W A U L S O R T I A N - T Y P E B I O H E R M D E V E L O P M E N T A N D R E S P O N S E TO S E A - L E V E L F L U C r U A T I O N S : UPPER VISEAN OF BECHAR BASIN, WESTERN ALGERIA HERRE-ANDPRE BOURQUE x, ACHOUR MADI l, ANDBERNARD L.

MAMET 2
' Dt~partementde G~ologie, Universit( Laval, QuEbec, Qc GIK 7P4, Canada 2 D@anement de Gt~ologie, UniversiMde MontMal, MontrEaL Qc H3C 3J7, Canada

ASSTWCr: An exceptionally well-developed and well-preserved upper Viscan succession rich in sponge-bryozoan-crinoid mounds in the foreland Carboniferous ]~char Basin (northwestern Algerian Sahara) is described and discussed. The succession is composed of recurrent facies mosaics forming individual superposed members. An ideal member is made up of two distinct facies assemblages. The lower assemblage forms the actual mounds, and is composed of sponge bafllestone-wackestoue at the base, overlain by massive sponge-fenestellid bafOestone-wackestone,and capped by massive crinoid wackestone with bedded flanks of lithoclastic wackestone. In contrast to massiveness of the mounds, the upper facies assemblage is composed of well-bedded crinoid packstone-grainstone and ooid graiastone, with local rngose coral and algai-foraminiferal banks. On the basis of benthic assemblages and nature of substrate, seven Imthymetrie zones are defined, and indicate that each member of the bioherm-rich formations is a shallowing-upward parasequeuee controlled by an asymmetrical transgressive-regressivecycle. The local curve of relative sea level for the late Visean shows 13 cycles interpretedas fourth-ordereastatic sealevel changes, each cycle averaging half a million years in duration. Thirdorder cycles could not be identified. The platform model proposed is a distally steepened ramp, 15-20 km wide, that developed in a rapidly subsiding foreland basin. Lateral distribution of facies on the rmp depended strongly on local tectonic setting, whereas vertical development was controlled by sea-level fluctuation. The deep-water, mud-rich, sponge-bryozoan-crinoidmounds developed in 100150 m water depths during phases of sea-level highstand, whereas deposition of shallow-water facies occurred on top of the mounds, in less than 70-80 m water depths during regressive phases. The l~char mounds share similarities with the classical Lower Carboniferous Wauisortian mounds, but they differ in two aspects: the abundance of large sponges, which is unique, and their vertical zonatlon, wherein basal facies consist of sponge-dominated assemblages. The proposed model can serve as a tool in developing exploration strategies in the search for hydrocarbonreservoirs in the I~char Basin, because the peculiar architecture of the platform may provide suitable plumbing systems for fluid migration, and the depositioanl signature of the mounds and associated facies is possibly recognizable on seismic profiles.

significant implications for the profile of carbonate platforms that were mainly of ramp style (e.g., Ahr 1989; Wright and Faulkner 1990) during the Carboniferous. Despite years of descriptions and discussions, the problem of deep-water mounds is not fully understood. This paper deals with an example where such mounds are exceptionally well developed and well preserved, and which may well contribute to our understanding of the problem. Our purpose is (1) to present a detailed description of the upper Visean facies of the B~char Basin, and of their spatial and temporal distribution (facies architecture), and (2) to interpret the evolution of the succession through time in light of sequence analysis in order to decipher factors that control development ofdeep-water mounds and to understand sedimentary dynamics and evolution of this Lower Carboniferous platform. Spectacular bioherms exposed in the Carboniferous B&har Basin (northwestern Algerian Sahara) were recognized as early as 1930 by Menchikoff (1930), and were later described by Pareyn (1959, 1961), who referred to them as reefs; hence the so-called "B~char reefs" of the local oil industry. Recently, SONATRACH, with other foreign partners, has intensified exploration in the B6char Basin, with particular attention to the hioherms. This paper is a contribution to this project. Details on microfacies, benthic assemblages, and diagenesis and porosity evolution will be given in forthcoming papers. GEOLOGICAL SUITING The B/char Basin is located between the hisbly deformed Variscan Orogenic Belt to the north and the almost undeformed Saharan Platform to the south (Fig. 1A). It is part ofan cast-west-trending, elongated furrow that extends from the eastern tip of the Moroccan Anti-Atlas to Tunisia, along the present-day Atlas mountains (Alpine Orogeny) (Kazi-Tani et al. 1991). It is bordered to the west by the intraplate Ougarta folded belt, to the east by the Hassi R'mel High (Fig. 1B), to the north by the SouthAtlas Fault, and to the south by a series of basement highs separating the B6char Basin and the oil- and gas-producing Timmimoun Basin. Most of the Carboniferous rocks in this area are in the subsurface, except for a series of rock massifs that pierce through the younger Mesozoic and Cenozoic cover east of the Moroccan Anti-Atlas. The Cambrian to Devonian of the l~char Basin is composed exclusively of siliciclasfic rocks, whereas the Carboniferous is carbonate-dominated (Fig. 2). Part of the Lower Carboniferous is missing in the study area, so that the upper Visean lies unconformably on the Upper Devonian finegrained sfliciclastics. Mound-shaped bioherms are known from the upper Viscan and the Namurian, but they are better developed in the former. The study area is only part of the l~char Basin outcrops. It lies southeast of the town of B~char, on the northwestern margin of the Meharez High (Fig. 1B). The upper Visean bioherms and their associated facies exposed in the massifs surrounded by dunes of the Grand Erg Occidental (Western Grand Sand Dunes; Fig. 3) were studied. In addition, successions in five boreholes were considered. There, beds from the Djebel Ioucha to the north form a homoclinal sequence dipping gently to the north, whereas the Taoudrara beds dip gently to the south. Two sedimentary belts are recognized: a biohermal belt with several tens of massive mound-shaped bioherms buried under well-bedded detrital facies, and a detfital belt, virtually devoid of bioherms but instead consisting of detfital limestone

