EE2011 Electric-Fields (YSP)

EE2011 Engineering Electromagnetics EE2011 Engineering Electromagnetics
(Semester I of Academic Year 2011/2012) (Semester I of Academic Year 2011/2012)

Electric Fields NUS EE2011 Engineering Electromagnetics
(Semester I of Academic Year 2011/2012) (Semester I of Academic Year 2011/2012)
Prof Yeo Swee Ping
eleyeosp@nus.edu.sg
Coulombs Law Coulombs Law
quantitative observations (in free space)
originally an empirical result
later corroborated by further theory
r
r
q q
F u
4
2
0
2 1
=
r
Electric Fields NUS EE2011 Engineering Electromagnetics 2
later corroborated by further theory
valid only for point charges
(i.e. when r >> dimensions of q
1
and q
2
)
formula for pair of charges
extend via superposition for linear systems
Coulombs Law Coulombs Law
vectorial addition for (linear) assembly of point charges
(attract for opposite polarity but repel for same polarity)
total force on q
1
q
2
F
1
F
14
F F F F
r r r r
+ + =
for general N-charge assembly
total force on q
m
+q
1
+q
4
q
3
F
12
F
13
14 13 12 1
F F F F + + =
m n
N
1 n
mn m
= F F
r r
Electric Field Electric Field
not convenient to employ for analytical formulation
proceed by defining electric field due to charge q
(a) place positive test charge q
test
at point of interest
(b) divide Coulomb force by q
test
magnitude
q
r
E
r
F
r
notes:
q
test
<< q so as not to perturb original electric-field pattern of q
unit of NC
1
from definition but common to use Vm
1
instead
valid for point charge q but can extend for linear systems
r
r
q
E u
4
2
0
=
r
employ superposition for linear multi-charge systems
need to account for origin of coordinate system
include magnitude of direction vector?
or
q
O
P
r
r
' r
r
" r
r
"
2
u
) " ( 4
r
r
q
E =
r
"
) " ( 4
3
r
r
q
E
r
r
=
direction vector generally regarded as a variable
(a) assembly of discrete charges
(b) volume of distributed charges
O
2
0
) " ( 4 r ) " ( 4
3
0
r
n "
N
1 n
2
n
n
0
) u
(
) " ( 4
1
r
r
q
E
=
=
r
dV u
) " ( 4
1
"
V
2
0
r
r
E
=

r
Example #1: dipole (pair of point charges with opposite polarity)
+Q at (0, 0, +d) and Q at (0, 0, d)
+
{ }
{ }
2
3
2 2 2
0
) d ( 4
u ) d ( u u Q
+ +
+ +
=
z y x
z y x
E
z y x
r
cancellation when
still need to derive residual fields
commonly encountered in practice
d
2 2 2
>> + + z y x
{ }
{ }
2
3
2 2 2
0
) d ( 4
u ) d ( u u Q
+ + +
+ + +
z y x
z y x
z y x
residual fields of dipole when
(a) at P
1
(0, 0, z) where z >> d
d
2 2 2
>> + + z y x
z z
z
z
z
z
E u
) d (
) d ( 4
Q
u
) d (
) d ( 4
Q
3
0
3
0
+
+

=
r
( ) ( ) { }
Q
P
1
where 2Qd = dipole moment
+
( ) ( ) { }
z z z
z
u
1 1
4
Q
2
d
2
d
2
0

+ =
( ) ( ) { }
z z z
z
u
1 1
4
Q
2d 2d
2
0
K K + =
z
z
u

d Q
3
0
2d
residual fields of dipole when
(b) at P
2
(x, 0, 0) where x >> d
cancellation of their horizontal components
doubling of (residual) vertical components
d
2 2 2
>> + + z y x
d Q d Q
inversely proportional to r
3
(instead of r
2
) for both P
1
and P
2
however, residual field not in radial direction for P
2
+
3
0
2
d Q
x
P
2
2 2
2 2
0
d
d
) d ( 4
Q
2
+
+
=
x
x
E
z
Example #2: rod (of length L) with uniform charge density Cm
1
x
y
A
B
dq = dx
Q
O
simpler case: obtain electric field at A(a, 0, 0)
with same direction for all terms
when a >> L
Q
x
x
E
x
x
d u
) a (
4
1
L
0
2
0
A

