TOTAL KENOSIS, TRUE SHUNYATA,

and

THE PLEROTIC SELF

of

THOMAS MERTON
and

ABE MASAO

JOE LENCIONI

...weareinvitedtoforgetourselvesonpurpose,castourawfulsolemnity tothewindsandjoininthegeneraldance. ThomasMerton, NewSeedsofContemplation

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1 CHAPTER1:THOMASMERTONANDTHESELF ...............................................8
MERTONS INFLUENCES ........................................................................................................................ 8 IMPORTANCEOFTHE SELF .................................................................................................................. 11 MERTONS SELF................................................................................................................................. 13 FalseSelf ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Selfidentity ............................................................................................................................................. 14 Selfwill................................................................................................................................................... 16 ArisingoftheFalseSelf ........................................................................................................................... 17

TrueSelf........................................................................................................................................ 19
BodyandSoul.......................................................................................................................................... 22 Poverty .................................................................................................................................................... 23 FindingtheTrueSelf................................................................................................................................ 25

CHAPTER2:ABEMASAOANDTHESELF..........................................................28
ABES INFLUENCES ............................................................................................................................. 28 IMPORTANCEOFTHE SELF .................................................................................................................. 30 ABESSELF ........................................................................................................................................ 32 NihilismBeyondReligion .............................................................................................................. 32 TheSelf ......................................................................................................................................... 35
SelfCenteredness..................................................................................................................................... 36 TrueSelf.................................................................................................................................................. 37 Kenosis............................................................................................................................................... 37 Shunyata ............................................................................................................................................. 40

CHAPTER3:MERTONANDABEINDIALOGUE ...............................................44
FUNCTIONOFTHESELF ....................................................................................................................... 44 TOTAL KENOSISANDTRUESHUNYATA................................................................................................ 48 PLEROTIC SELF ................................................................................................................................... 49

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................52

INTRODUCTION
Poet,artist,writer,Trappistmonk,andmystic,ThomasMertonwasbornin1915 inFranceanddiedin Bangkok,Thailandin1968of accidentalelectrocution attheageof 53.Althoughhewasneitheraphilosophernoratheologian,Mertonleftalargebodyof writingaboutsuchtopicsascontemplation,holiness,Zen,andmysticism.He communicatedwitheasternthinkersandin1968visitedAsiadespitebeinga contemplativemonkinaTrappistmonastery.Clearly,Mertonwasaprolificwriterwho brokefreeofconventioninhisdailylife.ThisiswhatfirstinterestedmeinhimMerton seemedtobeararekindofperson whouniquelycombinedBuddhistthoughtandpractice withCatholicism. Mertonhadauniqueperspectiveonlifethat,whileremainingrootedin
1 Catholicism,incorporatedideasnativetoeasterntraditions. VariousCatholicthinkersin

thepasthadsimilarlyexpressedtheirfaithinanalmostZenlikeway,butThomas Mertondidsoduringaperiodofrapideconomic,cultural,andreligioustransition,and
2 hasbeencalledamodernpropheticreligiouswriter. ThroughhisturntowardtheEast,

Mertonsinquisitiveminddevelopedanevengreaterculturalandspiritualsensibility. AnotherfascinatingmoderngroupofthinkersistheKyotoSchoolofPhilosophy, comprisedof,amongotherBuddhistphilosopherssuchasAbeMasao(b.1915),three centralfigures:NishidaKitar(18701945),TanabeHajime(18851962),andNishitani

3 Keiji(19001990). Catholictheologian,JamesW.Heisig,whoisProfessorand

PermanentResearchFellowatNanzanInstituteforReligionandCultureinNyoga,
1 2

ChalmersMacCormick,ZenCatholicismofThomasMerton,802. PaulBernadicou,TheEastwardTurnofThomasMerton,352. 3 JamesW.Heisig, PhilosophersofNothingness,35.

Japan,referstotheKyotoschoolasJapansfirstsustainedandoriginalcontributionto
4 westernphilosophicalthoughtfromadistinctivelyeasternperspective. Ofthe

schoolsthinkers,AbeMasaohasbeencalledaleadingfigureintheBuddhistChristian
5 dialoguewhoisattemptingtoworkoutofbothcamps. Therefore,KyotoPhilosophy

was,insomerespects,abridgefromeasternthinkingtowestern philosophy. Additionally,accordingtothewebsitefortheThomasMertonCenter,Merton hadcorrespondedwithKeijiNishitani,D.T.Suzuki,AbeMasao,whomhequotesinhis

6 AsianJournal,andotherZenscholars. PerhapsMertonrecognizedsomethinginthe

KyotoPhilosophythatcalledtohiminhisquestforbringingtheEasttotheWest. Comparingthetwoisimportantbecausetheybothhavepushedthelimitsoftheir respectivetraditionswhilerepresentingthedepthoftheirrespectivetraditions.Therefore, thisisacomparisonofsegmentsofChristianityandBuddhismthatareusefulfor comparingwith therestoftheirrespectivetraditions.Ultimately,thishelpsonelearn aboutandrelatetoothers,breakingdownthebarriersofothernesscausedbyfearand hatred.Furthermore,itelucidatesabasisforrecognizingcommonalitiesinpraxisthat promotesnotjustatolerancebutanembracingofothertraditionsandculturesas exemplifiedintheidealpractitionersofthesetraditions.Unfortunately,despitetheir apparentsimilarityinfunctionbridgingtheEastandtheWestThomasMertonand theKyotothinkersrarely communicatedwitheachother.Furthermore,Merton hasnot frequentlycitedtheKyotothinkersinhiswritingandfewscholarshavecompared

Ibid.,3. StephenMorris,BuddhismandChristianity:TheCommonGround,89. 6 TheThomasMertonCenteristheofficialrepositoryofMertonsmanuscripts,letters,journals,tapes, drawings,photographs,andmemorabilia locatedat BellarmineUniversity inKentucky.ThomasMerton, TheAsianJournalofThomasMerton,17ThomasMertonCenter2003.

5

Merton andtheKyotoschool.Nevertheless,thereareenoughsimilaritiestoprovidea basisforcomparison. ThequestionsthatarebeingaskedaboutMertoninconnectionwith socalled eastern topicsusuallydealwithBuddhism,Zen,ortheFarEastingeneral.Thiseasily leadstooversimplificationsandgeneralizationsbecauseitisdifficulttoaccurately portraythedetailsofsuchvasttraditions.Thisisusuallynotanissueformost. However, wheninvolvedinphilosophicaldiscourse, oversimplification createsunnecessary ambiguityandconfusion. ConsiderfirsttheentiretyofChristianity which exhibitsagreatdiversityof teachingsrangingfromCatholicismtoJehovahsWitnesses.Evenindividual denominationswithin Christianitycanhavediverseinterpretationsandpractices.For example,currentdayAmericanCatholicparishesdonotalwayspracticewhatRome proclaims,suchasSanFranciscosMostHolyRedeemerparishinwhichmostofthe parishionersarehomosexual.Traditionally,officialCatholicteachinghasconsistently judgedallhomosexualactsasatonceunnaturalandgravelysinful,forcinggayswho choosetopracticeCatholicism eithertohidetheirsexualityortofindamoreaccepting
7 church. Furthermore,allChristian denominationshavevaryingstanceson nearlyany

issuethatfacesthechurch.Thenumberof denominationsistestimonytothediversityof interpretationwithinChristianity. Alsoconsidertheentiretyof Buddhism which,forexample,exhibitsthedivision betweentheMahayanaandTheravada(Hinayana)traditions.Here, onetraditionplaces moreemphasisonconversion andsocialactionwhiletheothertraditionfocusesmoreon

CharlesR.Morris, AmericanCatholic,352RichardP.McBrien, Catholicism:NewEdition,995.

contemplation.8 Yetstill,thisishowMahayanahastraditionallyportrayedtheir distinctionandthereisagrowingbodyofresearchthatcriticizesthisdistinction asover simplistic.However,even withintheMahayanatradition therearefurtherdifferences suchasthedramaticdifferencebetween abeliefinsalvationthroughotherpowerasin

9 PureLandBuddhismandabeliefinsalvationthroughselfpowerasin ZenBuddhism.

BecauseChristianityandBuddhismareverydiverse,comparinganythingsuchas theideasofThomasMerton toeithertraditionasawholeisverydifficult.Asstated above,thisissuecaneasilybeoverlooked. Partiallytoavoidtheovergeneralizationofa tradition,Iwillinvestigatetheconceptof selfasitismanifestinMertonswritingin comparisonto thesameconceptin AbeMasaoswriting.AccordingtoH.C.Steyn,the
10 self wasundoubtedlythesubjectonwhich [Merton]wrotethemost. Mertonsnotion

oftheselfwasinfluencedbyZenandbytheendofhislifehistheoriesontheselfcould
11 beexpressedinbothZenandChristianterms. Likewise,AbeMasaohaswritten

extensivelyontheconceptoftheself suchasin ZenandComparativeStudiesand BuddhismandInterfaithDialogue. Whenonerelatestoanother,bothbenefitbecausepeopleareeasily broughtcloser bytheirsimilarities.Ina timewhenmisunderstandingsaboutotherculturescanleadto fearandmisplacedanger,relatingtoothersisincreasinglyimportant. However,by speakingwithpeopleoneascertainsthatitiseasyfor manyChristiansinAmericato knowlittleaboutboth eitherthepracticesor themoresubstantialinternalsofotherfaiths.
8

Iusethewordconversionnottoimplyanegativeconnotation,butratheroutofalackforamore concisewayofcapturingthepracticesoftheMahayanatradition.Alsonotethatthisisnotmeanttoimply thatwhichevangelismorwitnessing mayimplyinChristiantraditions. 9 SalvationhereisnotmeanttoimplysalvationinaChristiancontextofheavenandGod,butratherit shouldbereadmoregenerally. 10 Steyn,8. 11 Ibid.