INTRODUCTION The Carboniferous is a period that experienced drastic decline of bioconstructed buildups (Wilson 1975; James and Bourque 1992), and particularly, the disappearance of the large-framed stromatoporoid-coral reefs that built reef tracts rimming shelves and platforms during the SilurianDevonian (e.g., Playford 1980; Burchette 1981; Bourque et al. 1986; Bourque 1988; Moore 1988; Shaver and Sunderman 1989; Copper and Brunton 1991). Particularly, in Lower Carboniferous sections, buildups are mainly represented by mud-rich, low-energy, deep-water mounds with a low-diversity fauna including delicate organisms such as fenestrate bryozoans, sponges, and crinoids. These mounds are known from many localities in the world and are often referred to as Waulsortian mounds or reefs (Wilson 1975). The absence of metazoan communities capable of erecting rigid and permanent structures in rough-water environments, and therefore controlling development of rimmed platforms or shelves, has JOU~tNAL SEDIMENTARY OF RES~R~, VOL.B65, No. 1, FESRUARV, 1995, P. 80.-95 Copyright 1995,SEPM(Societyfor Sedimentary Geology) 1073-1318/95/0B65-80/$03.00

WA ULSORTL4N-TYPE BIOHERMS, ALGERM

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QUATERNARY
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F,o. I. - Location maps. A) The Brchar Basin outcrop area (dark shaded) in Norlh Africa. B) Subsurface Paleozoic lopography and location of B~char Basin. White areas are outcrops of B&har Basin Carboniferous strata. Box indicates study area (Fig. 3) at northweslern margin of Meharez High. Oil and gas fields shown produce from Devonian siliciclastics. (Modified from Alley et al. 1971.)

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with a few low-relief coral thickets and siliciclastics. The basin west of the carbonate belts consists of fine-grained siliciclastics with a few detrital limestone beds, as indicated in boreholes Ic 1 and Mr 1 (Fig. 3).
STRATIGRAPHYAND FACIESARCHITECTURE

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Quartz sandstone ~ Mudstone & siltstone Crystalline rocks

The stratigraphic framework of the Carboniferous succession of the Grand Erg Occidental was initially proposed by Pareyn (1961) and later revised by Lemosquet and Pareyn (1982). The former showed that the succession comprises three distinct phases of biohermal development, separated by detfital phases. However, in details, some of Pareyn's stratigraphic boundaries are difficult to recognize. We propose a slightly modified lithostratigraphic framework in which lower and upper limits of the three bioherm-fich formations (Ioucha, Kebir, and Oubeur) are traced at the beginning and the end of biohermal phases, respectively (Fig. 4). Besides the various sections we measured and studied in the field, four boreholes (Nek-3, Ut-2, Ic-1, Mr-2; Fig. 3) were used to construct the stratigraphie section of Figure 4. Maximum total thickness of the upper Visean succession in the biohermal belt is about 1500 m. All formations,

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FIG. 2.-Paleozoic succession of the Grand Erg Occidental sequence, B~char Basin, and position of the studied section.

82

PIERRE-ANDRE BOURQUE, ACHOUR MADI, AND BERNARD L. MAMET

T~,BLi~l.-Summary offacies characteristicsin upper Viseansuccession of BEchar Basin, Algerian Sahara

Field Observations: Facies Sponge bafBestone-wackeston Massive dark-colored calcilutite, locally very rich in sponge bodies, forming a distinctive horizon
Massive sponge-fenestellid baJflestone-wackestone

Microfacies Balllestone-wackestone rich in sponge clasts and sponge-spicule& with a few fenestrate bryozoan fiagments Sponge and fantestrate bryozoan ballkstone, infiltrated by fine-geamed biodastic wackestone, containing brachiopods, ostracodes, fomminifers, and, in upper pan of facies, red algae

Massive. light gray, finely crystalline limestone, rich in sponge bodies and fenestrate bryozoan sheets, with local stromatactis-llke white spar masses representing centripetal cementation of centimeter-size cavities

Mamive crinoid waekestone-packstone Massive crinoid calcilutite/fine-grained calcarenite Crinoid, bryozoan and intraclast wackestone, with accessory brachiopods, ostracodes, trilobites, fomminifers, and red algae

BeddedlitkociaslJwlckestome-paekslone
Decimeter- to meter-thick bedded calcilutite and calcarenite Wackestone-packstone composed of fenestrate bryoman, sponge, and crinoid clasts in a sponge-spicule-rich lime mud, with accessory brachio!~ds. gastropods, trilobites, ostracodes, foraminifers, and red algae

Coral-microbial frrunestom Rugose coral colonies (Lithoslrotion) cncrusted by Coral frame infiltrated by an oncolite wackestone the eyanobacteria ~4phralv$ia,infiltrated and with accessory crinoids, hrachiopods, and bryozosurrounded by caleilutite ans ~'

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Crinoid packstmc-grtinstone Well-bedded ealcarenite,~calciruditein beds 20-813 Large crinoid and broken bryozoan packstone-Brainem thick stone, with accessory intraclasts, miccritizedbioclasts, gaslropods, ostracodes, bivalves, brachiopods, mlobites, foraminifers, and red algae Algabforaminiferal gmiastoa Massive to bedded bioclastic calcarenite Crinoid, foraminifes, and green alga grainstone and minor packstone, with same accessory fauna as in crinoid packstone-grainstone Facies Ooid grainstone, with common foraminifers and green algae

i t , ~

Ic 1
Ooid Irai~to~ Well-bedded and cross-laminated, decimeter to meter-thick bedded calcarenite/calcimdite

Productid limestom~ Distinctive dark ~icilutite, locally very rich in Mudstone with ubiquitous sponge-splcales large productid brachiopods (Gigantoproduct~l Limestone breccia Breccia made up of centimeter to a few lens of meter-size clasts composed o["sponge and sponge-fenestellid bafllestone-waekestone Facies embedded in a erinoidal calcarenite matrix like that of crinoid wackestone-packstone Facies. Units are roughly graded, the large meter-size clasts at base

....~

GRAND ERG OCCIDENTAL

Facies Spectrum and Distribution

F~;. 3.-Geologic map of the study area showingbioherrnaland detrflal belts, and terrigenousbasin (modifiedfrom Pareyn 1961). Locationof map is on Figure I. except the Khiam, are divided into members based on recurrenceof facies assemblages and sedimentary breaks. The Ioucha-Oubeur succession has been dated by mean of fomminifers (Fig. 4; Mamet et al. 1994). Upper Visean Archaediscidae, Endothyridae, Palaeotextulafiidae, and Tetrataxidae assemblage zones 15, 16i, and 16s (Mamet 1974) are identified, although the lowermost beds of the studied sequence could not be dated with precision.