=
=
r
L) (a a
L
4
d
) a (
1
4
0
L
0
2
0

=
=
x
x
x
x
x
E
r
d
2
0
a 4
L) (
u

more difficult to derive electric field at B(0, b, 0) due to variable
x
y
A
B
dq = dx
Q
QB
u
QB
u
1
r
y
x
x
x
x
u
2 2 2 2
b
b
b
QB
+ +
+ =
O
Q
x
x
E
x
d u
4
1
QB
L
0
2 2
0
B

=
+
=
r
+
+
+
=

= =
x
x
x
x
x
x
y
x
x
d
) b (
1
u
b d
) b (
u
L
0
2 2
L
0
2 2
0
2
3
2
3
+
+
|
|
\
|
+
=
2 2 2 2
0
L b b
L
u
L b
1
b
1
u
y x
2
0
b 4
L) (
u
when b >> L
need to define for electric field traversing plane surface
(a) add proportionality constant *
*
(b) account for orientation via dot product
A
n
E
A
n
E =
E
v
A
r
(b) account for orientation via dot product
(c) consider elemental areas for curved surface
* will later introduce another vector (D = E)
= A d
r r
E
A
r r
= E
m
E
v
m
A
r

special property for closed surface
for point charges
for distributed charges
possible simplifications:
= =
=
V
M
1
enclosure
in total
S
dV
A d
m
m
q
Q E
r r
possible simplifications:
(a) if using homogeneous material (uniform )
(b) if also adopting structural symmetry
m
E
v
m
A
r
total
1
n
A Q E =
total
1
S
A d Q E =
r r
Gausss Law Gausss Law
macroscopic approach for deriving electric field from charges
always valid but useful only with symmetry
explanatory example: point charge in free space
(a) for red Gaussian surface (with symmetry)
total
1
S
A d Q E =
r r
(a) for red Gaussian surface (with symmetry)
i.e. Coulombs Law
(b) for pink Gaussian surface
(c) for blue Gaussian surface
o
red red
2
r
S
r r
S
4 A d A d
q
r E E E = = =

r r
2
0
r 4
r
q
E =
o
pink
S
A d
q
E =
r r
0 A d
blue
S
=
r r
E
Example #1: conducting sphere with distributed charges
infer from symmetry:
no non-radial component (i.e. )
E
r
constant of andcoordinates
(a) apply Gausss Law to green surface
E
r
r r
u
E E =
r
s
(a) apply Gausss Law to green surface
introduce equivalent point charge to replace charge density
s
(b) apply Gausss Law to blue surface
all charges residing at outermost surface
) a 4 ( 4
2
s
1
2
r
o
= r E
2
0
2
0
2
s
r 4 r 4
) a 4 (
r
q
E = =
0 Q dV A d 0
enclosed
V
1
S
o
blue
= =

r r
Example #2: large thin sheet with uniform charge density
s
Cm
2
no non-normal component ( )
E
n
constant of both planar coordinates
apply Gausss Law to green pill-box:
Gaussian
pill-box
n n
u
E E =
r
(a) S
1
and S
2
equi-distant from sheet
(b) no contribution at S
3
as
E
n
constant of all 3 coordinates (but cannot extrapolate result)
0 A E
3 3
=
r r
d
2
n
2
2 1
r E 2 0 r ) E E ( LHS = + + =
2
s
r RHS =
o
s
n
2
E =
)
`

Example #3: large flat interface between metal and air
no non-normal component ( )
E
n
constant of both planar coordinates
Gaussian
pill-box
n n
u
E E =
r
(a) E = 0 in perfect electric conductor
(b) no contribution at S
3
as
E
n
constant of all 3 coordinates (but cannot extrapolate result)
0 A E
3 3
=
r r
d
2
n
r E LHS =
2
s
r RHS =
o
s
n
E =
)
`
conducting
material
inside perfectly conducting material
either no charges within Gaussian surface
(a)
or zero sum of positive and negative charges
= 0
enclosed
Q
(b) higher charge concentration at sharper corners
(c) in immediate vicinity of surface (where
s
and
generally vary)
n
u
E
o
s
=
r
Electric Potential Electric Potential
inconvenient to use when studying system of electric charges
requires vector calculus for analysis
cumbersome for visual representation
conservative nature of electrostatic fields
E
r
define scalar potential (via null identity #1)
(or especially in physics textbooks)
negative sign by convention (so as to obtain positive V values)
also extended to time-varying (although non-conservative)
0 0 0
area
any
loop
any
r r r r
r
r
= = =

