:Philadelphia.
Lynn,Chris.1997.ExcavationsatNavanFort196171,byD.M.Waterman.TheStationaryOffice:Belfast.
Lynn,Chris.2003.NavanFort:ArchaeologyandMyth.Wordwell:Bray.
Newman,Conor.1997.Tara:AnArchaeologicalSurvey.DiscoveryProgrammeMonograph2,Discovery
Programme:Dublin.
Newman,Conor.2007.ProcessionandsymbolismatTara:AnalysisofTechMidcharta(TheBanqueting
Hall)inthecontextofthesacralcampus.OxfordJournalOfArchaeology26(4):415438.
OSullivan,Muiris.2005.TheMoundoftheHostages,Tara.Wordwell:Dublin.
Waddell,John,Fenwick,JosephandBarton,Kevin.2009.Rathcroghan:ArchaeologicalandGeophysicalSurvey
inaRitualLandscape.Wordwell:Dublin.
24
Whathappened?Andwheredoesarchaeologycomefromanyway?
Archaeologyiseverywhere.Thatistosay,archaeologicaldataareubiquitous, andinterpreting thematerial
remains of peoples activities can tell us a lot about the pastthis is what archaeologists do. Archaeology
manifestsinmanydifferentways,andmeaningfulresultscanbeobtainedbylookingatthedataatdifferent
scales. For example, the distribution of polished stone axes over Western Europe tells us a lot about both
internationaltradeduringtheNeolithic,andthesymbolicimportanceofthesestonestothatancientculture.
Or by analysing the design of castles and other medieval buildings, we can infer aspects of both medieval
societyandthemedievalmind.
Andyet,thereisaparadoxinherent
inallarchaeologicalstudies.Despite
the ubiquity of data, archaeology is
amostimperfectrecordofthepast.
Even careful work is easily
undermined by factors such as
differential preservation and
researchbias.Therefore,beforewe
can begin to understand
archaeological data, we need to
understand something of how and
why we have come to encounter
thosedatainthefirstplace.Hence,ofcourse,theinterestintaphonomythestudyofthepostdepositional
changes that sites and artefacts endure. We can explain why, for example, acidic soils preclude the
preservation of bone, or why prehistoric sites are buried so deeply in valley floors. We can also factor in
researchbiases;itiswellknownthat distribution ofknownsitesreflectstheinterestsofarchaeologists,and
wheretheywork,ratherthananyancientgeography.Sotherearerealproblems,buttheseproblemscanat
leastbepartlyaddressedinourinterpretations.Thecentralchallengeremainswhywasthearchaeological
recorddepositedinthefirstplace?
25
A Vernacular Apocalypse Now
Small vernacular houses, many in a ruinous state, are a familiar sight on the
Irishlandscape.Inthefirstoftwoarticles,Rowan McLaughlin discusseshow
theycouldbeakeytoabetterunderstandingofruralsettlementthroughthe
ages.
Figure1:AnUlstercottage,photographedc.1930
26
Archaeology is concerned with things and places that have, at some point, been abandoned, destroyed or
lost. From time to time, sites are abandoned due to environmental or societal catastrophes, such as
earthquakes, volcanoes, famines and war. Alternatively, artefactual material can be so carefully and
deliberately deposited that it almost seems like an archaeological archive, frozen in time directly for our
benefit. Sometimes, artefacts appear so haphazardly andrandomly that we can only assume that their loss
was completely accidental. More often than not, however, archaeological sites contain structured deposits
thatdonotseemtohavebeeninvolvedinanycatastropheorspectacle,andyetsomefactormusthaveput
an end to their status as foci of human activity. Aside from ancient towns and cities, very few sites persist
foreverassettlements.
Therearemanyvalidwaysofinvestigatingthecauseofsiteabandonmentusinghistoricalandarchaeological
techniques. In this pair of articles, I wish to concentrate on another approach: the archaeology of
contemporary rural settlement and the fate of vernacular houses as a model for understanding
abandonment. Below, I argue that these dwellings offer some interesting theories for the interpretation of
settlement archaeology of all periods. In the next issue, I will discuss the symbolic importance of these
buildings,andwhattheytellusaboutourownsociety.
TheLivingCottage
ThehistoryofthetypicalIrishruralcottageiswellunderstood.Theyarerelativelysimpleone,twoorthree
roomed dwellings built from the 17th Century onwardsalthough those that survive today typically date
from the 19th Century. They originally provided the housing needs for various social classes, functioning as
tenant labours cabins to small freehold farmhouses. Typically they were bundled with small plots of land
whereon the occupants could supplement their incomes using garden produce and smallscale potato
cultivation(Figure1).Suchbuildingswerecarefullysitedinthelandscapetoavoidtheworstoftheprevailing
weather,andtheirmodestproportionshaveaveryhighaestheticappeal.