Thesepeopleoftenhaveimpressionsoftheseculturesandfaithsmostlikelybasedonthe thingstheyhearandseeontelevision andtheInternetthatdonotnecessarilyreflectthe completetruth.AbeMasaoagrees,statingthatcontrarytotheadvancementoftechnology andinternationalcommunication,weknowverylittleabouttheinnermeaningof

12 spiritualandreligioustraditionsnotourown. Furthermore,itisunfortunatethatpeople

oftenfearandhatethatwhichtheydonotunderstand.ThisisevidentincommentsIhave heardrecently concerningIslamsuchas,AllMuslimsareterrorists,orAllMuslims aretrainedtokill Christians.If,instead,thepeoplewhobelievethesecomments understoodthatIslamisareligionbuiltonfundamentalsofpeaceandlawandthatmaybe onlyasmallportionof radicalsholdtruetotheseideas,theymightbeabletoembrace Muslimsinsteadofhatingthem.Likewise,gravemisunderstandingscansurface concerningotherreligionssuchasBuddhism.UnderstandingBuddhismisimportant becauselearningaboutsomethingrelievesthefearspawnedfromtheignoranceinvolved instatementssuchasthoseabove.Therefore,understandingunfamiliarconceptsand culturescanleadonefromignoringandpushingawayto oneembracingthatwhichhad beenfearedandhated. Understandingsomethinghelpsonetoembraceit,andinfullyunderstanding somethingonemustrelateitbackto onesownlife.ThomasMertonassertsthattrue communicationgoesbeyondconceptualknowledge.Heaffirmsthatcommunicationmust
13 be,communionbeyondthelevelofwords,acommunioninauthenticexperience.

Theimportanceofexperienceoverconceptsisillustratedbythefactthatgrowingup ChristianandtakingaclassonChristianityaretwoverydifferentthings.Foraperson

12 13

MasaoAbe,BuddhismandInterfaithDialogue,3. ThomasMerton,TheAsianJournalofThomasMerton,315.

whoisbroughtupasaChristian,Christianityisanintegralpartofhisorherlife,whereas apersonwhotakesaclassinChristianitymayonlyassumeknowledgeof someChristian concepts.However,if onewhohasgrownupasaBuddhisttakesaclassthatclosely examinesthesimilaritiesbetween BuddhismandChristianity,onewill moreeasilyrelate aChristiansexperiencetoonesownexperiencewithinBuddhism.Itismorelikely, then,forone todwellonideasofothertraditionsthatarenewtooneself untilthey becomepartof oneself asauthenticexperience.So,findingsimilaritiesanddrawing parallelsbetweenBuddhismandChristianityhelpsBuddhistsandChristiansto understandandembracepeopleofChristianityandBuddhism,respectively. ThereforeIwill comparetheselfwithineachparticularsystemfortworeasons. First,theselfhasbeenextensively studiedbyboth individuals.Secondly,theselfcanbe approached,conceptually,asthecentralrestingpointofnearlyeveryfacetof Buddhism andChristianity fromcreationtosalvation.Theselfisanimportantconceptforboth
14 BuddhismandChristianityandthereforeisidealforcomparison.

BeforeexploringthesimilaritiesanddifferencesoftheselfwithinMertonsand Abeswritings,definingwhattheselfisorisnotisnecessary.Forboththinkers,theself isthebaseorstartingpointforanyindividualsexperience,bothspirituallyandnon spiritually.Thewayinwhich thatbaseoperatesthenhasasubstantialimpacton the individualsexperience.Inotherwords,ifapersonsselfisproperlyalignedwithGod, thatpersonwillhaveamoremeaningfulandfulfillingexistential experience,whereasifa

ThereisagreatdiversityofthoughtontheselfthroughoutBuddhismandChristianity.Forexample, inBuddhism,thenotionoftrueselfisessentiallyaKyotoZenconstruct,whilethenotionofanatman ismuchmorewidelyacceptedasatenetofBuddhism.

14

personsselfisimproperlyalignedandbasedonfalsity,thenheorshewillleadaless
15 existentiallyfulfillinglife. Theselfpenetrateseveryaspectofoneslife.

However,itseemsthatthetwoviewsoftheselfhavedifferingfunctionswithin theirrespectivesystems.WhileMertonsviewoftheselfmayresembleAbesview,its functionwithinthecontextofMertonsCatholicismisnotanalogous toitsfunction withinthecontextofAbesKyotoSchoolofPhilosophy.Thedifferencesbetween MertonandAbeonthenotionoftheselfwillbeaddressedintheconclusion. ThispaperwillshowhowMertonsviewoftheselfiscompatibleandconsistent withtheAbesviewoftheselfbyfirstanalyzingthetwosystemsseparately,describing theirinfluences,theirfocalpoints,andtheiroverallfunctions.Thiswillbefollowedby anintroductorycomparisonofthesystems,andwillcontinuebyfocusingontheideaof theselfwithineachsystem,comparingandcontrastingthetwophilosophicaltheories. ThiswillbeaccomplishedbyinterpretingMertonsconceptsusingthelanguageand ideasthatarecharacteristicof AbeMasao. Mythesiswillexaminethequestion,inwhichwaysdoesThomasMertonsview oftheselfcorrespondtoAbeMasaosandhowdotheydiffer,againstthebroadercontext ofBuddhistChristiandialogue.Itwillprovethat theyaresimilarviewswiththeirbasis inthenotionsof kenosisandShunyata,buttheyareexpresseddifferentlyandtheir functionsdifferwithintheirownwiderreligiouscontexts:ChristianityandBuddhism.It willalsoarguethatforbothMertonandAbetheselfinessenceisanoselfinthesense thattheselfmust,paradoxically,betranscendedtorealizeitsowntruenature.Following this,anewdefinitionof plerosisbasedon thethoughtofThomasMertonandAbeMasao will helptofurtherphilosophically uniteChristianityandBuddhism.
15

AlthoughthetermGodappearsintheKyotoschool,itisnotcommonlyusedinBuddhisttexts.

CHAPTER 1: THOMAS MERTON AND THE SELF

Afterbrieflylookingatthecurrentsituationof comparingThomasMerton to BuddhismandAbeMasao,wemustdefinewhattheselflookslikeinMertonswritings. Thischapterwillexaminehisinfluences,whytheselfisimportanttoMerton,andthen explorethefocalpointsof hisnotionoftheself.

MERTONS INFLUENCES Althoughitisdifficulttoascertainexactlywhatfactorsinfluenceanyones development, oneimportantfactor thatinfluencesthedevelopmentofthosewhoare literateisthingsonehasread.InexaminingMertonswritings,ahandfulofindividuals andtheirwritingsstandout.MertonsinfluencesincludeSaintBernardofClairvaux, SaintThomasAquinas,BlessedJohnRuysbroeck,SaintTeresaofAvila,andSaintJohn oftheCross,mostofwhoaremedievalCatholicmystics.Laterinhislife,ashis spiritualityandreligiousviewsmatured,hewasmoreinfluencedby medievalmystic MeisterEckhartandbyBuddhistthinkerD.T.Suzuki,whomhecorrespondedwith beforetheirmeetingin1964.Mertonwasalsoinfluencedtosomedegreeby existentialismandtheexistentialistphilosopher,SrenKierkegaard.Additionally, accordingtoPaulBernadicou,S.J.,Mertonsaffirmationofthetruthin otherfaithsin suchasProtestantism,Islam,Hinduism,andBuddhismisreminiscentof twopeoplehe
16 verymuchadmired,MahatmaGandhiandDorothyDay.

BernadicouaffirmsthatMertonmakesthisaffirmationinhisbooktitled ConjecturesofaGuilty Bystander.QuoteisfromPaul Bernadicou,TheEastwardTurnofThomasMerton,357.

16

BecauseKierkegaardstermsareusefulforexplainingMertonsthoughtonthe self,hisbackgroundandsomeofhisideaswillbesummarizedhere.Also,becausethis paperfocuseson anaspectofThomasMertonswritinginrelation toasegmentof Buddhistphilosophy,themostimportantofMertonsinfluenceshereareMeisterEckhart becausehistheologyhasbeeninterpretedBuddhistically andD.T.Suzukibecauseof his rolewithinmoderndayBuddhism. Bornin1813anddiedin1855,SrenKierkegaardwastheChristian Danish philosopherattributedwiththebirthofexistentialism whooftendealtwithquestions concerningfaithandreligion.InhisworktitledEither/Or,hedescribesthreemodesof existence:theaestheticalmodeofexistence,theethicalmodeofexistence,andthe religiousmodeofexistence.ForKierkegaardthethreemodesofexistenceare progressive:theaestheticalmodeofexistenceisthefirstandlowest,andthereligious modeofexistenceisthethirdandhighest. Theaestheticalmodeofexistenceis exemplifiedby onewhodoesnotmakeanyimportantdecisions,butrathermerelyfloats throughalifedeterminedbythenotionsofpleasantandunpleasant.Kierkegaardsays thattheaesthetehasnorealpersonalityandwilleventuallyfindhim orherselfindespair. Heorshewillneedtomakealeapto theethicalmode, inwhichonesdecisionsbring oneselfintoexistence.Oneintheethicalmodeofexistencecanthenmakealeapoffaith intothereligiousmodeofexistence,whichischaracterizedinChristianityaslettinggoof rationality toaccepttheparadoxinChristssimultaneousdivinityandhumanity. FatheroftheRhinelandschoolofmysticism,oneofthemostinfluentialand profound(somewouldsaydangerous)Christianmystics,andpossiblytheChristian mysticthatseemsclosesttoBuddhistthinking,MeisterJohannEckhartof Hocheim,

17 Germany wasbornabout1260anddiedin1327. Shortlyafterhisdeath,manyofhis 18 writingswerecondemned,pronouncedheretical,orsuspectedbytheCatholicChurch.

However,duringhislife,EckhartwasapreacherandamemberoftheDominicanorder whosewritingsgatheredelementsfromgreatpredecessorssuchasDionysiusthe
19 Areopagite,Augustine,andThomasAquinas. Hisimmediateeffectcanbeseeninhis

youngercontemporaries,Suso,Tauler,andRuysbroeck, whilehislastingeffectis
20 apparentinmorerecentfiguressuchasThomasMerton. Consequently,hiscentralideas

haveremainedtobeamajorinfluenceinmysticalthinkingofboth Christianand Buddhisttraditions.ThecoreofEckhartsthought,arguesDavidE.Linge,Professorof ReligiousStudiesatUniversityofTennessee,isthepossibilityoftheindividual ChristianexperiencingunionwithGod,unmediatedbylikenessorconcept,andthe

21 importanceofpovertyasthepreparatorymeansformysticalexperience.