E A d E s d E
V E =
r
= E
r
E
r
integral definition for potential
(a) dimensions of definition equation
Volt x Coulomb = Newton x metre = Joule
Volt = Joule / Coulomb
=
P
P
s d E V
r
r
= =
P
Q
Q P
s d E V V V
r
r

Volt = Joule / Coulomb
interpret V as work done in moving unit positive charge
(b) require reference (due to need for constant of integration)
common to set V = 0 at infinity
not valid for infinitely-large systems
(c) same V (or V ) for any path in conservative field

Example #1: point charge Q (in x-y plane)
(a) blue (radial) path from to P
=
P
4
Q
P
u
2
o
r r
r
r d V
[ ]
r
r
r
o o
4
Q
1
4
Q
= =
Q
P(x, y, 0)
y
x
X(x, 0, 0)
(b) red path from to P via X
used for deriving V of linear charge system via superposition
[ ]
r r
o o
4 4
= =
Q

=
y
y r
r
x
x x
x
y d x d V
0
4
Q
4
Q
P
u
2
o
2
o
r
x r
y x
y
x
x
y d x d
o
2 2
2
3
2 2
o
2
o
4
Q
0
) ( 4
Q
4
Q
= =

+
X(x, 0, 0)
Example #2: dipole with r >> d
use parallel-ray approximation for paths to
r
+
r d cos
r
r + d cos
+
z
) , , ( P r
P
easier to derive field
+
2d
2
o
2
cos Q
r
d
=
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
= =
0
sin
cos 2
3
o
2
o
4
Q
2
cos Q
sin
1
1
r
d
r
d
r
r
r
V E
r
( ) ( ) { }
1 1
4
Q
4
Q
4
Q
P
cos cos
o o o

+
+ + = + =
+
d r d r V
r r
Example #3: rod (of length L) with linear charge density Cm
1
for each elemental length along rod
0
dq = dx
x
P(x, 0, 0)
) ' ( 4
'
P
o
x x
dx
dV
=
(symmetry depends only on x)
o
L x
x
x x
x
x x
dx
V
=
=
= =
ln
o o
4
'
0 '
) ' (
'
4
P
( )
x
L x
x
x
x
x
z
y
x
x V x V E u
ln u
) ( ) (
d
d
4
P
d
d
P P
o
= =
(
(
(
=
r
x
x x
u
) L (
L
4
o
=
Gausss Law for any volume of distributed charges
need non-integral version for application to any particular point

= =
V
enclosure
in total
S
dV A d Q E
r r

=
V
1
V
dV dV E
r
need non-integral version for application to any particular point
more convenient to use V instead of for analysis
Poisson equation
Laplace equation
partial differential equation requiring boundary conditions
1
= E
r
=
=
=
0
) (
2
1
2
1
V
V
V
E
r
Laplacian operator:
= =
2
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2 2 2
sin
1
sin
1
2
1
sin

+ +
r r
r r
r
r
( )
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
z r
r r r
r
+ +
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x
+ +
uniqueness theorem:
only one possible solution that will satisfy partial differential
equation (PDE) and all boundary conditions (BCs) regardless
of approach (even by intelligent guess-work)
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
sin sin

r r
r r
r
Example #1: (one-dimensional) electron cloud between electrodes
no variations in and directions
i.e.
reduced to ordinary differential equation
0 V
x = 0
= 6
o
x
y
u
z
u
0 = =
z y
x = 1
10V
x
2
) 6 (
= =