Changes in the use of these buildings reflect changes in Irish society since the midnineteenth century. A
steepdeclineinruralpopulation,expeditedbytheGreatFamineof18451846andsubsequentemmigration,
changedthewayinwhichthelandscapewasfarmedandgreatlyreducedthedemandforsuchbuildings.The
numbersofpeople directlyemployedinagriculturehavebeenfallingeversince.Then,inthe20thCentury,
many traditional buildings were abandoned as their occupants either died, moved to towns and cities, or
decided to upgrade to more modern accommodation. The extant structures, or what remains of them,
suggest differing modes of abandonment, i.e. how and why they came to be disused. In other words, they
presentdifferingarchaeologicalsignalsofwhathappened.
TheAbandonedCottage
Buildings can be razed without any trace of them remaining above ground, with the surrounding lands
returned to pasture or a use other than building. The fabric of the dwelling can be repurposed as building
materials for nearby structures, or, in the case of earthenwalled cottages, it may be ploughed away
altogether.However,faintsignalsofeachbuildingspresencewillcontinuetobeseen.
Landscaped features remain, and spreads of leftover stones and some other fittings can on occasion be
foundattheedgesoffieldsoramidundergrowth.Therefore,althoughstillfaintlydetectable,thesitesstatus
asalivingspacehascometoacompleteandpermanentend.Ofallthewaysthatasitecanbeabandoned,
this is the mode that requires the greatest investment of labour, and it is thus a highly deliberate, personal
act.Themotivescanliealongabroadspectrum;itmaybesimplythatthelandhadagriculturalpotential,for
example.Ontheotherhand,thebuildingmayhavebeenassociatedwithnegativeexperiencesorthoughts,
anditsdemolitionwashenceacatharsisforthosewhoperformedit.
Figure 2: Cottage at
Ballydown, Co. Down, c.1920,
with the authors greatgreat
aunt and her family pictured.
The building was replaced with
abungalowinthe1970s.
New houses are quite often built on sites of old cottages. This keeps a site current in the sense that it
continues to be a place to live. In recent decades, this has been a popular option in many parts of the
countryside, especially in Northern Ireland, where housing executive grants and tax policies on building
materialshaveactivelyencouragedthepracticeleadingtoabungalowblightinsomeareas.Thispractice
demonstratesthatthetraditionalcottageisnolongerconsideredascapableofmeetingthehousingneedsof
modernfamilies,andisconsideredneithervaluablenorbeautifulenough(byboththeoccupiersandthestate
legislators) to warrant preservation. Compounding this mindset, occasionally, is the idea that old buildings
are associated with the once widespreadpoverty, andcontinuing with them is therefore indicating a lack of
progress(Figure2).
27
Buildings can be ruined, or allowed to become ruined, but not completely cleared away. Instead, for some
reason, they are kept visible in the landscape, but not in a state that permits their primary use as dwellings
(Figure 3). This is a widelyobserved phenomenon, once described in New England by Henry David
Thoreau:Thesecellardents,likedesertedfoxhollows,oldholes,areallthatisleftwhereoncewerethestir
andbustleofhumanlife,andfate,freewill,foreknowledgeabsolute,insomeformordialectorotherwere
byturnsdiscussed.
Thesesitesareintermediatebetweenthosethathavebeentotallyrazed,andthosethataremaintained.Itis
most unlikely that any will be restored to a habitable condition again, but nor does there appear to be any
pressure on the continued existence of the remains. This is perhaps the most challenging mode of
abandonment to understand. No doubt, some building remains are retained because of their usefulness in
securingplanningpermissionfordomesticbuildingprojectsinthefuture.Alternatively,vernacularbuildings
can be emptied, and their fabric kept reasonably intact and weatherproof. A minimal maintenance regime
allows the buildings to reach an equilibrium with decay, and they could remain in this stasis almost
indefinitely(Figure4).Suchbuildingscanoftenfindnewfunctionsasstorehousesandsheds.Alltheseideas
are strongly related to concepts of ownership; the owner of the site maintains an interest in it as aplaceof
value,withtheexplanationsandmagnitudeofthesevaluesvaryingwithindividualcircumstances.
28
Figure 3: Highly ruinous
cottage site in the Slieve
CroobMountains.
To add further complication,
such abandonment can even
occur without the dwelling
being emptied of its contents.