DaisetzTeitaroSuzuki,whowasbornin 1870inKanazawa,Japan,anddiedin 1966,wasthefounderoftheEasternBuddhistSociety,authorofmanybookson Buddhism,andaninstrumentalfigureinspreadingZentotheWest. MertonandSuzuki correspondedfrom1959to1965andmetinNewYorkinthesummerof1964.Itis evidentintheirlettersandMertonsjournalsthatastheirfriendshipgrewtheyshareda respectforeachotherandadesireforunderstandingeachotherstradition.Mertonwrites toSuzuki: Iammuchhappierwith'emptiness'whenIdon'thavetotalkaboutit.You havetheknackofsayingthingsaboutitthatdonotcompletelyobscureit.
RufusM.Jones, StudiesinMystical, 218,241.PleasenotethatEckhartsyearofbirthanddeathas wellhashisbirthplacearedisputed. 18 Ibid.,241. 19 SidneySpencer, MysticisminWorld,238. 20 Ibid. 21 David E.Linge,Mysticism,PovertyandReasonintheThoughtofMeisterEckhart,470.
17

10

ButIdonot.AssoonasIsaysomethingthen,thatis'notit'rightaway. Obviouslytheconclusionistosaynothing,andthatforagreatdealofthe timeiswhatImanagetodo.Yetonemustspeakofit.Obviously,one mustspeakandnotspeak.Iamgladyouarefarawayoryouwouldsettle thequestionwiththirtyblowsofthehossu.ButatanyrateIthoughtyou wouldbehappytoknowthatIstrugglewiththenotproblem,butkoan. Itisnotreallyformeaseriousintellectualproblematall,butaproblemof 'realization'somethingthathastobreakthrough.Everyonceinawhileit 22 breaksthroughalittle.Oneof thesedaysitwillburstout. AndagaininMertonsjournalsaftermeetingSuzuki,hewritesthattheirmeeting,after tenyearsofinterestedlyreadinghisbooks,wasespeciallyimportanttohimbecauseit
23 allowedhimtoexperienceadeepunderstandingbetweenhimselfandSuzuki. Itis

clearthat,overtheyears,SuzukipositivelyinfluencedMertonandprovidedsomeinsight intounderstandingZenandBuddhism.

IMPORTANCE OF THE SELF ThomasMerton describestheself astheessencethatgivesmeaningtosalvation, whichisoneofthemostimportantissuesposedtoChristians.Salvation shouldbeof ultimateconcerntoeveryChristian(andthoseofotherreligionsaswell)atsomepointin hisorherreligiouslife.Ifonedefinessalvationasthebasicprincipleofdeliverancefrom eternal bondage,then,from areligiouspointofview,salvation affectseveryperson becauseeveryperson,insomeway,eitherexperiencessalvationordoesnot. For ChristiansthisinvolvesfaithinJesusChristandforBuddhiststhisinvolvesliberation fromsamsara.Furthermore,thereisnomiddlegroundwhenitcomestosalvation. Therefore,informingthosewhohavenotexperiencedandwillnot otherwiseexperience salvationisimportant.

22 23

RobertE.Daggy,Ed., Encounter:ThomasMerton&D.T.Suzuki,52. Ibid.,85.

11

However,theconceptofsalvationisjustaconcept,which,byitsnature, is intangible.Thismakesunderstandingsalvationinexperientialtermsdifficult,becausethe thingsmostpeopleknowarethethingstheycanexperiencewiththeirfivesenses.So, howcan onetalkabouttheratherabstractconceptofsalvationinconcretetermsthat normalpeoplecanadequatelygrasp?Attachingtheconceptofsalvationtosomethingthat everypersonalreadyhasandcaneasilytalkaboutandunderstandisthemostpractical methodtobringitclosertoaconcretethingthatanybodycaneasilygrasp.Since attachingsomethingthatpeoplecannotphysicallysensetosomethingthatpeoplecan physicallysenseisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,Mertonusestheself,tosomedegree,asa vehicletotalkaboutsalvation. Tosomeextent,Mertonagreeswith SrenKierkegaardwhocontendsthatone doesnottruly existuntilhisorherinnerinfinityannouncesitself,andonceoneexists,
24 onemustreleasetheself. Essentially,MertonandKierkegaardsharethebelief thatthe

selfisof primary importancebecauseinitlaysonessalvation.ForKierkegaard,thebirth oftheselfisonthepathtosalvation,whichculminateswithaselfsacrificialleapof faith.However, ThomasMerton expressesthissalvation asMeisterEckhartandPaul have:salvationisthedeathoftheselfsothatwemayhavethewillofChrist.Salvation occurswhenafundamentalshiftwithintheperson occurs. Furthermore,Mertonaffirms that,Thereasonwhywehateoneanotherandfearoneanotheristhatwesecretlyor
25 openlyhateandfearourownselves. Salvation(ofself)relievesselfhatredandMerton

TheseideasareexpressedinKierkegaards Either/Or. However,toprovethisconnectionbetween MertonandKierkegaardwouldbethetopicofanotherpaper,sofornowwewilljustuseKierkegaardian termstohelpexpresstheimportanceoftheselftoMertonandtoaugmentourdiscussionoftheself. 25 ThomasMerton,TheLivingBread,xiixiii.

24

12

wasinterestedinhelpingtorelievepeopleofsomeoftheirhatredandfearinhopesof bringingthemclosertounityunderthelovingGod.

MERTONS SELF Mertondefinestheselfintwoparts:falseselfandtrueself.Thedichotomyhe drawsisuseful forvisualizingtheabstractconceptoftheself.Furthermore,the connotationsofthewordsfalseandtruecolorhisdissectionoftheselfandgiveit addedweightwithintheindividualspsyche.Whatfollowshereisanexaminationof ThomasMertonsdescriptionsof thefalseselfandthetrueself.

False Self Thelowerself,external self,andtheinferiorself arealldifferentnamesMerton givestowhathecommonlycallsthefalseself.Hehascalledittheillusoryself,theouter self,andselfhood.Itisthepassionate,disordered,andconfusedselftheramblingand disheveledegobutmuchmorethe tyrannicalsuperego, theI,thelimitedand
26 exclusiveself,selfishness,andselfwill. Essentially,thefalseselfistheconstructed and

notreal selfweattach both ourdesires,consciousandsubconscious,andourcreated identitiesto.Kierkegaardwouldsaythatoneeitherdoesnottrulyexistandislikely livingintheaestheticalmodeofexistenceorhascomeintotheethicalmodeofexistence andhasnotyetrelinquishedtheself.Thefalseselfiswhoandwhatwethinkweareand inessenceisevilinthesensethatitholdsusfromfulfillingourintendedexistences.

26

QuotationisfromThomasMerton, TheNewMan,43.

13

Tobetterunderstandthe Thefalseself falseself,imagineitintwoparts: selfidentityandselfwill (see 1.1).Theselfidentityofthefalse selfisthethingsthatwethinkwe areandthequalitiesand

Figure1.1.Thefalseself. selfidentity thebody selfimage ones characteristics, qualities, and titles selfwill control determinations ofautonomy independence fromGod worldlydesires

characteristicswethinkwehaveandareattachedto.Thisselfidentityisempoweredby itscounterpart:selfwill.Theselfwillisourstrivingforcontrolofourlivesandour determinationsofautonomyandindependencefromGod.

Self-identity Theidentitywecreateforourselvesandareattachedtoisthefalseself.Thisis theidentitythatsayswhenwewakeupeverymorning,Iamadoctor,Iamalawyer, Iamagoodperson,orIamabadperson.Merelythinkingthisisnottheproblem rather,thefalseselfisonesattachmentstosuchidentifications.ForAdam afterthefall, theselfidentity said,Iamnaked,or,Iamgod.Mertoncallsthistheexternalmask whichseemstoberealandwhichlivesbyashadowyautonomyforthebriefmomentof

27 earthlyexistence. Kierkegaardagreeswith Mertonssentimentandaffirmsthatif

onesinnerinfinitydoesnotannounceitselfandthepersondoesnotmovefromthe aesthetical modeofexistencetotheethicalmodeofexistence,thenthepersonmayhave justaswell neverexisted.Althoughitisbettertoexistintheethicalmodethantonot existintheaesthetical mode,oneisstilllivingestrangedfromGodin whatmuchof

27

ThomasMerton, NewSeedsofContemplation,295.

14

Christianitytraditionallycallssin.Forourpurposeshere,Kierkegaardsethicalmodeof existenceisanalogoustowhatThomasMertoncallsthefalseself. Becausepeoplebasesuchagreatportionoftheirselfidentitiesonselfimage,the bodycanbeanimportantfactorinonesselfidentity.Itispossiblethatapersonsself identitycanbecomecompletelyentangledwiththisnotionofphysicality.Inotherwords, itiseasytomistakeandbecomeattachedtothebodyasthewholeself.Thisproblemis especially harmful inAmericawhichisfloodedbythemediasvirtuallyunattainable idealsoftheperfectlythin,perfectlybeautiful,andperfectlyhappy.Thesethingsarenot badinandofthemselves rather, theyaregoodthingstosomedegreeaslongastheyare attainedmorenaturallywithoutharmingoneself.However,concerningtheideasofself imageandselfidentity,thesethingscan greatlyobfuscatefreedomfromthefalseself whentheyareportrayedasthenorm.Insteadofstrivingforaninternalpurity,people becomefixatedonthesemiragesof socalledperfection,mostoftenneverrealizingtheir distraction.Whilethebodyismostdefinitely partofapersonsselfidentityandcanbea significantportionofonesfalseself,thewholeself isnotthesamethingasthebody. Whileonedoesnotphysically existthe otherdoes, whileonewasnotcreatedbyGod the otherwas,andwhileoneiseviltheotherisnot. InMertonswords,Thebodyisneither
28 evilnorunreal.IthasarealitythatisgivenitbyGod,andthisrealityisthereforeholy.

ForMerton,thebodyisnotanalogoustotheself,openinghimtopossibleascetic interpretation.However,insteadof ascetically denyingthebody,oneshould paradoxically affirmthebodyandletgoofitbecausetheproblemliesnotinthebody itself,butratherinonesattachmenttoit.