Ten distinctive, recurrent limestone facies were recognized on the basis of field and petrographiccharacters. Their main attributes are summarized in Table 1. There are also siliciclastics in the section (Fig. 4), but they are volumetrically unimportant. The following section discusses the distribution of facies with respect to each formation in the succession. Ioncha Formation.-The Ioucha Formation lies unconformably on Upper Devonian fine-grained siliciclastics. A north-south cross section (Fig. 5) illustrates the spatial distribution of facies. Two distinctive plane surfaces (Figs. 5, 6) are readily observed in cliff sections in the biohermal belt, and separate the three members within the formation: IA, In, and Ic. Member [A is composed almost exclusively of ooid grainstone facies, but overlying members IB and Ic are each composed of nine facies (Fig. 5). Together, sponge bafflestone-wackestone, massive sponge-fenestellid bafl]estone-wackcstonc and massive crinoid wackestone-packstone facies (Table 1) form massive, mound-shaped, mud-rich, sponge-bryozoan-crinoid bioherms that are locally up to 120 m high. The sponge-bryozoan core of the bioherms accounts for an average of as much as 80% of a typical bioherm. Only the uppermost part of the bioherms has bedded

WAULSORTIAN- TYPE BIOHERMS, ALGERIA

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FIG. 4.-Columnar sections and correlations between biohermal and detrital belts in the study area (see Figure 3 for location of sectionsl, lc 1, Mr 2, Ut 2, and Nek 3 are boreholes.

84

PIERRE-ANDRE BOURQUE, ACHOUR MADI, AND BERNARD L. , ~ 4 M E T

Biohermal Belt

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NORTH Northwesternedge of MEHAREi E S

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BeddedIithoclasticwackestone-packstone Crinoid wackestone-packstone Sponge-fenestellid Massive limestone boundstone-wackestone (mound) Spongebafflestone-wackestone FIr. L-Facies distributionand architecture of the Ioucha Formation.Plane surfacesreferred to in text are those that separatethe three membersof the formation.Boxedarea indicatesfield of Figure6.

flanks, because the lithoclastic limestone facies is coeval only with the uppermost pan of the sponge-bryozoan core and with the entire massive crinoid wackestone-packstone facies. Well-bedded crinoid packstonegrainstone and ooid grainstone facies onlap the bioherms. The algal-foraminiferal grainstone facies was observed only locally, and forms small, massive bodies lying disconformably on bioherm facies. Limestone breccias have been observed at two localities, in northwestern Djebel Ioucha and at western end of Meharez es Seghir (Fig. 3). The two plane surfaces that separate the members of the formation show the same geometry with respect to underlying and overlying beds. In the core of Djebel Ioucha (Fig. 3), where mounds are closely packed together, these surfaces parallel underlying beds and are marked by abrupt changes from well-bedded calcarenites and calcirudites to massive mound limestone. At the western end of Djebel loucha, surfaces also parallel the underlying beds, but are covered in a downlapping manner by bedded calcarenites and calcirudites of mound flanks (Fig. 6). No erosional features were found to be associated with the surfaces. Sponge-bryozoan-cfinoid mounds are present in northern Taoudrara (Figs. 3, 5) but are absent in southern Taoudram, where the dominant lithologies are meter-thick coral-microbial bioherms covered by crinoid packstone-grainstone and ooid grainstone facies. Khiam Formation.-The Khiam Formation is a siliciclastic-dominated unit. Within the biohermal belt (Borehole Mr-2), it is a homogeneous terrigenous muddy sequence I 15 m thick. In the detrital belt (El Khiam Cuestas area, Fig. 3), the formation is poorly exposed. Nevertheless, reddish sandstones with ball-and-pillow structures, interbedded with greenish mudstones, are observed at the base of the section (Fig. 4). In Borebole Ut-2, the formation consists of alternating bioelastic limestone and finegrained siliciclastie units. Kebir Formation.- The Kebir Formation, nearly 350 m thick, constitutes the second biohermal phase. Its base is not exposed (Fig. 7). Four members (KAto KD)are easily delineated. The three boundary planes that separate these members are as follows. The lower one (the contact between

Members KA and Ka) corresponds to the contact between a sandstone marker bed 2 m thick that overlies ooid limestone and a dark spongespicule-rich limestone. This contact was observed only in two small outcrops, where it is conformable. The middle boundary plane (the contact between Members IO and Kc) is a beveled surface readily observed at the western end of Meharez el Kebir (Fig. 8), but actual erosional truncation is not observed. The upper boundary plane (the contact between Members Kc and KD) is a well-exposed erosional surface that is easily traced over a distance ofat least 4 km (Fig. 8). Unlike the two plane surfaces of the Ioucha Formation, this surface exposes features that suggesterosion during subaerial exposure, such as bed truncation (Fig. 9), karst topography, and fresh-water diagenesis as evidenced by stalactitic cements and stable C and O isotope data (Madi 1994). The contact between the Kebir and Sameh formations is conformable between crinoid packstone-~ainstone facies and dark fenestellid-fich calcihitites (Fig. 7). The facies architecture of the Kebir Formation (Fig. 7) is similar to that of the Ioucha Formation, but with two notable exceptions: (1) The spongefenestellid mounds of the three lower members are capped by up to 40 m of coral-microbial fmmestone facies. Rugose coral colonies are commonly in growth position, although in several places they are overturned. (2) Upper Member K9 has extensive development of massive crinoidal wackestones-packstones that form imbricated banks tens of meters high and a few hundred meters wide (Fig. 10). The base of this member is composed of the distinctive dark gigantoproductid-fich limestones that veneer the erosional surface between Members Kc and Kn. Only two lowrelief sponge-fenestellidmounds were observed in this member. In eastern part of Meharez el Kebir, at the hinge between the biohermal and the detrital belts, a wedge of greenish fine-grained siliciclastics with a few thin limestone beds rich in crinoid stems corresponds in time to the dark limestone horizon that covers the surface between Members Kc and (Fig. 7). Farther east, in the detfital belt, the same fine-grained sfliciclasticsonlap a bank composed of cnnoid packstone-grainstone facies (Fig. 7). Except