Portable artefacts of high
intrinsic cash value are very
unlikely ever to be left behind,
but sometimes the majority of
chattelsandinteriorfittingscan
be seen to degenerate in situ,
together with the fabric of the house. Conversely, the buildings can be emptied of the majority of their
contents, with only awkward and worthless items left behind. Such circumstances illustrate the sometimes
fractiousrelationshipsthatexistbetweenoccupiersandtheownersofdwellings,ortheunsympatheticwayin
whichpropertiescanpassbetweengenerations.Finally,itisworthmentioningthatasignificantminorityof
vernaculardwellingshavenotbeenabandoned;rathertheyhavebeenmaintainedandmodernised.
29
Oftenthishasresultedinsignificantchangestothefabricorappearanceofthebuilding.Ontheotherhand,a
small number of buildings have been restored and are kept in nearoriginal specification, either as museum
piecesorfunctionaldwellingstofulfilnostalgicsentiments(Figure5).
ArchaeologicalImplications
So,therearevaryingmodesofabandonmentofvernaculardwellingsthatcanbeobservedinthelandscape
today, and these phenomena give rise to a number of prompts for the interpretation of more ancient sites.
All sites have three main phases, viz: building, use and abandonment, and these phases each give rise to
archaeological signals of differing character. In the case of houses, the abandonment phase generates the
mostintriguingsetofsignals,andarguablyexplainsmoreaboutsocialcontextthantheotherphases.
Figure 4: Extant uninhabited
cottage,Ballyward,Co.Down.
Figure 5: Cottage from
Corradreenan, Co.
Fermanagh,rebuiltatthe
UlsterFolkMuseum.
Wecanalsoacknowledgethatarchaeologicalsitesmaychangetheirfunctionbeforetheyareabandoned,and
thispresentsuswithaconundrum.Forexample,cottageswhosefunctionischangedfromhousetoshedwill
present the future with a challenging set of archaeological data. Change of function may be a factor in the
sometimes confusing results obtained when comparing assemblages of artefacts or ecofacts from sites that
areotherwisemorphologicallyandchronologicallyidentical.
Clearly,themotivationbehindtheabandonmentmodealwaysreflectswidersocialandeconomicfactors.For
example, we can see that housing regulation and other governmentset policies can lead to abandonment.
Thedetailsofthesepoliciesareconstantlychanging,butthestatehasalwayshadamajorroleindetermining
whysettlementsbecomeabandoned.Thisisprobablytrueforsocietiesofalllevelsofcomplexity,evenvery
smallscaleonesandthosethatoperatewithadegreeofautonomyfromcentralauthorities.
Fashion,cultureandtraditionplayamajorroleinmuchofhumanbehaviour,notleastintheabandonmentof
buildings.Buildingsareabandonedwhentheyaredeemedtobeoldfashionedandincapableofmeetingthe
demandsofmodernlife.Theycanalsobeabandonedwhentheyareperceivedtobesendingoutthewrong
messages about their occupants; their wealth and success. In turn, these issues are predicated not just by
fashion and culture, but by the status of each individual and their real or perceived standing in local
communities. Archaeologically, all this behaviour is difficult to resolve, but these are the key issues that lie
behindthepatterningofmucharchaeologicaldata.Theymaybeimportantfactorsinmuchofthevariability
thatexistsinthearchaeologicalrecord.
Evidence of settlement does not occur evenly in the archaeological record of Ireland, but does manifest for
theEarlyNeolithic,LateBronzeAgeandearlymedievalperiods.Theamountofrawdataavailableforthese
types of site has increased vastly in recent decades, thanks to the archaeological components of
infrastructural projects. The various parameters of these ancient buildings dimensions, construction styles
and landscape settings have been well recorded, and much analysis has been completed for these sites
concerningtheeconomicandartefactualevidenceofhowpeoplelived.But,withsomenotableexceptions,
theinterpretationofthesesitesasabandonedplaceshasreceivedlessattention.Ithinkthismaybeauseful
avenueforfuturework,and,invernaculardwellings,Irisharchaeologistsarefortunatetohaveahomegrown
modelofabandonment.
Conclusions
Thereasonswhybuildingsareabandonedareinterestingandimportant,withpersonal,socialandeconomic
factorsallplayingtheirpart.Thesearetimelessissues,buttheirimplicationsforsettlementarchaeologyvary
through time with great amplitude. The Irish landscape resounds with information about its occupants, its
history and processes of change that are still ongoing. I offer this short essay as a means to collect some
thoughts that have occurred to me whilst outandabout, and would welcome comments from fellow
sojourners.