28

Ibid.,26.

15

Self-will Thewillwecreateforourselvesisthefalseself.Thisistheblindwillthat screamsatus,Iamincontrol,and,IdontneedGod,Iamdoingjustfinebymyself. Again,thisistheselfwillthatMertonspokeof inhisautobiography: Providence,thatistheloveofGod,isverywiseinturningawayfromthe selfwillofmen,andinhavingnothingtodowiththem,andleavingthem totheirowndevices,aslongastheyareintentongoverningthemselves, toshowthemtowhatdepthsoffutilityandsorrowtheirownhelplessness 29 iscapableofdraggingthem. Wantingorbeingattachedtototal controloveryourlifeisadangerous manifestationofthefalseself.Notethatthereisadifferencebetweenwantingcontrolof yourlifethroughyourownpower andhavingcontrolofyourlifebyparadoxically relinquishingyourwill.Theformercan onlyleadtospiritualalienation whilethelatteris aresultofspiritualunion.Themajordifferencehereisbetween tryinganddoing.Trying todosomethingimpliesplacingagoalaheadofoneself.However,thisgoalisonlyan illusionandbarriertoitsacquisitionbecauseoneisalwayslookingaheadofoneself.In actuality,thegoaliswithin.Byreachingforonesgoalapartfromoneselfoneactually pushesitaway,inrealitymakingitmuchmoredifficulttoreach.Onceonestops tryingto dosomethingandjustdoesitwithouttrying,onecan easily accomplishanything.Itis unification with onesactions,whereasselfwill isseparationfrom onesactionsina
30 subjectobjectrelationship. ThereforedeterminationsofautonomyfromGodand

dependenceonGodboth standinthewayofliberatingthefalseself becausetheyareacts ofwill.Infact,becausetheyoriginateintheselfwill,theyaredirectlyopposedto somethingfundamentaltoMertonsviewofsalvation:utter relianceonGod.

ThomasMerton,TheSevenStoreyMountain,136. Beingunifiedwithonesactions,however,isdifferentthancontrol.Controlisanactionofwill, whereasbeingunifiedwithonesactionsisanactionofnonwill.
30 29

16

ItisthisselfwillthatMertoncallsthetyrannicalsuperego, theselfwillthat createsGodinourownimage.Thisistheselfwillthatpullsusintoworshipping ourselvesoravengeful Godwhoisamerely projectionofourselvesinsteadofthegood andlovingGod.Mertonspeaksofhisrealizationofthisidea: AndalwaysIwastobepunishedformysinsbymysinsthemselves,and torealize,atleastobscurely,thatIwasbeingsopunishedandburninthe flamesofmyownhell,androtinthehellofmyowncorruptwilluntilI 31 wasforcedatlast,bymyownintensemisery,togiveupmyownwill. MertonrealizedthathehadnotreallybeenworshippingGod,butratherhimselfandthe creationsandprojectionsofhisselfwill.Mostimportantly,hefoundthattheselfwillis whatcompelledhim toseparationfromGodandhadtoletitgowiththefalseself.The selfwillistheactingforceseparatingusfromGod.
32 Likewise,selfwilldrivesonesattachmentstoworldlydesires. Here onecannot

distinguishbetweengoodandbadworldlydesiresasonemightthinkoneshould.In other words,thefalseselfneitherclassifiesthedesiretohelpasgoodnorthedesiretoharm asbad.Mertonsimplysaysbothareworldlydesirestherefore,theyshouldbe acknowledgedandreleasedwiththeselfwill.Oneshouldnotdesireanythingbecause eventhoughthemotivationmayseemgood,itcannotbeperfectifitarisesfrom within theself.

Arising of the False Self Thefalseself didnotexistuntil thefallofAdamandEve.Mertondescribesthe situationbeforethefall usingtheGreekwordparrhesia,thatis,freespeech.Merton

31 32

Ibid. ThisisalsoacommonsentimentinBuddhism

17

affirmsthatparrhesiasymbolizestheperfectcommunicationofmansintelligencewith Godbyknowledge(gnosis)andcontemplation(theoria).Beforethefallwastheonly parrhesiantimeforAdamandEvebecauseitwastheonlytimethey werein direct communication with God.Also,Godisportrayedanthropomorphicallyinthefirstpartof GenesisbecauseAdamandEvewereinunionwithGod.Afterthefall,Godisnolonger seenanthropomorphically becauseparrhesiaandunionwithGodwaslostforAdamand Eve.Mertonalsosaysthatoneoftheaspectsof parrhesiawastheunityofthebodyand soulinAdamandEvesothatthebodyactedasthesouldesired.Sincethesoulwas unifiedwithGod,AdamandEveessentiallyhadthewillofGodandactedwithouttheir
33 ownwills. Thefalseself,therefore,didnotyetexistfor them becauseitnecessarily

dividesusfromGodandseparatesourwillfromGodswill.Thisunity withGodwaslost
34 andthefalseselfaroseoutofitsashesasadirectresultof AdamandEvessin.

ItcanbesaidthatChristalsohadparrhesia,orunitywithGod.Furthermore, whatChristandAdamandEvebeforethefallshareasidefrom parrhesiaistheirfreedom fromsin.Sinlessness,therefore,isnotonlydirectlyrelatedtoparrhesia,butparrhesia arisesbecauseofonessinlessnessandnotviceversa.Inotherwords,becauseAdamand EvebeforethefallandChristwereunitedwithGod,theywereallowedthisparrhesia theirsinlessnesswasnotaresultof theirparrhesia.BecausesinalienatesonefromGod, onecannotexperienceparrhesiainalifeofsin.Peopletoday usually donotexperience parrhesiawithGodthefatherbecauseeveryonethroughouthistorywiththeexceptionof Christsharesthebondageofsin,namelyoriginalsin.So,frombirth weareall drivento separateourselvesfromGodbysinning.
However,thatisnottosaythattheydidnothavefreewillandwerenotcreaturesdistinctfromGod. Theirfreewill,forinstance,wasexercisedinthefall. 34 ThomasMerton,TheNewMan,7198quotationfrom75.
33

18

AfterthefallofAdamandEve,sinwasintroducedtohumanityandparrhesia wasrevoked:AdamandEvewereexiledfrom theGardenofEden.An alternateapproach tolookingatthisisfromtheperspectiveofthefalseself:onceAdamandEvesinned,the falseselfwasintroducedtohumanity,causingalienationfromGodandparadise. Althoughtherearemoreexamplesof parrhesiathroughouttheOldTestamentsuchasin Job,theseareexamplesofpeoplewhohaveletgoofthefalseselfandstopped worshippingavengefulGodwhoisonlyaprojectionofthemselvesandinsteadbegan worshippingagoodandlovingGod. Inotherwords,thesearepeoplewhodidnotbegin
35 theirliveswith parrhesialikeChristandAdamandEvedid.

Therefore,thefalseselfisaproductofsinandarisesprimarily withoriginalsin. Andalthough assinnerswedonothaveparrhesiawithGodthefather,wedohave

36 parrhesiawithChristthroughprayer. Wecanfreelyapproach GodthroughChristin

boldnesstoask,amongotherthings,thatwemayhavethenonstrengthtoreleasethe falseselfandtobebroughtclosertothepresenceofGodinunityandparrhesia.

True Self Ontheotherhand,thereiswhatThomasMertoncallstheupperself,thesuperior self,ortheinnerself:thetrueself.Healsoreferstoitasthedeepself,thereal self,and originalnature.Thetrueselfisourinmostself,thenewman,ourotherself,andthe mysteriousandunknownself.Essentially,thetrueselfistheactualpresentselfasitis expressedoutof unionwithGod.Kierkegaardwouldequatethetrueselfwiththehighest wayoflife,thatis,thereligiousmodeofexistence.ForKierkegaard,livinginthe
Ibid.,9596. ThisdistinctionbetweenparrhesiawithGodthefatherand parrhesia withChristisintendedtoecho thenotionthatonecannotattainonesownsalvation,butinChristeveryonehassalvation.
36 35

19

religiousmodeofexistencemeansthatonehastakenaleapoffaithtoleavebehindhisor herrationality toacceptwhatKierkegaardconsidersthecompletelyirrationaltruthsof Christianity.Thisleapoffaith,forMerton,meansleavingthefalseselfbehindinanact ofgracetobecomeunitedwithGod. RaymondBailey,authorof ThomasMertonon Mysticism,describesthepersonasavessel.Hesays: Whenthevesselhasbeenscrubbed,thesoulreturnsasitweretoapristine nothingness,readytoreceivetruebeing.Asapolishedcrystalisableto reflectlight,sothepolishedsoulhasthecapacitytoreflectthegraceof 37 God. Kierkegaardsleapconstitutesascrubbingofthevesselinthesensethatsincetheperson, orvessel,ispollutedbytheethicalmodeofexistence,oneiscleansedofthispollution whentheethicalmodeofexistenceistranscended.Thenonecan rely completely on anotherpowertodetermineonesexistence. Essentially,thetrueselfisapositivespiritualcondition andthefalseselfisa negativespiritualcondition.Inonescurrentsituation,however, thinkingofthefalseself asanegativespiritualconditionmaybedifficultbecausetheattitudesandbehaviorsthat thefalseselfimpliesseemtobegoodthings,namely,control,determination,and independence.Thisisespeciallydifficultinaculturewherethesethingsarenotonly stronglyemphasized,buttheyarethebasisforeverythingoneseesaspositive.And althoughtherearemanygoodpeoplewhodomanyvirtuousthingshavingneverletgoof thefalseself,itisstillbettertoletitgo.Althoughthesevirtuouspeoplearedoingmany wonderfulthings,they oftenhavemotivationsoragendasthatariseoutofthefalseself becauseinthefalseselfonesmotivescannotbetotallypure.Mertonaffirmsthatthetrue self,ontheotherhand,relievesoneofmotivationsandagendas,makingeveryactanact
37

RaymondBailey,ThomasMertononMysticism,85.

20

ofworship.Morefundamentally,asBailey affirms,inthetrueselfoneseestheworldand
38 Godastheyareinandofthemselves.