V = x
3
+ c
1
x + c
2
BCs: V(x =0) = 0 c
1
= 9
V(x =1) = 10 c
2
= 0
V = x
3
+ 9x and E
x
= 3x
2
+ 9
x
x
x
x
V
6
o
o
2
2
) 6 (
d
d
= =

)
`

Example #2: (two-dimensional) earthed trough with charged lid
no variations in direction (i.e. )
reduced to PDE in two coordinates
(0, 0)
x
= 0
z
u
0 =
z
V
0
y
(a, b)
0
2
2
2
2
= +
y
V
x
V
no free charges in trough Laplace equation (with RHS = 0)
try
(c = constant)
(0, 0)
x
y x
) ( ) ( ) , ( y Y x X y x V =
) ( ) ( ) , (
2
2
2
2
d
d
y Y x y x
x
X
x
V
=
) ( ) ( ) , (
2
2
2
2
d
d
y x X y x
x
Y
y
V
=
0 ) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
d
d
1
d
d
1
= + y x
y
Y
Y
x
X
X
2
d
d
1
c ) (
2
2
= x
x
X
X
2
d
d
1
c ) (
2
2
+ = y
y
Y
Y
choice of sign for constant determined by boundary conditions
BC1: V (0, y) = 0 X = A sin(cx)
BC2: V (x, 0) = 0 Y = B sinh(cy)
BC3: V (a, y) = 0 sin(ca) = 0
BC4: V (x, b) = V
(0, 0)
x
V
0
y
(a, b)
BC4: V (x, b) = V
0
eigenvalues from BC3 family of solutions with
not possible to satisfy BC4 with only one eigen-solution
try superposition of all harmonics
(0, 0)
x
c
m
m
=
( ) ( )
a a
sinh sin d ) ( ) ( ) , (
y
m
x
m
m m y Y x X y x V
= =
obtain modal coefficient d
m
from BC4 (where y = b for charged lid)
capitalize on orthogonality of
(a) multiply both sides by
x
V
0
y
(a, b)
( ) ( )
0 a
b
a
V sinh sin d =
m m
m
x
m
( )
a
sin
x
m
( )
a
sin
x
n
(b) integrate over 0 x a (using process for Fourier series)
when n is odd n but d
n
= 0 when n is even
for m = 1, 3, 5,
x
( )
a
( ) ( ) { } ( ) ( )

= =
=
a
0
a 0
a
0
a
b
a a
sin V sinh sin sin d
x
x
x
m
x x
m
dx n dx m n m
( )
a
b
0
sinh
V 4
d
n n
n
=
( ) ( )
( )
=
m
y
x
m m
m m
y x V
a
b
a a 0
sinh
sinh sin
V 4
) , (
approximate solutions via numerical techniques
(a) popular after availability of computational resources
(b) must check for possibility of spurious solutions
two-dimensional finite differences
( )
V V V V

V
V
2
( )
2
0 3 1
V V
V V
2
2
V 2 V V
3 0 0 1
+
=
x x
V
x
V
( )
2
0 4 2
V V
V V
2
2
V 2 V V
4 0 0 2
+
=
y y
V
y
V
V
0
V
4
V
1
V
3
2
0 4 3 2 1
2
2
2
2
2
V 4 V V V V + + +
=
=
y
V
x
V
V
Poisson equation in two-dimensional finite-difference form
Laplace equation for Example #2 with =0
x
10V
y
V
A
V
B
V
D
V
C
0
2
0 4 3 2 1
V 4 V V V V
=
+ + +
( )
2
4
1 k
k
4
1
0
V V
0
+ =