WAULSORTIAN-TYPE BIOHERMS, ALGERIA

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PIERRE-ANDRE BOURQUE, ACHOUR MADL AND BERNARD L. MAMET

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for this cfinoidal bank and a few meter-thick rugnse coral-microbial bioherms, the Kebir Formation in the detfital belt is composed of dctfital limestones, mainly well-beddedcrinoid and ooid grainstones. A distinctive hummocky cross-bedded sandstone rests on Member KA. Sameh Formation.-The Sameh Formation is a mixed siliciclastic-limestone detrital unit. It is nearly completely exposed in the detfital belt (Fig. 4), and four members are recognized (SAto So, upward). It is poorly known in the biohermal belt, where only its upper quarter (Sc and So) is exposed, with no significant change compared to the detfital belt. We cannot ascertain that the formation is entirely detfital in the biohermal belt. Member SA is dominated by well-bedded crinoidal packstones-grainstones, with basal rugnse coral colonies overlain by crinoid wackestonepackstone banks. Member SB is mostly siliciclastic, with thick-bedded red sandstones with ball-and-pillow structures in the lower part and greenish massive mudstones in the upper part. Member Sc is composed of a distinctive, ledge-forming cherty limestone composed of ooid grainstones and rugnse coral horizons. Member SD is siliciclastic, and consists of interbedded greenish mudstones and bioturbated sandstones, overlain by parallel-laminated and cross-laminated sandstones veneered by an ooid grainstone 30 cm thick that caps the formation (Fig. 11). Large-scale synsedimentary deformation features are well exposed in a cliffat Chabet el Oubeur (Fig. 3). The ledge-forming limestone unit Sc of the Sameh Formation, 30 m thick, shows a 25 m downwarp that developed prior to deposition of the overlying siliciclastie Member So (Fig. 11). North of this flexure and because of it, a wedge of dark limestone, reaching thickness of 20 m, is present between the siliciclasties of Member SD and the basal ledge-forming limestone unit of the overlying Oubeur Formation. Oubcur Formation.- The Oubeur Formation is known only in the biohermal belt. The facies architecture of the formation (Fig. 11) is similar to that of the Kebir Formation. Members OAand OB are similar to Members KA, KB, and Kc of the Kebir Formation, with large sponge-bryozoan hioherms identified at the base of Member OB. Greenish, fine-grained siliciclastics like those in Member Kc of the Kebir Formation are observed

in Member OA. As in Member Ko of the Kebir Formation, upper Member Oc has extensive cfinoidal banks (Fig. 11). The boundary planes that separate the three members of the Oubeur Formation (Fig. 11) are apparently conformable contacts. The top of the Oubeur Formation is marked by a thin, dark sponge-spicule-rich limestone overlying the massive crinoid wackestone-packstone banks. The contact between the Oubeur and the overlying Aouidja Formation is marked by onlap of greenish, fine-grained siliciclastics. The Tifafines massifs (Fig. 3) are a series of aligned rock hillocks protruding through the plain. These hillocks are olistoliths composed of spongefenestellid-cfinoid biohermal limestones that may reach up to a few hundreds of meters in size. Bedding of individual olistoliths range from horizontal to vertical. In places, large slabs of bedded limestone are folded. Associated sedimentary breccias and slumps are also observed; overturned geopetals are common. These olistoliths and associated limestones likely belong to the same olistostrome. The olistoliths are dated as belonging to foraminiferal Zone 16s, therefore suggesting they are derived from the Oubeur Formation.
FaciesArchitecture in Me Biokermai Belt

Three basic types of facies architecture constitute members offthe bioherm-fich formations (Fig. 12). Type I architecture characterizes Members IB and Ic of the Ioucha Formation and Members OA and OB of the Oubeur Formation, and includes two broad assemblages of facies. The lowest assemblage is composed of massive limestones forming the actual mounds (Fig. 13), including the following vertical succession: sponge baSestonewackestone, overlain by sponge-bryozoan bafllestone-wackestone, and then crinoid wackestone-packstone. In addition to these three facies, bedded flanks of lithoclastic wackestone-packstone are laterally equivalent only to the uppermost part of the massive mound. This assemblage of four facies therefore constitutes sponge-bryozoan-cfinoid mounds that developed bedded flanks only during their late stage of deposition. The upper

WA ULSOR TIAN- TYPE BIOHERMS, ALGERIA

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PIERRE-ANDRE BOURQUE, ACHOUR MADI, AND BERNARD L. MAMET

AOUIDJA Fro.

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banks

FIG.9.-Bed truncationalongthe unconformitybetweenMembersKc and K.D of KebirFormationon the south face of Meharez el Kebir.In the foregroundare massivelimestonesofs~nge-fenestellidbafllestone-wackestone coral-microand bial framestone facies, and well-beddedonlappingcrinoid packstone-grainstone facies, both truncated and overlain by dee~r-water, dark, sponge-spicule-rich productid limestoneof Member KDof the Kebir Formation,in turn overlainby sponge-fenestellidbalflestone-wackestonefacies. Person for scale, standing on truncationsurface,center of photograph.

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assemblage of facies is composed of well-bedded crinoid packstone-grainstone, and ooid grainstones that onlap the flanks and tops of the mounds (Fig. 12). Locally, small lenses (up to 20 m high) composed of massive cores of algal-foraminiferal grainstones with bedded flanks lie unconformably on flanks of mounds. Type H characterizes the three lowest members of the Kebir Formation, and is a slight variation of Type I. Again, sponge-bryozoan-crinoid mounds developed bedded flanks in their late stage only (Fig. 12). Unlike mounds of Type I architecture, these mounds arc overlain by rugose-coral-micmbial framestones, and then, by well-bedded crinoid packstones-grainstones and ooid grainstones as in Type I. Type lIl characterizes the upper members of both the Kebir and Oubeur formations. Although this facies architecture includes facies similar to Types I and If, it mainly shows extensive development of crinoid wackestone-packstone banks with massive cores and bedded flanks (Figs.

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FIG.11.--Faciesdistributionand architectureofthe OubeurFormation;symbols as in Figure5. 10, 12). The banks pile up on top of, or on the flanks of, each other. On the flanks of the pile, wedges of dark sponge-spicule-rich limestone are locally present between individual mounds (Fig. 12).
SEQUENCE ANALYSIS

SequenceStratigraphy
On the basis of depositional texture and water-depth indicators (see below), we interpret that the members within the three bioherm-rich Ioucha, Kebir, and Oubeur Formations are separated by sedimentary breaks expressed by strong contrast between shallow-water (e.g., ooid limestone) and deep-water (mud-rich bafliestone) facies. Each break marks an abrupt increase in water depth, and is therefore a marine flooding surface. Furthermore, each member is interpreted as a shallowing-upward sequence. In terms of sequence stratigraphy, the members are therefore parasequences separated by marine flooding surfaces. At least one, and possibly two, of these surfaces (the contacts between Members Kc and KD and between Members KBand Kc, respectively; Figs. 7, 8) are unconformities (sensu Van Wagoner et al. 1988). The other surfaces should be called "conformities" (semu Van Wagoner et al. 1988), although for some (e.g., like the contacts between Members IA and IB and between Members IB and Ic; Fig. 6), the downlapping of overlying strata indicates that the surfaces correspond to at least condensed intervals, if not hiatuses, equivalent in time to most mound accretion. Onlapping of terrigenous facies on top of Member Oc of the Oubeur Formation also indicates condensed

FiG. 10.-Massive crinoid wackestone-packstonehank with bedded flanks in Member Ko of Kebir Formation,north face of Meharez el Kebir. White line is the unconformitybetweenMembersKc and KD.Height ofcliffis 200 m; camels for scale in lowerright.