30
31
Of course, the application of archaeological method and theory to such modernday phenomena could be
considered trivial, or even banal, but I argue otherwise on two counts. Firstly, the vernacular is a living link
with idioms from the deep past. In addition to a prominence in anthropology the world over, the rural
poorthosepeoplewholiveontheinterfacebetweennatureandcultureareandhavebeenthesubjects
of much art and literature throughout the ages. These works seek to see beyond the poverty, deprivation,
ignorance and fear which once characterised so much of peoples lives, and instead celebrate their
achievements,integrityandtimelessness.Inasense,suchworksareanacknowledgementoftheimmortality
ofthehumanspirit,contrastedagainstthetransienceofpersonalexperience.Itispreindustrial,preliterate
or prehistoric human ingenuity that has given rise to all the worlds languages, religions, food crops and
domestic animals, codes of morality and vocabulary of expression. Now, in the early 21st century, trends
towards globalisation andurbanisation are nearing theircompletion. We stand onan event horizon, where
the vernacular is quickly sinking from living memory; we shall never again have the opportunity to directly
combinepersonalexperienceofthevernacularwiththeinterpretationofsignalsfromantiquity.Evenifthe
vernacularfailstoprovideanyusefulmodelsforunderstandingarchaeologicaldata,itscontributiontowards
ourimaginativeunderstandingofpastlifewaysshouldnotbeunderestimated.
Secondly, vernacular settlement is inextricably linked with the landscape, which is subtle, delicate and
constantly threatening to disappear altogether. The traditional distributed settlement of the Irish
countrysidea pattern unique to the islandhas resulted in highly characteristic agricultural systems and
infrastructural networks. For a great many people, the countryside is not a place as such, but a journey
through winding country lanes that follow settlement patterns that were originally defined centuries or
perhaps millennia ago. Next time, I will look at the interrelationship between settlement distribution and
landscape,anddiscusswhythecountrysideasweknowitisunderthreat.
TextandimagescopyrightRowanMcLaughlin2011
32
Them bones, them bones
need.... examining!
Arlene Matthews describes the importance of human bone to the
archaeological record. This is the first of a series of articles by different
specialistsintroducingtheirfieldofstudy.
Osteologyisthescientificstudyofbones;thistermisoftenusedtodescribetheanalysisofhumanandanimal
bones although animal bone specialists are more commonly referred to as zooarchaeologists. Human bone
specialistsarecalledosteologists,osteoarchaeologistsorphysicalanthropologists.Thepurposeofthisarticle
is to give the reader an idea of what osteology is and how this science is utilised to broaden our
understandingandinterpretationofarchaeology.
Osteology is a fairly new science that has grown significantly over the last 30 years into a well recognised
specialism which contributes to several diverse disciplines. Osteology is used in archaeology to examine
remainsrecoveredfromarchaeologicalexcavations.Itisusedinforensicsciencetoaidpoliceinvestigations
and has been invaluable in the recovery and identification of the victims of war crimes. The osteological
analysisofearlyhominidfossilshascontributedsignificantlytothestudyofevolutionarybiology.
Thefocusofthisarticleisosteoarchaeology,theuseofboneanalysistechniquesinarchaeology.Thepurpose
of osteoarchaeology is to create a greater understanding of our past through the scientific study of our
ancestorsbiologicalremains.Previouslywhenhumanremainswereuncoveredonsitetheywere,atworst,
discarded and at best, their presence was noted, but the bones themselves were largely ignored.
Archaeologistswerenotawareofhowbonescouldhelpthemtounderstandintricatedetailsofourbiological
and social past and instead used artefacts discovered with the remains to infer information about the
deceased.Forexampleifaweaponsuchasanarrowheadorknifewereuneartheditwasassumedthatthese
were the graves of male individuals. Often this assumption revealed more about thegender perceptions of
thearchaeologistthantrulyreflectingthesocialdynamicsoftheancientsocietyunderinvestigation.
The correct identification of the sex of a skeleton in conjunction with an examination of the burial
environmentanditsartefactscanthereforecontributetoourunderstandingoftherolesofmenandwomen
inpastcivilisations.