ThetrueselfisperpetualsimultaneousselfnegationandselfaffirmationinGod. Itisselfnegationinthesensethatwemustcompletely giveupthatwhichweholdso dearly:thefalseself.ThismusthappennotbyourownselfwillbutbythegraceofGod, forwemust,inthisactofselfnegation,giveuptheselfwill.Mertonasserts,[God] createdmanwithasoulthatwasmadenottobringitselftoperfectioninitsownorder,

39 buttobeperfectedbyHiminanorderinfinitelybeyondthereachofhumanpowers.

Furthermore,thetrueselfisselfaffirmationinthesensethatwebecomemorecomplete asaresultofourunificationwithGodinthetrueself.Mertonaffirmsthatwhenone leavesthefalseselfbehind,Manisnotcutinhalf,heisdrawntogetherandfinds

40 himselfmoreofonepiece,moreintegratedthaneverbefore. Inotherwords,inthetrue

selfweareactivelyfulfillingGodspurposeforourlivesfrommomenttomoment.In Mertonswords: Ourordinarylife,clutteredandobstructedasitisby ourownbadhabitsof thoughtandactionaswellasbythebadhabitsofthesocietywelivein,is littlemorethanasemiconscious,torpidkindofexistencewhenitis comparedwiththereallifeofourdeepselvesthelifethatweareall 41 supposedtobeleading. ThetrueselfisthefreedomfromourselvesthatGodintendsustohave.

38 39

Ibid.,84. ThomasMerton,TheSevenStoreyMountain,185. 40 ThomasMerton,TheNewMan,64. 41 Ibid.

21

Body and Soul Justasthefalseselfcannotbeconfusedwiththebody,thetrueselfcannotbe confusedwiththesoul.Infact,thetrueselfisconcernedwithneitherjustthebody nor justthesoul,butratherthewholeperson.Mertonwrites,Itisequallyfalsetotreatthe

42 soulasifitwerethewholeselfandthebodyasifitwerethewholeself. Thewhole

person,orwholeself,isthebodyandsoulmysteriouslyjoinedasone.Thefalseselfand thetrueselfcan,therefore,bethoughtofastwodifferentmodesofexistenceinwhichthe wholeselfoperates. Onecouldarguethattonegate thefalseself,oneshouldasceticallydenythebody toweakenitsothat thesoulmayhavetheopportunitytoperformitsactionofunitywith God. However,thebodydoesnotholddownthesoul inthesamesensethatthefalseself holdsdownthetrueselfinstead, thefalseselfmetaphoricallystandsinbetween thebody andsoul,hinderingtheircommunicationwitheachother.Sincethebodyandsoularenot inastruggleagainstoneanother,andsincethedenialofthebodyrequiresanactofwill, denyingthebody isunnecessaryandcounterproductiveinregardstothefalseselfandthe trueself.For,whenthetrueselfisrealized,thebodywillbeperfectlysubjectedtothe soulinthesameway thatthepersonwillbeperfectlysubjectedtoGod. Likewise,sincethetrueselfisnotjustselfnegationbutrathersimultaneousself negationandselfaffirmation,andthebodyispartofthewholeself,thetrueselfdoesnot negatethebody butitsimultaneouslynegatesandaffirmsthebody asanintegralpartof theself.Inthissense,thebodyandsoularedeniedintermsof attachmenttosense pleasuresandworldlydesiresandsimultaneouslyaffirmedasbeingactivelyinvolvedasa

42

ThomasMerton, NewSeedsofContemplation,27.

22

unitedvessel forGod.Inotherwords,insteadofdenyingeitherthebodyorthesoul,they both mustbeaffirmed,accepted,andletgoof.

Poverty ThetrueselfisanalogoustoMeisterEckhartsnotionof spiritualpoverty. Spiritualpovertyreferstothepoorinspiritbeatitudein Jesus SermonontheMount whichhasbeenopentodiverseinterpretationduetoitsseeminglycounterintuitive

43 nature. MeisterEckhartssermontitledThePoorinSpiritdelivershisinterpretation

ofthefirstbeatitude.Inithedescribestwotypesofpoverty,outwardandinward,stating thatwhileoutwardpovertyisvirtuous,itisnotthepovertyreferredtointheSermonon theMount. Eckhartwritesthatinteriorpovertyconsistsofathreefoldnothing:willing nothing,knowingnothing, andhavingnothing.He categorizesthesethree nothingsasthedeepest poverty,thebarestpoverty, andthestrictestpoverty,
Havingnothing:strictest OutwardPoverty poorinmoney,goods, andothermaterial possessions

Poverty

InwardPoverty Willingnothing:deepest

Knowingnothing:barest

respectively (see1.2). Concerning

44

Figure1.2.MeisterEckhartspoverty.

Eckhartsdeepestpoverty,willingnothing,hementionsthosewhodonotfollowtheir ownwillbutinsteadtryfollowingthewillofGod.Eckhartsaysthatwhilethisis virtuous,theyarenotpoorinspiritforthey arestillwillingGodswilltobedonethrough

43 44

The HarperCollinsStudyBible:NewRevisedStandardEdition,1865. FranzPfeiffer,Ed., MeisterEckhart, 217,218220.

23

themandthereforearenotwillingnothing.Eckhartwrites,Ifheisgenuinelypooraman
45 isasfreefromhiscreatedwillashewaswhenhewasnot. Thebarestpoverty,being

poorofallparticularknowledge,meansthatoneshouldbefreefrom,amongother things,theknowledgeofGodandwhatGodisdoingwithinoneself.Thereissomething atthecoreofthesoulfromwhichbothknowledgeandloveflow,which,knows

46 nothingaboutworkinginitselfbut,itjustisitself,enjoyingitselfGodfashion. The

moststringentpoverty,havingnothing,canbeinterpretedinthecontextofselfnegation whichStephenMorrisarguesisunquestionablyEckhartssinglemajortheme.47 In the contextofthispaper,havingnothingmeanstheabsenceofthedualisticsubjectobject logicsothatonewillnothaveanythinginthesensethattherewillbenoItohavesome

48 thing(i.e.materialobjects,emotions,God,etc.). AsBernardMcGinnputsit,Onemust

strivetobecomeasfreefromonescreatedwillasonewasbeforecreationanempty
49 existence(ledicsin)inwhichGodascreatornolongerisofconcern.

ThomasMertonstrueselfandMeisterEckhartsspiritualpovertyare,essentially thesamething.Theonlymajordifferenceisthewaysinwhichtheyareexpressed: cataphatically orapophatically.Mertonstrueselfisexpressedcataphatically,thatis, usingpositiveterms.Forexample,Mertonalwayssaysthatonecanfindthetrueselfor

Ibid.,218. C.F.Kelley,219. 47 StephenMorris,BuddhismandChristianity:TheCommonGround,106. 48 SeetheindexofKelleysMeisterEckhartonDivineKnowledge undertheentrypovertyofthe spiritforabrilliantexampleofEckhartsspiritualpovertybeingreferredtoasemptinesswithouttheuse oftheconstructsoflanguage. 49 BernardMcGinn,136.However,McGinnisslightlyoffthemarkinsayingthatoneshouldstrive forspiritualpovertybecausetheactofstrivingcreatesadualisminwhichtheonewhoisstrivingbecomes thesubjectandthegoalofspiritualpovertybecomestheobject.Thisalsobringsthenotionofwillintothe picture,foronemustmakeaconsciousefforttostrive.Furthermore,thiscontradictstheideaofthegraceof Godasthechiefmeansforsalvation.For,ifoneweretobeabletoattainspiritualpovertyofonesown strivingwillalone,Godwouldberemovedfromthepictureandthus puttingEckhartintoaselfpower category.Eckhartssermon,DetachmentHasFourSteps,speaksofdetachmenthappeningto aperson, notthroughanyactionofaperson,andC.F.KelleypointsoutthatEckhartclearlyviewstheHolySpiritas theTransformer.
46 45

24

havethetrueself,whichisthepositivelanguagemorecharacteristicof themajorityof Christianity.Ontheotherhand,Eckhartsspiritualpovertyisexpressedapophatically, thatis,usingnegativeterms.Eckhartreferstohavingnoself,whichisthenegative languagemorecharacteristicof themajorityof Buddhism.However,withthetermsand languagetheyuseaside,MertonandEckhartarespeakingaboutthesamething:union withthedivine.

Finding the True Self ThereisaBuddhistsaying,IfyoumeetBuddhaontheroad,killhim.Likewise, ifyoumeetthetrueselfalongtheroad,killit.FromwhatIunderstandoftheBuddhist saying,thismeansthatoneshouldnotgetcaughtupintheconstructsoflanguageand thinkingaboutthesethingsbyattachingmeaningtoobjects,butinsteadoneshould experiencethethinginitself.IfyoumeetwhatyouthinkandknowisBuddha,killit becauseitwillonlyserveaseitheranobstacleoracrutchandyouwillbebetteroff withoutit.TheconceptyoucanhaveoftheBuddhaisgreatlyweakerthantherealityof theBuddha.Likewise,ifyoucomeacrossthatwhichyouthinkandknowisthetrueself, killitbecauseitonly opposesliberationfromthefalseself.Theconceptofthetrueselfis muchlessimportantthan therealityandexperienceofthetrueself.Additionally,the BuddhaontheroadisasymbolforseeingtheBuddhaasanexternalobject,separate fromyou.However,therealBuddhaandthetrueselfareyourtruenature. Furthermore,asH.C.Steynargues,Mertonplacesanemphasisontheprimacyof religiousexperienceoverconcepts. SteynaffirmsthatMertonsawthatZen,insteadof

25

explainingthingslikemuchofChristianity,aimsatexperiencingthingsonalevelabove wordsandconcepts.50 Hewrites: Buddhistmeditation,butaboveallthatofZen,seeksnottoexplain,butto payattention,tobecomeaware,tobemindful,inotherwordstodevelopa certain kindofconsciousnessthatisaboveandbeyonddescriptionby 51 verbalformulasorbyemotional excitement. PerhapsMertonbelievedthatChristianitycouldlearnfromZeninthisrespect.Inother words,insteadoffillingourmindswithknowledgeaboutGodandreligiousconcepts,we needtoemptyourmindswiththedirectexperienceofthedivine. MertonsselffitsinwiththeideasofgreatChristianmysticssuchasMeister Eckhart.Moreover,whileEckhartsideasareexpressedmoreBuddhisticallyandhave beenlabeledasunorthodoxorevenheresy,theyarenotmeanttobeexpressionsof BuddhistideaswithintheframeworkofChristianity.Instead,theyaretotranscend categoriesandconceptsandareaimedatdirectreligiousexperience.Likewise,Mertons notionofthetrueselffunctionsinthesamewayandthereforemustbeapproached similarlyasameanstoexperiencethetrueself. However,lettinggoofthefalseself isdifficultbecauseseeingarounditsmaskof seeminglypositiveoutcomesisnoteasy.AsIstatedabove,thefalseselfisstrivingfor andattachmenttocontroloveroneslifeandindependence.Althoughonemightwish, actuallymakeaconcertedeffort,andevenbelievethatoneiswhollydependentonGod, thefalseselfisablindfoldthattricksoneintobelievingthis.LikePlatosallegoryofthe cave,whenonegetsapeakatthelightofthetrueself,itissobrightthatatfirstitis painfulandcanbemistakenasabadthing.Similarly,leavingbehindonesrationalityin

50 51

H.C.Steyn,TheInfluenceofBuddhismonThomasMerton,45. ThomasMerton,ZenandtheBirdsofAppetite,38.