=
Laplace equation for Example #2 with =0
choose (appropriate) initial values: V
A
= V
B
= 5V and V
C
= V
D
= 0
first iteration: V
A
= (10 + V
B
+ V
D
+ 0) = 3.75 V
V
B
= (10 + 0 + V
C
+ V
A
) = 3.44 V
V
C
= (V
B
+ 0 + 0 + V
D
) = 0.86 V
V
D
= (V
A
+ V
C
+ 0 + 0) = 1.15 V
next iteration: V
A
= (10 + V
B
+ V
D
+ 0) = 3.65 V
x
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
0 0 5 10 + + +
=
4
75 . 3 0 0 10 + + +
=
4
0 0 86 . 0 75 . 3 + + +
=
4
0 0 0 44 . 3 + + +
=
4
1
4
0 15 . 1 44 . 3 10 + + +
=
x
10V
y
V
A
V
B
V
D
V
C
25 . 1 25 . 1 75 . 3 74 . 3 4
24 . 1 24 . 1 73 . 3 71 . 3 3
21 . 1 20 . 1 63 . 3 65 . 3 2
15 . 1 36 . 0 44 . 3 75 . 3 1
0 0 00 . 5 00 . 5 0
V V V V # iteration
D C B A
onset of convergence
check numerical value of V
A
against analytical result
= 3.81 V for a =b =1
can improve accuracy by reducing mesh size (i.e. << a and b)
quite robust (try using V
A
= V
B
= V
C
= V
D
= 0 as initial values)
x
25 . 1 25 . 1 75 . 3 75 . 3 5
25 . 1 25 . 1 75 . 3 74 . 3 4
( ) ( )
( )
=
odd :
sinh
sinh sin
40
3
b 2
3
a 3
2
3
) , (
m
m m
m m
V
Dielectrics Dielectrics
polar material (with built-in dipoles)
define for dipole q separated by
+
) , , ( r
q
r
r
= p
r
r
r
+
define for dipole q separated by

derive from
not possible to consider individual dipoles
have to consider average density instead
define polarization vector
for dipoles in dV
3
o
2
o
4 4
cos q
) , , (
r
r p
r
r V
r r
= =

q = p
E
r
=
k
k
volume
1
p P
r
r
V ) , , (
3
o
4
d r V d
r
r P
r
r
=
non-polar materials
common charge centers
separation induced by
dipole behavior in presence of
+
=
E
r
E
r
E
r
electric forces on dipole charges
no net force no x shift for dipole
dipole moment due to q separation
rotation until alignment of forces
linear increase of until saturation P
v
dielectric slab
(a) originally random dipole orientations
no net electric fields from dipoles
(b) partial dipole alignment under
need to include polarization
E
r
P
r
E
r
need to include polarization
Gausss Law in differential form (a) (b)
for free space
for dielectric
recast as by introducing
electric flux density vector ( Cm
2
)
P
1
= E
r
( ) = + P E
r r
0
P E D
r r r
+ =
0
= D
r
field-matter interactions
( ) E D
v
r
0 e
1+ =
E P
v
r
e 0
=
E E
v v

0 r
= =
E
o
E
o
E
e
susceptibility
permittivity
simply replace
o
by to account for presence of dielectric
point-charge example: becomes
due to net electric fields of dipoles (after alignment)
r
r
q
E u
4
2
0
0
=
r
r
r
q
E u
4
2
=
r
o
E E
v v
<
Capacitors Capacitors
two conductors separated by air/dielectric with
equal and opposite charges Q
potential difference V = V
1
V
2
experiments Q V
define storage parameter
Q
= C
define storage parameter
(F = C V
1
)
can be increased via:
(a) increasing dielectric permittivity
(b) reducing conductor separation
(c) proper design of conductor structure
V
Q
= C
usual procedure to evaluate capacitance
(a) assume Q on conductors
(b) derive from charge distribution
(c) derive V via potential definition
(d) compute ratio
E
r
d
y
Example #1: large parallel plates
apply Gausss Law to pill-box
larger C by inserting dielectric, increasing A or decreasing d
s
1
y box pill s
1
box pill y
o o
= =

E A A E
A
d
d
0
A
o o
dy
Q Q
V = =
d
A
o
C =
d
Example #2: coaxial cable with uniform charge density Cm
1
apply Gausss Law to green cylinder
infer from symmetry (for short l ):
no non-radial component (i.e. )
E
r
constant of z coordinate
r r
u
E E =
r
r
zero contribution from either end surface
used in Z
0
formula (only for TEM mode)
r
l l r
o o
2
3
1
3
E E 2 = =
( )
a
b
2
a
b
2
b a
ln V V
o o
= =
r
r d
( )
a
b
o
ln
2
C
= =
V l
Boundary Conditions Boundary Conditions
boundary between two materials (for electrostatics)
field behavior affected by polarization in materials
boundary conditions for PDEs and
need to establish field inter-relationships at boundary
0
r r
= E