Thesexoftheskeletonisnottheonlyinformationthatcanbegainedfromexaminingtheremains.Sowhat
exactly can we find out from the bones that are found on site? Ideally, an osteoarchaeologist would be
presentattheexcavationtorecordthepositionofthebones.Thepositionofthebonescantelluswhatway
the body was placed in the grave which can help to date the burial and can suggest to us differing religious
andsocialbeliefsystems.Anunusualbodypositioncouldindicatethatthepersonhadadeformingpathology
orthattheirburialwasnotformal,forexamplethevictimofacrimeoreventheperpetratorofacrime.The
disposal of remains, and how carefully and intricately this is done, can give the archaeologist a wealth of
informationabouttheindividualandtheirstatusinthesocietywheretheylived.
The next stage is the careful removal and

cleaning of the bones in preparation for the
osteological analysis. The first part of the
analysis is the inventory, which essentially
means that the examiner identifies the bones
present to element (i.e. what bone and what
part of the body they are from). This is to
establish what percentage of the skeleton is
presentandinthecaseofcomingledremains,
howmanyindividualsarerepresented.When
thisfirsttaskiscompleteitisthennecessarytoestablishanaccurateageestimation.Thisprocessisslightly
differentforchildrenandadults.
33
Leftmandible,showingcalculus&periodontaldisease.
LeftUlnaCloseupofaFracture.
Children are usually more accurately
assigned an age as their teeth are in the
process of erupting and their bones are
fusing. The fusion (joining of bone
components to make a complete adult
bone) of bones and the eruption of teeth
take place at about the same age in every
person, for example the fusion of the
mandible (lower jaw) takes place by 12
monthsofage.
These set biological processes are vital in achieving an accurate biological age for each individual. As most
fusionanddentaleruptiontakesplaceinyoungerindividualsitmeansthatadditionalmethodsofageingare
employed in the analysis of older people. These methods involve measuring the degree of attrition of the
teeth(theerosionofthetoothsbitingsurface)andthewearandtearvisibleinthepelvisandribs.
Thenextquestionthatmustbeanswerediswhatsexwastheperson?Thesexassessmentisestablishedby
examiningthecraniumandpelvis.Anaccurateassessmentcanonlybemadeinadultsasprepubescentmale
and female children have very similar skeletons. It is only after puberty that the sexes take on their own
uniquecharacteristics.Weareallfamiliarwiththevisiblechangesassociatedwithpuberty,butchangesare
alsotakingplaceinthebones.Anotherobviousdifferencebetweenthesexesissizeandanadditionalmetric
analysisofthebonescanhelptodeterminethesexofaskeleton.
Thisisthemostbasicinformationthatcanbeattainedfromthebones.However,thereisagreatdealmore
that can be discovered from examining the skeleton. Diseases such as leprosy and tuberculosis leave
characteristicscarsandcausedeformationonthebone.Anexaminationoftheseafflictionscantellusabout
how diseases can change over time and how they become eradicated or can increase in incidence. For
example, tuberculosis and syphilis were endemic before the discovery of penicillin. After penicillin became
widely available the rates of both of these conditions dropped. However, in recent years we have seen
increasesinbothofthesediseaseswithnewtuberculosisstrainsprovingresistanttomodernantibiotics.
AlackofvitaminC,Dorironcanalsoleavetelltalemarksontheboneandcaninformusofthekindoffoods
that were consumed. Vitamin C deficiency, or scurvy, is a commonly diagnosed condition in Britain and
Ireland in thepast; this is probablydue to the lack of vitamin C rich foods such as citrus fruits, peppers and
tomatoes. It can also give us information of social status as certain foods were only available to the richer
members of society. Vitamin C rich foods were generally imported and expensive and therefore the poor
werefarmorelikelytohavesufferedfromscurvy.
Lastly, traumatic events suffered by the bones such as a fall or an act of violence can be identified. The
locationandtypeoffracturerecordedontheskeletoncantellustheactivitythepersonwasinvolvedinwhen
theinjuryoccurred.Injuriesthathaveresultedfrominterpersonalviolence(fightingandbrawlingaswellas
sports such as boxing) have their own patterns, generally displaying facial and rib fractures in conjunction
withcharacteristicdefensivebrakes.Itisalsopossibletoidentifyweapontypesfromcutandimpactmarks
on the bone which can tell us a great deal about ancient warfare and weaponry, and the kind of battlefield
medicalcarethatwasavailabletotheinjured.
34
WhilstweatIARaremoreorlessfamiliarwiththerangeof,andhistoryof,IrishartefactsfromPrehistoricto
PostMedieval and Industrial, the advent of sites such as eBay, and the contents of secondhand sales and
antique shops, means that on occasion we encounter something from rather further afield. The following
articleistheresultofabriefstudyofaJapanesesword,akatana,ofunknowndate,broughttotheauthors
attention by an acquaintance. The katana, as a style of sword, dates from approximately 1200AD, and is
historicallyassociatedwithfeudalJapanandthesamuraiclasses.Theweaponitselfiseasilyrecognisablea
slightly curved, singleedged blade with a chisellike point, a small circular or squared guard, and a long
double handed grip. Before discussing the katana itself, we should begin with a brief introduction to the
generalconstructionofsuchasword.