26

Kierkegaardsleapoffaithisdifficultbecauseonecannotbecompletelysurethatone willberight,andthepriceofbeingwrongisinsanity.JustasKierkegaardsleapoffaith isfrightening,sotooisleavingbehindthefalseself.Immediatelyretreatingintothefalse selfwhereonefeelssafeandhassocalledcontroloverhisorherlifeisthereforevery easy.Onemust,however,resistthetemptationtoreplacetheblindfoldbyrejoicinginthe freedomwehaveinGod.

27

CHAPTER 2: ABE MASAO AND THE SELF

NowthatwehaveexaminedThomasMertonsviewoftheselfindepth,wewill similarlyexamineAbeMasaosviewoftheself.Thischapterwilllookathisinfluences, whytheselfisimportanttoAbe,andexplorethefocalpointsofhisself.

ABES INFLUENCES BecauseAbeMasaobelongstotheKyotoSchoolofPhilosophyandhasalsobeen deeplyinvolvedininterfaithdialogue,hisinfluencescanbedividedintothreecategories: westernphilosophicalinfluences,religiousthoughtinfluences,andBuddhistinfluences. DonaldW.Mitchell,in MasaoAbe:aZenlifeofdialogue,listsAbeswestern philosophicalinfluencesasPlato,Aristotle,SaintAugustine,Kant,Hegel,Nietzsche, Kierkegaard,Heidegger,andWhitehead.AbesreligiousthoughtinfluencesincludePaul TillichandReinholdNiebuhr,andhisBuddhistinfluencesincludeDogen,Shinran,
52 NishidaKitar,NishitaniKeiji,ShinichiHisamatsu,andD.T.Suzuki.

Becausethispaperfocusesonhowanaspectof AbeMasaoswritingrelatesto ThomasMertonsthought,themostimportantofAbesinfluenceshereareD.T.Suzuki, NishidaKitar,andNishitaniKeijibecauseoftheirconnectionstotheKyotoSchoolof Philosophy.However,sincewehavehighlightedSuzukiinthepreviouschapter, wewill onlysaythatAbespositiononBuddhismis,accordingtoStephenMorris,thesameas

53 Suzukis. HerewewillfocusonjustNishidaKitarandNishitani Keiji.

52 53

DonaldW.Mitchell,Ed., MasaoAbe:aZenlifeofdialogue,xvi. Morris,105.

28

NishidaKitar, thefounderoftheKyotoSchoolofPhilosophy,wasbornin1870, the thirdyearoftheMeijiperiod,anddiedin1945.Becauseeasternandwesterncultures camefacetofaceinJapanduringtheMeijiera,Nishidawaspresentedwith anewly uniqueopportunitytocontemplateeasternphilosophicalissuesinthefreshlightthat westernphilosophyshinedonthem.Nishidasoriginalandcreativephilosophy, incorporatingideasofbothZenandwesternphilosophy,wasaimedatbringingtheEast closertotheWest.Infact,NishidasphilosophyreachedsofarwestwardthatMerton interpretedNishidainthelightofhisownthoroughtraininginWesternphilosophicaland
54 theologicaltraditions. PerhapsMertonsinterestinNishidastemmedfromthefocal

pointsofNishidasphilosophy:directexperience,thediscoveryoftheself,andfidelity tolife.Laterinhislife,however,Nishidaleanedmoretowarda politicalphilosophy, sayingthat,Theworld...hasalreadybecomeasingleenvironment,andthewholeof

55 humanityiscaughtupinthecrisisofhowtohandlethefact. Takenasawhole,

Nishidaslifework wasthefoundationfortheKyotoSchoolofPhilosophy andthe inspirationfor theoriginal thinkingofhisdisciples. OneofNishidasdisciples,NishitaniKeijiwasbornin1900anddiedin1990.He becametheprincipalchairofreligionatKyotoUniversityaround1943.Afterhis banishmentofholdinganypublicpositionbytheUnitedStatesOccupationauthoritiesin July1946,Nishitanirefrainedfromdrawingpracticalsocialconscienceinto philosophicalandreligiousideas,preferringtothinkabouttheinsightoftheindividual ratherthanthereformofthesocialorder. BecausethenatureofNishitanisphilosophy wasexpressedmorereligiouslyandsubjectively,hefeltideologicallyclosertothe

54 55

MichikoYusa, Zen&Philosophy,xvixvii.Quotationisfromxx. QuotationsfromJamesW.Heisig,PhilosophersofNothingness, 40and93.

29

existentialistsandthemystics,namelyKierkegaardandEckhart,thanthescholarsand theologianswhomoreobjectivelyexpressedtheirideas.Nishitani,thestylisticsuperior ofNishida,broughtZenpoetry,religion,literature,andphilosophy organically together inhisworktohelplaythedifficultfoundationsofbreakingfreeoftheJapaneselanguage

56 inasimilarwayasPascalorNietzschehadforwesternlanguage. Furthermore,unlike

Nishida,whohadfocusedonbuildingaphilosophicalsystem andwho,towardtheendof hiscareer,beganfocusingonpoliticalphilosophy,Nishitanifocusedoncreatinga standpointfromwhichhecouldenlightenabroaderrangeoftopics,andwrotemoreon

57 Buddhistthemestowardstheendofhiscareer.

IMPORTANCE OF THE SELF Abestressestheselfinhiswriting however,hisinterestintheselfisnot singularlyrootedintheideaofsalvationlikeMertonsis.Abesinterestintheselfcanbe dividedintotwocomponents:salvationthroughkenosisandinterfaithdialogue. AbeMasao,comingfrom Zen,atraditionthatemphasizespracticeandexperience overconceptsandknowledge,approachesChristianity similarly.AsStephenMorris suggests,Christiansarenotonlymorelikelytodiscusswhattheybelieveinsteadofwhat theydotoenrichtheirspirituallives,theymoreeasilydiscusstheirbeliefs.Thisis exemplifiedbytheologianswhodiscussabstractconceptsinsteadofpracticalitiesof faith.Heidentifiesthisasaproblemwith Christians expressionof Christianity,saying

TheJapaneselanguageisnotonlymoredifficulttomasterthanwesternlanguages,itisalsomore formal,meaningthat ithasbeenhistoricallymuchmoredifficultforpeopletobreakfreeofitsconfines.As aresult,NishidaandNishitanireceivedafairamountofcriticismfortheirunorthodoxapproachestoand implementationsoftheJapaneselanguage. 57 Ibid.,185190.

56

30

thatonesspirituallifeislikeonesbody:if youdonotexercise,youwillbeunhealthy. Likewise,if youdonotexerciseyourspirituallife,itwillbeunhealthy. BecauseAbeviewsreligionmoreasapracticethanasetofbeliefs,he approachesChristianitynotquestioningwhatoneisexpectedtobelievebutratherwhat

58 oneissupposedtodo. Therefore,inapproachingthescripturesAbeisdrawntowardthe

ideaofthekenosis,or theselfemptying,ofChristandChristsacknowledgementthat peoplemustemptythemselves.Jesusexpressesthisselfemptyingbysaying,hethat

59 findshislifeshallloseitandhewholoseshislifeformysakeshallfindit. Abewould

likeforboth Christianity andBuddhism toadjustfrom theirfocuson thephilosophizing andscholasticism characteristicoftheology toafocuson spirituality ormystical
60 experienceanditsrelationtotheology. Thisshiftingoffocuswouldhelpregularpeople

understandmoreofthetheological finepointsofChristianity andBuddhism.Inshort,it wouldhelppeopletofocusonlivingoutGodswillintheirlivesmomenttomoment insteadof focusingon whatsetofideastheybelievein,resultinginadeeper,stronger, andfullerunderstandingofGodbasedontheirownexperience.LivingoutGodswill andadeepandfull understandingof Godareimportantto onessalvationbecausethey resultfrom kenosis. InterfaithdialogueislikewiseimportanttoAbebecausethereisanintellectual gulfbetweenBuddhismandChristianitythatcannotbecrossedusingcurrent interpretationsofthetworeligions.AbearguesthatBuddhismandChristianitybothhave tobeginaprocessofselfpurification,reachingdeepertofindabasisfortrue communication.Heshowsthatadeepunderstandingof theselffromwithineach
58 59

StephenMorris,105. Matthew10:39. 60 DonaldW.Mitchell, SpiritualityandEmptiness,x.

31

tradition canserveasthefoundationfor truecommunication andbridgethisgulf between Buddhism andChristianity.

ABES SELF TheselfthatAbeexpressesiscraftedasaresponsetothecriticismsofreligion comingfromscientismandthenihilismoftheGermanphilosopherFriedrich Nietzsche (18441900),andservesasthefoundationfromwhichBuddhismandChristianitycan deepenthemselvesandrelate.Therefore,ourdiscussionofAbesself willbedividedinto twosections.ThefirstwillexploreNietzschesnihilismandthesecondwill more specifically exploretheself.