WA ULSORTIAN- TYPE BIOHERMS, ALGERIA

89

~nlmnnir~ r_rinn~'l

.-.

-f

FxG.13.-- Massive core ofa sponge-bryozoan mound of Member Kc of the Kebir Formation, with bedded lithoclastie wackestone-packstone flanks and onlapping well-bedded crinoid packstone-grainstone. Mound is about 125 m high.

zone, where there is little light, whereas green algae (e.g., lssinella, Koninckopora, Palaeoberesella) indicate the euphotic zone. Sponges and fenestrate bryozoans proliferated only below storm wave base, in mud-rich environments. The first evidence of sediment reworking by waves is re-

MOUND
II F~6. 12.-Three basic types of facies architecture in members of upper Visean bioherrnal-rich formations in the study area. Symbols are as in Figure 5. AF, algalforaminiferal grainstone: P, sponge-spicule-rich productid limestone.

"""~,~ 7

BATHYMETRIC BENTHICCOMMUNITY ZONE

SUBSTRATE
Shifting sands

1 2

CALCAREOUSALGAE, crinoids, green and red algae, foraminifers CRINOIDS-RAMOSE BRYOZOANS,green and red algae, foraminifers LARGE PRODUCTID BRACHIOPODS,sponges, corals CORALS-MICROBIALENCRUSTERS, large productids, red algae CRINOIDS, FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS, red algae, sponges SPONGES, FENESTRATE BRYOZOANS, cdnoids SPONGES

Shifting sands

deposition or a hiatus at the Oubeur-Aouidja contact. At the contacts of all other members, deep-water mound facies conformably overlie shallowwater facies without evidence of erosion or hiatus.

3 4

Muddy sand bosom Rocky bottom (?) & muds Muddy sands

Water-Deptk Indicators
A reliable sequence analysis depends upon reliability of water-depth indicators. Besides physical properties of the facies, as described above, the faunal and floral content of the rocks and the recurrence of distinctive biotic assemblages allow recognition of seven depth-dependent benthic assemblages (Madi 1994). Lithologic and biouc data were used together to infer seven bathymetfic zones whose distribution along a profile is shown in Figure 14. Algae were used as indicators of light penetration. The base of photic zone is considered to be at the first occurrence of algae: red algae (e.g., Fasciella, Ungdarella, Stacheineae) define the dyspbotic

5 6
7

Muddy bottom Muddy bottom

F~c. 14.-Distribution ofbathymetric zones along a ramp profile, deduced from benthic assemblages and substmte nature. Light-dependent limits are based on distribution of calcareous algae. FWB, fair-weather wave base; SWB, storm wave base.

90
TRANSGRESSION

PIERRE-ANDRE BOURQUE, ACHOUR MADL AND BERNARD L. MAMET

HIGHSTAND SEA LEVEL

....................
-Fair-weather Wave Base -Base Of Euphoric Zone . . . . . . . . . . -Storm Wave Base ---mfV~--

-~-~
First Red ae

B
REGRESSION LOWSTAND SEA LEVEL

First Green ~?'i Algae

FiG. 15.--Evolution ofa parasequencecontrolled by a singletransgressive-regressive cycle in the biohermal belt, using type 1 parasequenee as an example. Mound growth and sedimentation kept pace with very rapid subsidence. corded in upper part of Zone 5 (Fig. 14) where fenestrate bryozoans were broken, and in the rngose-coral-microbial Zone 4 where coral colonies were locally overturned. The fact that Zone 7 is dominated by sponges possibly indicates low levels of oxygen in this zone, by analogy with some modern sponges that are known to tolerate poorly oxygenated conditions (Byers 1977). Evolutlon of a Parasequence We interpret that deposition of an ideal shallowing-upward parasequence results from a complete transgressive-regressive cycle. Obviously, the deep-water base of the mounds (Zones 7 or 6, Fig. 14), resting on shallowwater, green-alga-rich, algal-foraminiferal banks and ooid sands (Zones 1 or 2), testifies to a marked increase in water depth. Material of algalforaminiferal banks and ooid sands (algal-forarniniferal grainstone facies and ooid grainstone facies, respectively) is autochthunous shallow-water material, and not alloehthonous, for two reasons: (1) abundant unbroken dasyclad algae of the algal-foraminiferal banks, with which odid sands interfinger, are too fragile to indicate significant transport; and (2) massive cores of algal-foraminiferal banks with bedded flanks indicate in situ accumulations. The development of the entke shallowing sequence subsequent to transgression can hardly be explained by progressive filling of the available space between the sea floor and a standing sea surface. Indeed, the fact that shallow-water crinoid sands and gravels (crinoid packstonegrainstone facies), ooid sands, and the algal-foraminiferal banks locally onlap the flanks and tops of the deep-water sponge-bryozoan-crinoid mounds (Fig. 12) implies that the shallow-water facies developed not only above the deep.water mounds, but also at topographic levels below their tops. Sea-level fall is needed to develop, side by side, deep-water mound facies and shallow-water sand and bank facies during the deposition of a sequence. Consequently, evolution of an Upper Visean parasequence should be analyzed according to a transgressive-regressive cycle. Inferred development of Type I facies architecture (parasequence) illustrates this concept (Fig. 15). Transgression resulted in ooid sands of the preceding parasequence being drowned, which resulted in sponges being able to colonize a possibly poorly oxygenated, sea floor (Fig. 15A). During ensuing sealevel rise and ultimate highstand, sponges and bryozoans built mud-rich mounds in low-energy environments below storm wave base and in aphotic zones. The presence of red algae in upper parts of sponge-fenestellid bafllestone-wackestone facies indicates that mound surfaces built into the dysphotic zone (Fig. 15B). Alternatively, the mound surface was reached by the dysphotic zone during early regression. Lowering of sea level during the early regressive phase exposed mound tops to storm waves (Fig. 15C), causing episodic reworking of sea-floor sediments, which inhibited construction by fragile bryozoans and sponges and allowed crinoids to dominate the biotic communities. Well-bedded flanks developed at that time. During later regression, crinoid-rich sands (crinoid packstone-grainstone facies) filled depressions in low areas on and between the mounds. The sea floor was then in the euphoric zone (Fig. 15D), allowing development of local algal-foraminiferal banks in low-energy areas of this zone. Ooid sand sheets finally leveled the sea floor during the latest phase of regression and the ensuing phase of iowstand (Fig. 15D). Evolution of Type II parasequences does not differ significantly from those of Type I. The main difference lies in that during the regressive phase, ruguse coral-microbial facies developed on the sides and tops of sponge-bryozoan mounds, in the zone affected by storm waves. Compared to Types I and II parasequenees, the amplitude of transgressive-regressive cycles was weaker in Type III parasequences, as indicated by poorly devdoped sponge-bryozoan mound facies, at the base, and the greater development of crinoid bank facies. Paleobatkymetry By using the ideas regarding sequence development discussed above, a paleobathymetfic curve can be constructed for the studied succession. Transgressive-regressive cycles are obvious for the three bioherm-fieh formations (Ioucha, Kebir, and Oubeur), where they correspond to formation members, whereas they are not so obvious for the mixed carbonatesilicidastie Sameh and Khiam formations. We have outlined three cycles in the Sameh, on the basis of the nature of limestone facies only, because the paleoenvironmental significance of the siliciclastic facies is uncertain. There is no correspondence between these three cycles (parasequences) and formation members in this unit. Counting the three cycles in the Sameh Formation, which are questionable, the studied succession comprises thirteen transgressive-regressive cycles (Fig. 16). These cycles are probably asymmetrical. Indeed, in most of them, the deepest-water facies abruptly overlie the shallow-water facies without any intervening facies of intermediate composition. Such a rapid superposition of facies indicates that sea level had already reached

