CONCEPTUALIZING RESISTANCE: TOWARDS A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING LEISURE AS POLITICAL PRACTICE Susan M.

Shaw, University of Waterloo The concept of resistance is one that is frequently used by critical theorists, including feminist researchers (e.g., Green, Hebron, & Woodward, 1990). The basic idea or assumption underlying this concept is that everyday practices and behaviors are political, and thus can be expected to have political implications or outcomes. This, for example, is behind the feminist slogan: the personal is political. Everyday behaviors that might outwardly appear to be iimocent,such as interactions with work colleagues or with family members, are thought to be political in that- they reflect- the political and- social structures of society, and thus act to reproduce or reinforce the dominant or hegemonic ideologies which maintain such structures. These ideologies may be associated with gender relations and gender inequities, or with other forms of structured power relations. Some critical theorists (e.g., Foucault, 1979) believe that where there is oppression or inequity, there will inevitably be resistance or challenges to oppression as well. Resistance, therefore, can be seen as the flip side of reproduction, where dominant beliefs, and ideologies that maintain structured inequities are challenged and weakened, rather than reinforced and strengthened. These ideas have been applied to the study of leisure primarily with regard to gender and gender-based inequities. Everyday leisure practices, such as participation in sports and physical activities, family outings or gatherings, watching television, or playing video games are generally thought to represent sites of reproduction where hegemonic ideologies of femininity and masculinity are reinforced (Shaw, 1996). On the other hand, some leisure practices could serve to undermine or weaken dominant belief systems, and thus be seen as a form of resistance instead. Although these applications to leisure have been suggested, a clear conceptualization of the process of resistance remains elusive. It is not clear, for example, exactly how resistance can be recognized, what the indicators of resistance are, and whether or not there are different types or categories of resistance. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to seek to clarify the concept of resistance, especially as it applies to leisure behavior. This is done through a discussion and analysis of various issues associated with the concept. It is hoped that clarification of the idea of resistance will lead to a conceptual framework which will be useful for future research endeavors, including both theoretical and empirical research on resistance. Background Literature Research to date on leisure as resistance has tended to rely on Foucault s (1979) writings about personal power. Foucault maintained that, whatever oppression individuals suffer, there is always the possibility of personal empowerment through resistance. This idea, for example, forms the basis of Wearings research on new mothers (1990), in which she described the behavior of these women as resistance when they claimed time and leisure for themselves aside from their social obligations as mothers. A similar study of adolescents (Wearing, Wearing, & Kelly, 1994) discussed teenage girls smoking behavior

as resistance and as a form of empowerment because it indicated unwillingness to conform to dominant social norms. Freysinger and Flannerys research (1992) on empowerment for women also showed that self-determined leisure was associated with empowerment, and thus could be seen as a form of resistance. In all of these studies resistance was clearly linked with the idea of personal power. However, none of the authors addressed whether intent or conscious motivation was an essential part of resistance, nor did they make direct linkages between type of resistance and type of oppression. A couple of other studies that have sought to examine leisure activities as resistance have found the existence of resistance more difficult to determine. One study of women body builders (Guthne & Castelnuovo, 1992) analyzed the conflicting images and messages associated with this type of leisure practice. Another study of male cheerleaders (Davis, 1990) concluded that this activity, also, could be interpreted as either reproduction or resistance, depending on the aspects of cheerleadmg taken into account. In these studies, the focus was on the image of the leisure activity under consideration, rather than on personal power. The implication was that image may be an important aspect of resistance, because of its potential to impact opinions and belief systems. The actual outcome or impact of the images, however, was not investigated in either of these studies. The specific types of oppression that were being resisted through such activities were not discussed either. Conceptual Issues and Analysis Based on analysis of the literature, it is clear that a number of aspects or potential components of resistance need to be better clarified. These include the role of image and intent in the act of resistance, as well as the question of impact or outcome. In addition, the association between oppression and resistance also needs to be addressed. Oppression In this paper it will be argued that oppression is a necessary precondition or prerequisite for resistance, but that its presence does not necessarily indicate the presence of resistance. This means that an understanding of the type of oppression experienced may be helpful, but will not, on its own, determine resistance. Such determination can only be made if the behavior or leisure practice is seen as a direct challenge to the oppression. Thus, oppression is an important consideration, but not part of the act of resistance itself. fliustrations to support this argument will be drawn from research on the lives of First Nations women in Canada (Beveridge & Shaw, 1998). Image The image of leisure activities or practices, or the message embedded in such practices, is also an important aspect to be taken into consideration. Again, though, the production of a particular image or message should not be equated with an act of resistance. For example, while extensive research has been done in the field of communication studies into the content and images portrayed on television (e.g., Lovdal, 1989), anti-sexist messages should not be seen as resistance in and of themselves. Rather, they show the potential for resistance, or they may be indicators that resistance might be expected to occur.