TheConstructionofaKatana
The creation of a Japanese sword is a slow and careful process, one which has been refined and developed
over centuries, blending cultural, spiritual and technicalprogress and trends. Japanese smiths,traditionally,
useasteelproducedfromsmeltingironrichsand.Theresultingsteelisfullofimpuritiesandinconsistencies
incarboncontent.Tobringthequalityofthesteeltousablelevelsthemethodoffoldingthesteelmultiple
times, was developed. First the smith forges several pieces of steel into a single block. Thisblockwill form
the outer skin of the finished blade. Next the block is hammered out and folded back upon itself multiple
times.Thisachievestwoimportantendsimpuritiesareworkedoutofthesteelandthecarbonisdispersed
evenlythroughoutthesteel.Thisprocessalsocreatesthejihada,orwoodgrainpatterns,inthesteel.
35
Swordplay in the 20th Century
Ross Bailey describes the intricate processes in the production of a Japanese
sword.
36
Thissteelformstheouterskinoftheblade.Itisthenwrappedaroundasofterironcore.Thiscombination
gives the blade both flexibility and strength. The two layers are heated and hammered out into a long bar,
thus welding the layers together and forming the blank from which the finished sword is made. Once the
blankhasbeenrefinedintoitsfinalshapeallthatremainsisforthesmithtopreparetheedge.
The edgehardening is the most important part of the forging process; a flaw here will result in a broken or
otherwise useless blade. The blade is coated in a mixture of water, clay, ash, and other ingredients. The
mixtureisappliedoverthesurface,thickeralongthespineandthinnerattheedge.
Asthebladeisheatedandthetemperaturerises,thecrystallinestructureswithinthemetalbegintochange.
Ataround750C,thestructureofsteelchangestoaphasewherecarboncompletelybondswithiron.When
thebladeisquicklycooledbyquenching,theswiftcoolingmeanssmaller,orno,crystalsform,resultingina
harder substance. However, where the thick mixture was applied, the blade will cool more slowly, forming
ferrite and pearlite, which are softer and more flexible. The hardening of the edge also creates a visible
changeinthesurfaceofthemetal.Dependingonthewayinwhichtheclaymixturewasapplied,avarietyof
effectscanbeproduced.Thispattern,whichrunsalongthecuttingedge iscalledthehamon,andisoneof
themostimportantaspectsintheappearanceoftheblade.
After the hardening of the edge the blade is then passed on to a polisher who will give the blade its final
mirrorlikefinish,andothercraftsmenwhowillmakethescabbardandswordmountings.
TangInscriptions
Almost all Japanese swords will carry a
signature and/or date inscribed on the
tang (the section of the sword which
passes through, and is secured to, the
handle). The signatures on Japanese
swords vary greatly from sword to
sword. The absolutely simplest form
that a signature can take is a two
character inscription which is the
smiths name. If there are three
characters, the third is often saku made this. If both sides of the tang are inscribed, the reverse side is
normally a date inscription stating when the sword was made. The inscriptions normally read from the top
down,period;numberofyearsintotheperiod;monthandday.Atypicaldateinscriptionwouldread:18th
yearofMeiji,2ndmonth,8thday.
AnalysisoftheKatanaThesteel
Thehadaisthevisibledesignofthegrainoftheswordsteel.Itistheresultofthewaytheswordwasfolded
duringforging,andcanbeeasilyobscuredbyapoorlypolishedbladeoronewhichisstainedorrusted.This
katana,havingbeenrepolishedononebladesurface,showsaMokume,orwoodburl,grain.WhilstMokume
ispotentiallylesslikelytobepresentinamodern,machineforgedblade,theabsenceofagoodvisiblehamon
thelineleftbythedifferentialtemperingofthebladeismoresuggestiveofamodernblade.Thelackofa
visible hamon does not necessarily mean that the blade was never differentially tempered, as different
quenchingsandpolishingscanhaveasubstantialeffectonthevisibilityofthetemperline.
TheMei(SignatureInscription)
Themei,thesignatureofthesmith,israthercomplexonthisblade.Asnotedabove,atwocharactermeiwill
usuallybethenameofthesmith.Ifthreearepresentthenthethirdwillgenerallybemadethis.Fourare
present on the tang of the katana in question too short for the fully formal X swordsmith of Y province
made this, and none of the characters are saku or made this. Lacking a made this or of Y province
identifier, the balance of probability would seem to suggest that the four character mei is likely a longer
renditionoftheswordsmithsname.