1
= E
r
r
(a) tangential component
apply to red loop where w 0
negligible contributions from widths
(E
1
)
t
= (E
2
)
t
i.e. E
t
component continuous across interface
generally extended to time-varying cases as well
(E
1
)
t
(E
2
)
t
w
E
r
= 0 E s d
r
r
Boundary Conditions Boundary Conditions

boundary between two materials (for electrostatics)
(b) normal component but consider instead
replace by
apply Gausss Law(based on ) to red pill-box where w0
negligible contributions from cylindrical surface
E
r
D
r
enclosure
in total
1
S
Q A d E =
r r
enclosure
in total
S
Q A d D =
r r
D
r
negligible contributions from cylindrical surface
(D
1
)
n
= (D
2
)
n
D
n
component continuous across interface
generally extended to time-varying cases too
special case for metal where | E| = | D| = 0 and Q
enclosed
=
s
A 0
(D
1
)
n
(D
2
)
n
w
t air
u
0 E
o
s
+ =
r
Currents Currents
current density vector
flow of charges Q contained in AL
average velocity of charges
v A I
t
L) A (
t
Q
= = =
L
A

=
M
1
v v
r
v
E
r
mobility under influence of
material property: resistivity
Ohms Law for wire
=
=
1
M
1
v
m
m
v
E
r
E v E v
r
v
r
v
=
L
V
I
A
E v J
1
r
r
r
= =
RI I V
A
L
L
V 1
A
I
= = =

=
Currents Currents
continuity equation
or
for application to any volume
Q
I
2
I
3
I
1
t d
Q d
m
m
I =

= V d A d J
t d
d
r r

= V d V d J
t d
d
r
for application to any volume
for application to any point
for steady state (i.e. ), no change of total charge in enclosure
or Kirchhoffs Current Law
conservative property
0
t d
d
=
0 = J
r
0 ) (
r r r
= = J E
0 I
m
m
=

= V d V d J
t d

t d
d
J =
r
Currents Currents
boundary conditions (for static case)
similar to equations for and use same process with w 0
(J )
E
r
D
r
= 0 ) J ( s d
r
r
0 A d J =
r r
(J
1
)
n
= (J
2
)
n
1
(J
1
)
t
=
2
(J
2
)
t
J
n
continuous across interface
J
t
discontinuous across interface
change of incident angle for when crossing interface
(J
1
)
n
(J
2
)
n
w
(J
1
)
t
(J
2
)
t
w
J
r
Resistance Resistance
resistance between conductors (not resistance along conductor)
=
s d E
A d E
s d E
A d D
V
Q
r
r
r r
r
r
r r
C
=
A d E
s d E
A d J
s d E
I
V
r r
r
r
r r
r
r
R
d
time constant RC =
(a) independent of design
(b) possible economy of effort
illustration: resistance between parallel plates
s d E s d E V
d
A
A
d
R

=
d
A
C = . . f c
Resistance Resistance
leakage conductance between conductors
re-visit coaxial cable and add
( ) ( )
( ) ln
R
V L 2 1 V
J I
a
b
= =

dz d r dA
( )
a
b
ln
V
J E
r
r r
= =
E J
r r
=
compare with capacitance formula (for TEM mode)
shunt components in transmission-line model
( ) ( )
( )
L 2
R
ln ln
J I
a
a
b
a
b
= = = =

dz d r
r
dA
r
( )
a
b
ln
L 2
C =

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EE2011 Electric-Fields (YSP)

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EE2011 Engineering Electromagnetics EE2011 Engineering Electromagnetics

(Semester I of Academic Year 2011/2012) (Semester I of Academic Year 2011/2012)

Electric Field Electric Field

Electric Field Electric Field

Gausss Law Gausss Law

Electric Fields NUS EE2011 Engineering Electromagnetics 19

Electric Potential Electric Potential

Electric Potential Electric Potential

define for dipole q separated by

Boundary Conditions Boundary Conditions

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