Intent The role of intent can be seen as a central issue for understanding resistance. That is, does the individual need to consciously intend to challenge dominant ideologies for resistance to occur? Here it will be argued that where there is a behavior which is intended as a challenge, this can indeed be seen as an act of resistance, regardless of the effect on others. This form of resistance relates closely to Foucaults ideas, where individual challenge is recognized as a form of personal power. On the other hand, the lack of conscious intent does not necessarily mean that resistance cannot occur, because observation of the behavior may still impact on the attitudes and beliefs of others. Impact Impact, then, should also be recognized as a central aspect of the conceptualization of resistance, although the significance of impact or outcome has been given scant attention in the literature. If resistance involves the weakening of dominant ideological systems, evidence that particular leisure activities lead to actual changes in beliefs would seem to be clear evidence for resistance, regardless of intent. The impact or outcome of an activity could be in the form of changes in the attitudes or beliefs of individuals involved in a particular leisure activity, or similar changes among observers or spectators of the activity. This type of resistance, therefore, needs to be distinguished from resistance as individual intent because it focuses on societal change through changes in belief structures, rather than on personal power or empowerment. Analysis of previous research on womens leisure as resistance illustrates how this distinction can be applied. Conclusion The conceptual analysis presented in this paper suggests that there are two types or categories of resistance that can occur one associated with intent, and the other with impact. Morever these two types of resistance can occur either separately or simultaneously. Oppression and image are not types of resistance per se, but are important factors associated with the act of resistance. This conceptualization of resistance suggests that researchers should direct attention to the outcomes of leisure practices and their impacts on belief systems, as well as to individual intentions and motivations. A better understanding of the linkages with oppression, and of the images created through leisure activities, will also lead to a better understanding of leisure as resistance. This framework for understanding resistance could be applied to other forms of oppression as well, e.g., oppression and inequities associated with sexual orientation, disability, race, ethnicity, or social class. Where leisure practice includes challenges to dominant ideologies and impacts on individuals lives or beliefs, leisure can be seen not only as a particular behavior or type of experience, but also as a form of political practice. References Bevendge, T., & Shaw, S. M. (1998). First Nations women at Whitedog Reserve: Exploring leisure as resistance. Paper presented at the Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association Annual

Meeting, Ottawa, ON. Davis, L. R. (1990). Male cheerleaders and the naturalization of gender. In M. A. Messner, & Sabo, D.F. (Ed.), Sport, men and the gender order (pp. 153-161). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Foucault, M. (1979). Power, truth, strategy. Sydney: Feral. Freysinger, V., & Flannery, D. (1992). Womens leisure: Affiliation, self-determination, empowerment and resistance? Loisir et Socit, 15(1), 303-321. Green, D., Hebron, S., & Woodward, E. (1990). Womens leisure. What leisure? Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan. Guthrie, S. R., & Castelnuovo, S. (1992). Elite women bodybuilders: Models of resistance or compliance? Play and Culture, 5, 401-408. Lovdal, L. T. (1989). Sex role messages in television commercials: An update. Sex Roles, 33, 543-557. Shaw, S. M. (1996). The gendered nature of leisure: Individual and societal outcomes of leisure practice. World Leisure and Recreation Association Journal, 38(2), 4-6. Wearing, B., Wearing, S., & Kelly, K. (1994). Adolescent women, identity and smoking: Leisure experience as resistance. Sociology of Health & Illness, 16(5), 626-643. Wearing, B. M. (1990). Beyond the ideology of motherhood: Leisure as resistance. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 26, 36-58. Contact Information: Susan M. Shaw, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G 1. E-mail: sshawhealthy.uwaterloo.ca Phone: (519) 8884567, ext. 5019 (519) 746-6776

Back to the table of contents

ABSTRACTS of Papers Presented at the Ninth Canadian Congress on Leisure Research May 12 - 15, 1999 Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia

Editor: Paul Heintzman Assisted by: Karen Naugler and Sean Smith Printed and bound by Acadia University Printing Services Copyright 1999 Canadian Association of Leisure Studies

Organizing Team for the Ninth Canadian Congress on Leisure Research: Glyn Bissix Tom Delamere Paul Heintzman Scott Hennigar Susan Markham-Starr Heidi McKinnon Neil Munro Karen Naugler Brenda Robertson Jerry Singleton

The Canadian Congress on Leisure Research Is held under the auspices of the Canadian Association for Leisure Studies Le Congres canadien de la recherche en loisir se tient sous les auspices de L'Association canadienne d'etudes en loisir BOARD OF DIRECTORS/CONSEIL D'ADMINISTRATION 1996-1999 President/Presidente Dr. Edgar L. Jackson University of Alberta Vice-President & Treasurer Vice-president et tresorier Robert Soubrier Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres Directors/Directeurs Dr. Linda Caldwell Pennsylvania State University Dr. Wendy Frisby University of British Columbia Dr. Susan Markham-Starr Acadia University Dr. Lisa Ostiguy Concordia University Dr. Paul F. Wilkinson York University Dr. Don Dawson Universite d'Ottawa Dr. Colleen Hood Dalhousie University Dr. Gaetan Ouellet Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres Dr. Bryan Smale University of Waterloo Past President/President-sortant Dr. Susan M. Shaw University of Waterloo

Secretary/Secretaire Dr. Tom Hinch University of Alberta

II