TheNengo(DateInscription)
As opposed to the mei, the nengo on this blade is quite straightforward. Like the mei, the nengo does not
give the fuller more formal statement of period, year, month, and day, but instead offers only period and
year.Inthiscase,thenengotranslatestoShowa,SecondYear,givingaforgingdatefortheswordof1928,
predatingbothWorldWarIIandtheSecondSinoJapanesewar.
TheScabbard(saya)andHiltFurniture
The saya and the associated fittings, and tsuka (handle) present something of a mystery. The saya itself is
severalincheslongerthanmightbeexpectedforaswordofthisbladelength,andbothsaya,tsuka,andother
fittingsseemalittleonthemodernside,particularlythesame,orrayskin.Thetsuka,though,showsnosign
ofhavingapreviouspositionforthemekugithepegwhichholdsthetanginthehandle,suggestingthatthis
tsukahasonlyeverbeenusedwiththiskatanaandthatthesayaandtsukahavenotbeenscavengedfroma
larger blade to refit this one. Japanese military katana from the Showa period have a very distinctive and
militaryappearanceinthesayaandtsuke,seemingalmostclosertowesternmilitaryfittings.Thedateofthe
katana from 1928 accords well with the lack of military style fittings, the blade being forged in a more
peacefulperiodbetweenwars.
37
Conclusion
The katana is an interesting specimen of a Showato
(Showa period sword), made in the quiet period
between military actions and lacking the military style
fittings possessed by many Showa period blades which
seemtoappearforsale.Thelackofadistinctivehamon
and file markings on the tang suggest a machine made
blade,butthelackofaarmourystamp,andthefactthat
the mei and nengo are hand inscribed, suggest that the
final stages of construction and finishing were
performedbyhand.
38
Please be aware that we are working with low voltage electricity in a controlled environment. We
recommendthatifyouarethinkingoftryingtorecreateanythingthatyouhaveseenherethatyoutakethe
highestprecautions.Electricityandwaterareadangerouscombinationsopleasebeverycareful.
Ioriginallytrainedasanelectronicengineerbutleftthatprofessiontopursueachildhooddreamofbeinga
fieldarchaeologist.ForroughlytenyearsnowIhaveworkedonmanyarchaeologicalexcavationsandmade
mywayuptheladdertobecomeasitedirector,butIalwayswantedtotryandmergebothskillsetsandbring
myelectronicknowledgetoarchaeology.
Youcanfindalotofmetallicartefactsongreenfieldsites,anythingfromnailsandagriculturaldebristocoins
andbronzeaxeheads.Thenumberofmetallicartefactsonanurbanexcavationcanbeastronomical.Bythe
timeweseethemajorityofthesemetallicfindstheyareusuallyinanunrecognisableheavilycorrodedstate.
Thisgotmetothinking,couldtherebeawayofcleaningthesemetalartefactssothattheycouldbequickly
andcosteffectivelyidentified?
Iinitiallythoughtthattheinternetwouldmakeagoodstartingplacetoseewhatpeopleusedtocleantheir
artefacts and I wasnt wrong. There is an extensive selection of videos on Youtube alone about every way
possibletocleanmetal,fromimmersingitincolaoroliveoiltoboilingitorhittingit(gently)withahammer.
During my adventures on Youtube I cameacross anumber of how to guides to cleaning metallic artefacts
that I found incredibly interesting and looked like they would make the foundations for an archaeological
experiment.
39
The cleaning of a roman coin using electrolysis
IARsTechnicalDirectorGavinDonaghytellsusabouthisexperimentswitha
romancoin.
40
Thevideosinquestionwereguidestosettingupyourownelectrolysiskitathome;allofthesekitswerebuilt
fromthesamecomponentsandonlyvariedinscale.Thekitsweremadeupofthesamecorecomponents,a
stable DC power supply, a selection of cabling, crocodile clips, a stainless steel rod, an electrolyte, a plastic/
glasscontainerandwater.
Thepowersuppliesandthecontainerinthesehomekitsaretheonlycomponentsthatarenotstandardised.
Thecontainercanbeassmallasaglasstumbleroraslargeasasmallswimmingpool(onepersonusedthisto
clean the rust off a lorry trailer), while the power supply can be anything from an adapted mobile phone
chargertoanarcwelder.Thevariationinthehomekitsmademethinkofmyownsetupandwhatexactly
wouldIneed?