Nihilism Beyond Religion BecauseAbedefinestheselfagainstthebackdropofNietzschesnihilism,one cannotunderstandtheselfasAbepresentsitwithoutunderstandingnihilismasNietzsche presentsit.Nietzschedivideshumanhistoryintothreestagesbasedonwhatissacrificed toGod: OnceonatimemensacrificedhumanbeingstotheirGod,andperhaps justthosetheylovedthebest...Then,duringthemoralepochofmankind, theysacrificedtotheirGodthestrongestinstinctstheypossessed,their nature thisfestaljoyshinesinthecruelglancesofasceticsandanti naturalfanatics.Finally,whatstillremainedtobesacrificed?...Wasit notnecessarytosacrificeGodhimself...?TosacrificeGodfor nothingnessthisparadoxicalmysteryoftheultimatecrueltyhasbeen reservedfortherisinggenerationweallknowsomethingthereof 61 already.

61

FriedrichNietzsche, BeyondGoodandEvil,7374.

32

NihilismisthethirdandfinalstageinwhichNietzschesaysthatpeoplewillsacrifice Godfornothingnessandissummedupbythefrequentlyquotedandoftenmisunderstood
62 phraseofhis,Godisdead. Thisphrasedoesnot literallymean Godisphysically

dead,butratherGodisnolongerandcannotbeanimportantfactorinpeoplesliveseven iftheydonotrecognizeit.Thisdoesnotunderminenihilismbysayingthatnihilismjust meansthatGodisnolongerimportanttopeopleandeverythingelseisnaturalandmakes sense.Rather,itmeansthatbecauseGodisnolongerimportanttopeople,andisina sensedead,everythingelse(things,people,life,etc.)isarandommistakeandtherefore meaningless.Nihilism evenfurtherrejectsphysicalexistence. Abedescribestwo typesofnihilism:nihilism beforereligionand nihilismbeyondreligion (see2.1).Nihilismbefore religionisarealizationof themeaninglessnessof life beforedefinitivereligious Nihilism

Nihilismbeforereligion realizationofthe meaninglessoflife before thereligious experience doesnotchallengethe coreofreligion isovercomeby religion

Nihilismbeyondreligion realizationofthe meaninglessoflife through religionand afterthereligious experience challengesthecoreof religion isnottraditionally overcomebyreligion

Figure2.1.Dichotomywithinnihilism.

experience,anditthereforemaybeovercomebyreligionwhenonecomestohavea genuinereligiousexperience.Conversely,nihilismbeyondreligioninvokesthe meaninglessoflifeafterthereligiousexperience,negatesreligionfromwithin,and

63 challengesthecoreoftraditionalreligion. Nihilismbeforereligionarisesoutof

philosophizingandaskingquestionsthatreligioncananswer.Inamatterofspeaking,

62 63

FriedrichNietzsche,TheGayScience,181. TheEmptyingGod,8.

33

religioncanarisefromwithinthistypeofnihilism,thereforenegatingthisnihilism.One beginswithnihilismandcanendupwithreligion.Ontheotherhand,nihilismbeyond religionarisesfromwithin religion,givingnewanswersto the questionsaskedofreligion.One startswithreligionandcanendup Nihilism beyondreligion withnihilism.Thistypeof
Religion Nihilism

Nihilism beforereligion
Nihilism Religion

nihilismthereforenegatesreligion (see2.2). Nietzschesnihilismis nihilism beyondreligion. Becausethisnihilismarisesasaresultofreligion,answeringthequestionsposed byreligion,itnegatesreligionfromwithin.AbedistinguishesbetweensayingGodis notandsayingGodisdead.Godwasneverinexistencefor onewhosaysthatGodis not,whereasforonewhosaysthatGodisdeadGodwasoncealivebuthasceasedto exist.NietzschesaysthatpeoplehavekilledGodessentiallybecauseGodisomniscient. PeopleareshamefulthatGodseesalloftheirdirtiestcorners,and,cannotendureit
64 thatsuchawitnessshouldlive. Therefore,peoplewillsacrificeGodfornothingness.

Figure2.2.Nihilisminrelationtoreligion.

AlthoughNietzschesnihilismapproachesreligionfromthestandpointof Christianity,nihilism threatensanyreligion,includingtheschoolsofBuddhismthatdo notrefertoGodor adivineprinciple.AbesaysthatbecauseNietzschesnihilism challengestheideathatreligionitselfisselfevident,allreligionshavetoconfronthis nihilism andexaminewhetherornot[it]isreallynihilism beyondreligion,andassume

64

FriedrichNietzsche,ThusSpakeZarathustra,297.

34

65 theburdenofdemonstrating,practicallyandtheoretically,theraisondtreofreligion.

HereAbebeginshisproposition ofhowBuddhismandChristianitycanbothovercome nihilismanddeepenbothreligions.

The Self SinceAbeMasaoisprimarily aphilosopherandsecondarilyaBuddhist,and becausehisphilosophyisabridgebetweenChristianityandBuddhism,heborrows conceptsfrombothreligionstocrafthisphilosophy.FromChristianity,hisexegesisof Philippians2:58,quotedbelow, thattalksaboutPaulsconceptof kenosis,orself emptying,ismosteloquent,andfromBuddhism,hisinterpretationofShunyata,or emptiness,deepensthephilosophicaldiscourseofBuddhism.However,sinceAbe approachesChristianityfromaBuddhiststandpoint,hisinterpretationsofChristian themestendtobeexpressedmoreBuddhistically andtendtomeshmorewithBuddhist doctrinesthantraditionalChristianinterpretationsofthesameChristianthemes.And although thislendsitselftocastingAbeasanoutsiderinterpretingChristianity,heshares adeepappreciationforbothChristianityandBuddhism.HisinterpretationsofChristian themesechoandaresimilartoMeisterEckhartsbecausetheyboth speakoutofthe deepnessoftheirindividualanddifferentexperiences.AlthoughAbesphilosophyisa BuddhistphilosophyitisalsoaChristianphilosophybecauseheseeksnottodestroyor disproveChristianity,butinsteadtodeepenChristianityandBuddhismandbringthem closertoamorefulfillingunderstandingofthemselvesandeachother.

65

TheEmptyingGod,9.

35

Self-Centeredness Thefalseself,arguesAbe,istherootsourceofhumansufferingwhichhesees manifestedinfourformsofselfcenteredness:individual,national,anthropocentric,and religiousselfcenteredness.Thesefourformsofselfcenterednessformahierarchy with individual selfcenterednessasthelowestform andreligiousselfcenterednessasthe

66 highestform.

Individualselfcenterednessistheegothatmanifests thebasicsubjectobject duality onecreateswhenawareofonesselfexistenceapartfromothers.Abeaffirmsthat alongwith theseparation,attachment,andestrangementtoothersthatcomeswiththe notionofI,thereisalwaysanotherdeeperseparationfromoneself,selfattachment, andselfestrangement.Nationalselfcenterednessisassumingthegroupselfofa sovereignnationstatethatdoesnotpracticeselfnegation astheabsoluteselfidentity. Thisismostboldlymanifestedin theselfaffirmation ofnationscontrollingand conqueringsmallernations.Anthropocentricselfcenterednessisassumingthestandpoint ofhumanityasonessubstantialselfidentity.Finally,religiousselfcenterednessis assumingthestandpointoftheultimateprincipalofreligionasonessubstantialself identity.Abearguesthattheselfcontradictioninnatetoreligionandsalvationisthe emphasisonfreeingonefrom onesselfcenterednessonthereligiouslyselfcentered
67 basisofitsownultimateprinciple.

Abesays,though[onehas]selfidentityinarelativesense[onehas]noself
68 identityinanyabsoluteandsubstantialsense. Inotherwords,oneactuallyexistsin

relationtoothers,but thebaseofonesexistenceisnotonessubstantialandabsolute
66 67

MasaoAbe,BuddhismandInterfaithDialogue,6472. Ibid.,6471. 68 Ibid.,65,66quotationisfrom66.

36

uniqueself.Theconceptof Imutuallyrequirestheconceptof other toexistjustas theconceptof sonmutuallyrequirestheconceptof fathertoexist:theyareco dependent. However, theseconceptshavenosubstantialexistencebeneaththeirrelational existence.Likewise,nations,humanity,andreligion allhaveaselfidentityinarelative
69 sensebuthavenoselfidentityinanyabsoluteandsubstantialsense.

Thesefourformsofselfcenterednessstandasfourseparatewallsinoppositionto thetrueself.Whenoneovercomestheindividualselfcenteredness,oneispresentedwith thenextinline:nationalselfcenteredness.Afternationalselfcenterednesscomes anthropocentricselfcenterednessandafteranthropocentricselfcenterednesscomes religiousselfcenteredness.Abearguesthattheonlywaytobefreefromself centerednessisthroughnoself.

True Self Generallyspeaking,noselfisthecataphaticremedytoselfcenteredness. Apophatically,noselfistrueself.AbeMasaotalksaboutthe true selfinbothChristian andBuddhistterms,usingPaulsnotionofkenosisandtheBuddhistnotionofShunyata. Therefore,wewilldivideourdiscussionofthetrueselfintotwosections.Thefirstwill exploreAbeMasaosinterpretationofPaulsnotionofkenosis,andthesecondwill look atAbesinterpretationoftheBuddhistnotionofShunyata.

Kenosis
Kenosis,Paulstermforselfemptying,literally meansanemptyingandis derivedfromtheancientGreekkenosmeaningempty.Forexample,inwhatAbe

69

Ibid.,6668.

37

considersoneofthemostimpressiveandtouchingpassagesintheBible,Paulwritesto thePhilippians: Havethismindinyou,whichwasalsoinChristJesus,who,existinginthe formofGod,countednotthebeingonanequalitywithGodathingtobe grasped,butemptiedhimself,takingtheformofaservant,beingmadein thelikenessofmanandbeingfoundinfashionasaman,hehumbled 70 himself,becomingobedientevenuntodeath,yea,thedeathofthecross. ThispassageisimportanttoAbefortworeasons.First,itsaysthatChristchosetogive uphisdivinerankandbecomeaman,thusemptyinghimself.Christshumblingwas carriedoutevenuntodeath.Secondly,thehumilityexemplifiedbyChristsincarnation,
71 death,andresurrectionrevealstheunfathomabledepthofGodslove.