WAULSORTIAN- TYPE BtOHERMS, ALGERIA highstand when mound accretion began, or at least during earliest phase of mound accretion, which indicates rapid transgression. On the contrary, superposition of facies with intermediate composition expressing a progressive decrease of water depth (e.g., the vertical succession of massive crinoid wackestone-packstone, coral-microbial framestone, bedded crinoid packstone-grainstone and ooid grainstone; Type II faciesarchitecture, Figure 12) su~ests relatively slow regression. Providing reliable estimates of water depth for ancient facies is not easy. Waves in modern oceans facing open shelves are known to rework sediments in the depth range 140--180m (e.g., James et al. 1992;Draper 1967). At 20 latitude, which roughly corresponds to that of the study area during Visean time (Scotese and McKerrow 1990), calculated maximum water depth at which the sea bottom was reached by waves, using Ekman's equation (Pond and Pickard 1983), is about 200 m. Taking into account that individual mounds we described attained thicknesses in excess of 100 m before their tops were reworked by waves, a water depth up to about 300 m for the sea floor around the sponge-bryozoan mounds during sealevel highstand would seem reasonable. However, this estimate does not consider subsidence, the rate of which probably paralleled the rate of sedimentation (see below). Moreover, the estimates given above for modem settings apply to ocean-facingopen shelves, and are probably excessive for a foreland basin, which is the case for the B&har Basin setting (KarlTani et al. 1991). For better estimates, one can possibly rely on comparative depth distributions of living algae and their presumed ancient counterparts. Maximum depths at which modem green algae proliferate is 70--80m, although some are found at depths of 1l0 m (James and Ginsburg 1979). Modern red algae are known down to 250 m, but their proliferation stops below about 100 m (Wray 1977). However, uncertain biological relationships between living and ancient algae command caution (Wray 1977). Therefore, taking into account the foreland basin setting of the B&har Basin, the high rate of subsidence, and the distribution of algae, we suggest that water depth at which the mounds were initiated and grew was more likely in the range of 100-150 m rather than 300 m. In contrast, most of the detrital belt (Fig. 3) is made up of coral-microbial framestone, crinoid packstone-grainstone, and ooid grainstone facies (Fig. 4), thus oscillating between bathymetfic zones 4 and 1 (Fig. 14, upper dysphotic to euphoric zones). Using the present-day distribution of abundant green algae, maximum water depth probably did not exceed 70-80 m in this belt.

91

Foram. Formations
Zones 17 Members AOUIDJA , '," " " " I 200m
ffl

--~g
Ilao

>o
o

I
Upper 16 OUBEUR

loo

OB
.... 0

s E
Sc SB
SAMEH Lower 16

.','o,.'., :.,1
'l' i', i F

~',

SA
I...... KD

j
,i

KI~BIR

Kc

KB

KHIAM

i?
, ; , , .~,

15

PLATFORM MODELANDEVOLUTION The profile of the studied platform segment is a distally steepened ramp (sensu Read 1982) with a rather limited width on the order of 15-20 kin (Figs. 3, 17). There is a slight break on the ramp itself at the hinge of the detfital and biohermal belts. Indeed, in a distance of less than 2 km, facies change laterally from shallow-water coral thickets (70-80 m deep) to deepwater sponge-bryozoan mounds (100-150 m deep). The thickness of the succession in the biohermal belt is greater than in the detrital belt (Fig. 4), implying that the rate of subsidence was higher in the former. The hinge line between both belts possibly corresponded to synsedimentary faults, for which, however, we found no field evidence. The distal edge of the ramp (Fig. 3) is probably fault-controlled. Sup.. porting evidence includes: (1) presence at the edge of the ramp of limestone breccia in the loucha Formation (Table I; Fig. 5), composed of clasts of sponge and sponge-ffenestellidbafilestone-wackestone facies in a crinoid wackestone-packstone matrix, implying that breccia deposition occurred after cementation (or at least partial cementation) of sponge and spongefenestellid baft]estone-wackestonefacies but during deposition of crinoid wackestone-packstone. This situation suggests that the breccia was synsedimentary and fault-related; (2) presence of a synsedimentary flexure and sediment wedges in upper Sameh Formation at the western tip of