The first thing I did was to mix the electrolyte and water. I added two table spoons of soda crystals (the
electrolyte) per litre of warm water and stirred until dissolved then poured this into my tray. The second
thing I did was to connect up my circuit (making sure that the power is switched off at this stage); connect
crocodileclipstotheendsofthepositive(anode)cableandnegative(cathode)cable.NextIconnectedthe
positive (anode) cable to the stainless steel spoon and placed it within the electrolyte solution. Then I
connected the negative cable (cathode) to the coin (making sure that there was a good connection to the
metal)andplaceditintotheelectrolytesolution,makingsureIplaceditaninchawayfromthestainlesssteel
spoon.FinallyIcouldswitchonthepowersupplyandsawthecoinstarttofizzslightlyinthesolution.
In order to make sure that the voltages and currents were right for this experiment I initially tested my
equipmentonrustedmetallicfragmentsandmoderncoins.Ifoundthatthereactionbecomesunstablewith
higher currents and over time strips the surface of the object. For the roman coin I used the voltage and
currentIfoundtobethemoststableforthisprocess(9Vat620mA)andthenIcheckedthecoinandcleaned
offanyresiduewithfinegaugesteelwooleverytwentyminutesoverafivehourperiod.

Theresultsoftheexperimentwerespectacular,overthefivehourperiodthecoinhadgonefromhavingvery
little detail to the point where I was able to make out the detail on the face and the text. Initial searches
onlinebasedontheresultsofthisexperimenthavebeenabletogivemearoughdateforthecoinwhichwas
exactlywhatIwanted.
I would personally think of using this on more modern metallic objects where there is a small amount of
corrosionandasarulewouldnotuseitagainonobjectsofantiquity.Imustalsosaythatthisprocessisnot
recommendedbyprofessionalconservatorsonitemswerethecorrosionhasfusedwiththesurfacedetailofa
coin, as electrolysis can strip these layers away. They also state that if the corrosion is light and does not
affectthesurfacedetailtheelectrolysisprocesscanarrestanycorrosivedegradationofanobjectandsohelp
preserveanartefact.Inconclusionthiswasaninexpensivereallyfunexperimentandityieldedgreatresults,
but ifyou want to try it yourself I would recommend experimenting with metal objects thatyou dont mind
damagingandthenwhenyouarecomfortablewithyoursetupandknowthereactionprocessthentryiton
whateveryoulike.
41
Competition
Basedontheimagesofthecoincanyoutellusthedate,placeandruleronthecoin?Ifsoyoucouldwinit!
Sendyoursubmissionstoinfo@irisharchaeologicalresearch.computtingcoincompetitionasthesubject.We
will assess them based on our discoveries and pick a winner at random from the correct submissions. The
winnerwillbeannouncedinournextissue.
42
Mystery surrounds strange stone
unearthed on Cave Hill
Andrea McKernon of the Belfast Hills Partnership tells us about the latest
discoveriesoncavehill
MysterysurroundsstrangestoneunearthedonCaveHill
ArchaeologistshavediscoveredwhatisthoughttobeaprehistoricceremonialsiteonCaveHillrightontime
for Halloween. The discovery is unprecedented and follows a community excavation at the site of
BallyaghaganonUpperHightownRoad,Belfast.
Schoolsandcommunitygroupshavebeenworkingintheareaforthepastweekandateamofarchaeologists
fromQueensUniversityBelfast(QUB)haveexpressedexcitementatwhathasbeenfound.Over400people
havevisitedtheBigDig.
Dr Harry Welsh from QUBs centre for archaeological fieldwork now says the cashel (a stone enclosure and
dwelling)maynotbethiskindofstructureatall.
A team of medieval experts from QUB are now studying the finds and the mysterious inscribed stone.
Beforewestartedthedigwethoughttherewouldbenobigmystery.Itwasacashelandwewouldjustbe
inandoutagain.Butafterafewdayswestartedtoseethatthissitedoesnotconformtoallthefeaturesofa
cashel. The medieval lecturers at Queens are especially excited by what has been found. Our research is
just beginning, but we think this may be a ceremonial site. We have also found the remains of a very old
housedatingbacktotheearly17thcentury.
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How long have you had your trowel?

In partnership with Derry City Council, we will be organising a series of events

We hope that this digital magazine will

However small their involvement it, has a lasting

In addition to experiments such as those mentioned

Finally, it is worth noting the

Other rituals may have involved movement

The next stage is the careful removal and

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