7\
IOUCHA ., -;,i

IB
, "7 ", "7l , '. , ' . ,'.~' ,
? f,* ." ,*. , ,

? UPPER DEVONIAN

IA

II

FIG. 16.-Paleobathymetriccurve for the upper Viseansequencein the study area. Numberson the curve refer to bathymetficzonesof Figure 14. Cyclesare wall definedfor the three bioherm-richformationsand correspondto formation members. They are less well definedin the Sameh Formation,and do not correspond to formationmembers. Chabet el Oubeur (Fig. 11); and (3) presence of the aligned Tifarines olistoliths west of the ramp edge. Therefore, the lateral distribution of facies in the study area depended strongly on local tectonic setting, whereas the vertical development of the platform was controlled by sea-level fluctuations. Figure 17 shows the

92

PIERRE-ANDRE

BOURQUE,

ACHOUR

MADI, AND BERNARD

L. M A M E T

NORTHWEST
--BIOHERMAL BELT -~ = DETRITAL BELT

SOUTHEAST

Transgressive Stage

Eu~2:netiC
Colonisation by Sponges

First Rugose CoralMicrobial Thickets

.f

__~=,.,~:.~F~"-/

f".
Time )

Highstand Stage

Euphotic zone
. . . . . . . . . . .

Sponge-Bry.ozoan Mounas ~
"i'.~~''' ': '

Rugose Coral/ Microbial Thickets ~ " # ... .......

...... . ......'....: .-...

Early Regressive Stage

Zn oe / ~ ' . : ' ........

Late

Regressive Stage
/

Al-aI-Feram . . . . . B~kS " oo.a ~noals

Wave Abrasion Zone ,, ,...:. . . . . ~ . . . : . . . . .

-'-Cr nnOd~nd Ooid ~

~
. ,..

~ " ~
.: ..H.:.'. , v

y " ~ "" > : ~

Lowstand S t a - e
. ~

Wave Abrasion Zone

Subaenal Exposure ~
. .,....: .:-...:.: ~ ............:..:.......:................-..........'...-

......~...::...%'.;::....'...~ ...

.........:..::...:......

0 o"

............:

5 km

approximatehorizontalscale

FiG. 17.-Evolution of distally steepened carbonate ramp in the study area, shown at various stages of a complete, asymmetrical transgressive-regressive cycle. Vertical scale is strongly exaggerated.

WAULSORTIAN- TYPE BIOHERMS, ALGERIA

93

evolution of the ramp and the various facies that developed during a complete cycle, at the following stages: transgressive, highstand, early regressive, late regressive, and lowstand. This model is based on a Iouchatype cycle but is largely applicable to the Kebir and Oubeur formations. The amplitude of sea-level fluctuations was great enough to cause considerable lateral shifting of bathymetfic zones, so that the shallowest facies (algal-foraminiferal banks and associated ooid grainstones) overlie the deep-water mounds during late stage of regressions (Fig. 17). The buildup of the sea floor on the western part of the ramp in the wave abrasion zone during sea-level Iowstands (Fig. 17) is responsible for the development of the plane surfaces that end parasequences in the biohermal belt (e.g., Fig. 6). This situation suggests that the platform in the detfital belt may have been exposed to subaerial diagenesis, a situation that was repeated several times during deposition of the upper Visean sequence and may have had an effect on hydrocarbon reservoir development.
DISCUSSION

boundaries, which constitute the two other third-order boundaries of Ross and Ross (1988). Therefore, it is not possible with our data to reliably identify Ross and Ross's (1988) upper Visean third-order cycles. Assuming a duration of 6-8 m.y. for the Upper Visean, our parasequences average half a million years each, which represents fourth-order eustatic cyclicity. Asymmetry of cycles (Fig. 17) is suggestive ofglacio-eustatic control (Williams 1988; Miall 1990). Recurrence of the same facies at the end of every cycle implies that the rate of subsidence was equal to the rate of sedimentation (including growth rate of mounds). This indicates a very active keep-up ofthe mound growth relative to subsidence during sea-level highstands. Because of the high rate of subsidence in the biohermal belt, most facies of eustatic cycles were exceptionally well developed and preserved.

Comparison
The mound belt we describe here cannot escape comparison with the classic Waulsortian mound belts typical of the Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) (e.g., Lees et al., 1985; Lees and Miller 1985; Ahr 1989). Indeed, the Brchar Basin mounds were called Wauisortian by Lemosquet and Pareyn (1982), an assignment later questioned by Lees (1988). To discuss in detail what should or should not be called Waulsortian mounds is not within the scope of this paper and is left for a future contribution. However, a few comments seem appropriate. The B~char mounds share several features with the classical Waulsortian mounds, but they apparently differ from them in two respects. (1) Their richness in large sponges is unique. To our knowledge, the l~char mounds are the only ones among the Carboniferous Waulsortiantype mounds to contain so many preserved sponges. Although sponge spicules are commonly reported as significant components of some facies of Waulsortian mounds (e.g., Lees and Miller 1985; Bridges and Chapman 1988), sponges were not considered important builders. However, Bourque and Gignac (1983, 1986) and Bourque and Boulvain (1993) argued that, in the case of Silurian and Devonian deep-water mounds, the absence of sponge body fossils is not an absolute criterion on which to deny the significant role of sponges in mound accretion. (2) The vertical water-depth-related zonation of the Brchar mounds (Fig. 14) is unlike that proposed by Lees et at. (1985) and Lees and Miller (1985) for the mid-Dinantian Waulsortian. The deepest sponge facies of the B~char mounds, and also of the Silurian-Devonian mud-rich deepwater mounds (Bourque and Boulvain, 1993), is apparently missing in many or most dassic Wanlsortian mounds. Lees et al. 0985) proposed a ramp profile for the Waulsortian moundbearing platform of the mid-Dinantian of Belgium and southern Great Britain, with the mounds occupying the deepest-water positions on the ramp. This model also extends to Europe and North America (Lees and Miller 1985) and applies to platforms tens of kilometers wide (up to 110 km according to Lees et at. 1985; their fig. 1), on which the mound belt is separated from the shallow-water facies of the ramp by at least 30 kin. The model we propose here is at a much smaller scale, with a ramp width of 10-15 kin. It applies to rather small platforms that developed within a rapidly subsiding basin where active faults delimited blocks onto which carbonate platforms developed, provided that proper water depths existed for mound accretion.

Eustasy and Tectonics

The relative sea-level curve of Figure 16 is the expression of the interaction between rates of eustasy, subsidence, and sediment supply at a given place for a given time interval. It does not necessarily correspond to a eustatic curve. The extent to which the transgressive-regressive cycles are related to local tectonics or eustasy, or both, is a matter that needs further discussion. In the biohermal belt of the study area, 1500 m of sediments was deposited during 6-.-8m.y. (Sando 1990), giving a minimum average sedimentation rate of nearly 0.2 m/Icy. This figure is six times that of ancient carbonate rock successions, but one-fifth of that proposed for rates of Holocene carbonate sedimentation (about I m/ky; Wilson 1975; Schlager 1981; Sarg 1988; Tucker and Wright 1990). However, it includes periods of nondeposition and erosion, and does not allow for mechanical and chemical compaction, so that the rate is certainly higher than the cited 0.2 m/ky and probably much closer to Holocene figures. For comparison, maximum accumulation rate on Early Carboniferous carbonate ramps are 0.05-0.09 m/ky (Wright and Faulkner 1990). The Carboniferous Brchar Basin was a subsiding foreland basin (KaziTani et al. 1991). No doubt synsedimentary tectonism occurred during the Upper Visean, at least at the distal edge of the studied ramp. However, it is doubtful that repetitive collapses and uplifts were responsible for the cyclicity observed in the three bioberm-fich formations. Tectonism alone would have produced a more erratic and variable vertical succession within cycles than the recurrent similar sequence of facies from cycle to cycle. Therefore, a more uniform and constant mechanism is needed to produce such a repetitive facies mosaic, and more likely, the ten cycles recorded by the bioherrn-fich formations (Ioucha, Kebir, and Oubeur) are related to eustatic sea-level fluctuations, which constitute a more uniform and consistent repetitive mechanism. As for the three cycles of the mixed carbonate-siliciclastic Sameh Formation, it is not clear whether they were related to eustasy or tectonics. The terrigenous influxes of both units may be related to local change in continental base level, and it is possible that the poorly defined Sameh cycles resulted from this instability. Ross and Ross (1988) have proposed that three _+ 2 m.y. (third-order) eustatic cycles occurred during the Upper Visean time (V~a to V~c; foraminiferal Zones 15 and 16 of Mamet's 1974 ). Our unconformity at the contact between Members Kc and Ko corresponds to the limit between Zones 15 and 16i (Figs. 4, 7, 8). It is certainly the most important break in our sequence, and probably correlates with the third-order limit proposed by Ross and Ross (1988) at this zone boundary. However, except for the contact between Members K.Band Kc, which possibly is erosional, the other surfaces separating the parasequences are "conformities". None seems more important than the other, even at Zones 16i-16s or 16s-17

RegionalImplications
The m~el we propose can serve as a tool in developing explo~tion

strategies in the search for potential hydrocarbon reservoirs in the B~char Basin (Fig. 1), in two ways: (1) the peculiar architecture of this small carbonate platform, together with its position on the tops of faulted blocks, provide a signature that should be recognizable on seismic profiles; (2) recognition of two superposed facies assemblages for each cycle (i.e., low

94

PIERRE-ANDRI~ BOURQUE, ACHOUR MADI, AND BERNARD L. MAMET

research grants to PAB and BLM from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

primary porosity, mud-rich carbonates at the base, and high primary porosity, grain-rich carbonate at the top) can serve as a base to model plumbing systems of fluid migration during burial, provided that primary porosity was kept open for a while (this aspect is currently being investigated).
CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

This paper describes and discusses an exccptionaUy well-developed and well-preserved upper Visean sponge-bryozoan-crinoid mound-rich succession, which may well contribute to the clarification of the Waulsortian mound question and to the understanding of the deep-water mound pbenomcnon in gcncral, particularly as to the factors that control their initiation and development. The succession, in the foreland B6char Basin, Algeria, is composed of recurrent facies mosaics forming individual superposed members. The most striking feature is the repetition ofbiogenic mound-rich phases at least ten times during 6-8 m.y. An ideal member is made up of two distinct facies assemblages. The lower assemblage, forming the actual mounds, is composed of sponge baffiestone-wackestone at the base, overlain by massive sponge-fenestellid bafllestone-wackestone. There are no flanks, except in uppermost parts of the latter facies. The mound is capped by massive crinoid wackestone with bedded flanks of lithodastic wackestone. In contrast with the massiveness of the mounds, the upper assemblage is well-bedded crinoid packstone-grainstone and enid grainstone, with local rugose coral and aigal-foraminiferal banks. Each member is interpreted as a shallowing-upward parasequence controlled by an asymmetrical transgressive-regressive cycle. The curve of local relative sea level for the upper Visean succession shows 13 cycles, of which at least 10 are interpreted as the result of fourth-order ustatic sea-level fluctuations, each cycle averaging halfa million years. We failed to recognize clearly the three third-order cycles of Ross and Ross's (1988) euslatic curve in our fourth-order cycle succession. However, we can correlate third-order sea-level lowstands that limit foraminiferal Zones 1516i, 16i-16s, and 16s-17 with our Kc-KD member, Sameh-Oubeur, and Oubeur-Aouidja contacts. The sponge-bryozoan-crinoid mounds developed on a distally steepened ramp 15-20 km wide that evolved in a rapidly subsiding foreland basin. Lateral distribution of facies on the ramp depended strongly on local tectonic setting, whereas vertical development was controlled by sea-level fluctuations. The deep-water mud-rich biogenic mounds developtd in 100-150 m water depth during phases of sea-level highstand, whereas shallow-water facies were deposited on top of the mounds in water depths less than 70..-80 m, during regressive phases. The Brchar mounds share similarities with the classic Lower Carboniferous Waulsortian mounds, but they differ in two respects: 'theirrichness in large sponge bodies, which is unique, and their vertical zonation, wherein basal facies consist of spongedominated assemblages. The proposed platform model can serve as a tool in developing exploration strategies in the search for hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Brchar Basin, in view of the peculiar architecture of the platform, which can provide a suitable plumbing system for fluid migration and a signature that is possibly recognizable on seismic profiles.
ACIINOWLEDGMENTS We thank Alain Prrat (Universit6 Libre de Bruxelles) for comments on an earlier draft of this paper, and the two journal reviewers, W. C. Dawson {Texaco) and S,J. Mazzullo (Wichita State University), for thorough review and constructive comments and suggestions, which contributed greatly toward improvement of this manuscript. We also thank Journal editor John B. Southard and associate editor SJ. Mazzullo for great improvement of our English. PAB is much indebted to P. Dansereau for assistance in figure and manuscript preparation. We are indebted to the Drpartement d'l~tudes et Synthrses ofthe Exploration Division of Sosat~ca, Algeria, for field-work support. The work has also been supported by individual

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