ThiskenosisoftheSonofGod, Abeargues,mustbeatotalkenosisforhimtobe Christ.Inotherwords, oneshouldnotholdatemporal understandingofChristsnature, thatis,ChristwasnotoriginallytheSonofGodandthenemptiedhimselfandbecame identicalwithhumans,asinthetraditionalunderstandingoftheGospelofJohnwhere

72 thepreexistingLogosbecameflesh. Rather,oneshouldholdatotalkenotic

understandingofChristinwhichitisChristsverynature tobecontinuallyselfemptying andthatChristskenosisisnotmerely atransformationinappearance,butratheritisa transformationinsubstance.Itisbecauseofhisselfemptyingnaturethatheistrue personandtrueGod:Christ,theMessiah (see2.3). Consequently,Abereformulatesthe doctrineofChristskenosisasfollows: TheSonofGodisnottheSonofGod(forheisessentiallyand fundamentallyselfemptying):preciselybecauseheisnot theSonofGod

70 71

Philippians2:58. TheEmptyingGod,910. 72 Ibid.,10.

38

heistrulytheSonofGod(forheoriginallyandalwaysworksasChrist, 73 theMessiah,inhissalvationalfunctionofselfemptying).

ThetemporalunderstandingofthenatureofChrist
TheSonofGod,Logos Time JesusofNazareth ResurrectedChrist

ThetotalkenoticunderstandingofthenatureofChrist
TheSonofGod,Logos JesusofNazareth Time ResurrectedChrist, theMessiah

Figure2.3.ThetemporalandtotalkenoticunderstandingsofthenatureofChrist.

Since,asPaulsaysinPhilippians,wearetofollowinChristskenosis,andsince, asAbeMasaohaspointedout, Christsisatotalkenosis,sotoomustonesown kenosis beatotalkenosis,thatis,acompletetransformation.Paulalsoarticulates,evenso reckonyoualsoyourselvestobedeaduntosin,butaliveuntoGodinChristJesus,and, Weare...alwaysbearingaboutinthebodyofthedyingofJesus,thatthelifeofJesus

74 mayalsobemanifestedinourbody. Jesus,too,stresses,hethatfindshislifeshall 75 loseit andhethatloseshislifeformysakeshallfindit. Abearguesthatthese

passagescalloneto totallydeny andcompletely puttodeath theegoself ortheold persontoliveinChristasthenewperson.Consequently,Abesays,inrelationtothe humanself,Selfisnotself(fortheoldselfmustbecrucifiedwithChrist)precisely

76 becauseitisnot,selfistrulyself(forthenewselfresurrectswithChrist).

73 74

Ibid.,12. Romans6:11and2Corinthians4:10. 75 Matthew10:39. 76 TheEmptyingGod,12.

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AbeMasaoequatesthesetwoformulationsintoonesingleprinciple,statingthat thisishowChristiansshouldapproachtheirbeliefinChrist.Inotherwords,foroneto haveatruebeliefinChrist,onemustacceptboth paradoxicalformulations:Christisnot Christ,thereforeChrististrulyChristandselfisnotself,thereforeselfistrulyself.For whenoneacceptstheseformulationsandlivethetruthoftheresurrectionofChrist,one canexperiencekenosisinChristintheabsolutepresentNowmoment,denyingtheego selfcompletelyforthenewpersoninChrist.Onlythen can onetrulyclaimthat,itisno
77 longerIthatlive,butChristlivethinme.

Thiskenosisisnot,however,aonetimeevent,butratheritmustbepracticed everymomentandineveryaction.Toillustratethis,thinkof aprisonerandaformer prisoner.Aftercompletingonessentenceandhasfreedom,onecan return tocriminal behaviorandbeimprisonedagain.Likewise,after onehasexperiencedkenosis,onecan returntospirituallyunhealthybehaviorandbeimprisonedbythefalseselfagain.

Shunyata
Abesaysthatincontrastwith traditional Christianity,whichconsidersthe conceptualizableGodasultimatereality,Buddhismholdsthatultimaterealityisthe unconceptualizableShunyatawhichliterallymeansemptiness.Andalthough,Shunyata isemptiness,itcannotcarryalongwithittheoftennegativeconnotationsthatcomewith theEnglishwordemptinessbecauseanyconnotationiscontrarytoitsfunction of
78 emptying. InChristianityoneisoftenencouragedtoconceptualizeGod,whichnotonly

attachesconnotationstothewordGod,italsoforcesonetocreateafalseand illusionaryversionofGodinonesmind.Whiletherearemanyvaryingexamples
77 78

Galatians2:20. MasaoAbe,ZenandComparativeStudies,42.

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throughouttheBibleofGodasapersonorentity (aconceptualization)withwhom humanscommunicate,conceptualizationofShunyatainBuddhism isoften discouraged andconsideredtobeimpossible.AbesnotionofShunyatacorrespondswithmuchof Buddhism andheaffirmsthatShunyataisunobjectifiableinthesensethatitcannotbe attainedbyreasonorwill,anditissothoroughlyselfnegativethatitcompletely

79 emptieseverythingincludingitself. OneshouldnotunderstandShunyataasastatic

stateofemptiness,butratherasthepuredynamicmovementofemptying. AbesaysthatinorderforonetotrulyunderstandShunyata,onemustkeep two considerationsinmind.First, oneshouldnotapproach ShunyataasagoalofBuddhism becausebymakingitagoal,oneconceptualizesitasathingoutsideofoneself ina subjectobjectrelationship.Shunyataexistsnotoutsideofoneselfandoneselfexistsnot outsideofShunyata,instead,onemustapproachit, asthegroundorpointofdeparture fromwhichBuddhistlifeandactivitycanproperlybegin,andrealizeitintheabsolute andpresentNowmoment.Secondly,Shunyatashouldnotbeunderstoodinitsnoun form[emptiness]butinitsverbalform[selfemptying],foritisadynamicand
80 creativefunctionofemptyingeverythingandmakingaliveeverything. Oneshouldnot

understandShunyataasemptinessprimarilybecauseemptinessisastaticideathat connotesanobjectorgoal thatcanbeobtained,whereasselfemptyingisalively, active,anddynamicideathatconnotesanactionoranaturefromwhichallactions spontaneouslyoccur. Shunyata,furthermore,shouldbetranslatedastheactiveselfemptyingbecause trueShunyata,likekenosis,isanactiveprincipleinlifeandnotjustaprinciplethatone

TheEmptyingGod,27. Ibid.,33.NotethatAbeusesthespellingSunyatainsteadofShunyata.Forclearnessand consistencysake,thesewillappearthroughoutthispaperasShunyata.
80 79

41

shouldaspireto. TrueShunyata,liketotalkenosis,isnotaonetimeevent:oneshould practiceitdaytodayineverymomentandineveryaction.Abeasserts,TrueShunyata

81 isnotShunyatathoughtbyus,butShunyatalivedbyus. Forinstance,oneshouldnot

thinkthatonehastrueShunyata,butrather,oneshouldsimplylivetrueShunyatafrom momenttomomentindailylife.Similarly,uponenlightenment,Zenkoanpractitioners transcendduality.Theyandtheiractionsbecomethekoanandthekoanbecomestheir actionsandthemselves.Onecannotdistinguish betweenthepractitionerandthepractice. Likewise,thepersonistrueShunyataandtrueShunyataistheperson. BecausetrueShunyataisabsoluteemptiness,byitsnatureitmustalsobe emptied.AbearguesthatShunyataistherealizationofthenonsubstantialityof everything,andthatitmustbeemptiedbyrejectinganyattachmenttoemptiness.True [Shunyata]isnotastaticstateofeverythingsnonsubstantiality,butratheradynamic
82 functionofemptyingeverything,includingitself. Inotherwords,onecannothavea

conceptoftrueShunyata.Similarly,onecannotthinkofnothingbecauseintheveryact ofthinkingofnothing,oneisthinkingofsomething.Onesconceptofnothing,whetherit isblackness,space,oranotherabstractconceptualization,issomething.Nothing,byits very nature,paradoxicallybothisnothingandisnotnothingatthesametime.Totruly thinkofnothing,onemustreleaseonesconceptofnothingandallowonesexistenceto metaphysicallymoveintothesocallednonconceptof nothing.Likewise,totrulythink ofShunyata,onemustletgoofonesdualisticconcepts ofShunyataandallowones existencetomoveintotrueShunyata.Thismetaphysicalmovementissimultaneouslyan inwardandoutwardmovement.Itisinwardbecause,asAbesays,Shunyataistheground

81 82

Ibid.,28. BuddhismandInterfaithDialogue,7ZenandComparativeStudies,49.

42

orpointofdeparture ofexistence,thereforeitisfoundwithinoneself.Themovement actionisoutwardbecause,asAbesays,onesawakeningexpandsonesawarenessin everydirection.Furthermore, onewhoregardsoneselfashavingattainedShunyataand othersasnothavingattainedShunyatastilllivesindualism andnotin trueShunyata. TrueShunyatanegatesalldualism,andtherefore,byitsveryessence,paradoxicallyis bothShunyataandnotShunyatajustasnirvana(enlightenment)paradoxicallyissamsara (ignorance). AbeequatestrueShunyatawiththetrueself.Heaffirmsthatsatori,orawakening,
83 inZenisnothingbuttheselfawakeningofthetrueSelf. ToAbe,thismeansthatone

isnotlivingafulfilledexistenceifoneisnotlivingintrueShunyata.Abeaffirmsthat
84 manypeoplemistakenlylookforthetrueselfoutsideofthemselves. However,one

mustawaketotherealityofShunyatawithinonesselfastheground orpointof departureforexistence. Shunyataandkenosissharesimilarconceptually paradoxicalnatures.Onone hand,Shunyatamaintainsthatemptinessisnotmereemptinessandistherefore emptiness whileontheotherhand,kenosismaintainsthattheSonofGodisnottheSon ofGodandisthereforetheSonofGod. Inotherwords, Shunyataisparadoxicalbecause itiscompleteemptinessinthesensethatitevenmustemptyitself.Likewise,kenosisis paradoxicalintheexampleoftheSonofGodbecausebyemptyinghimselfofhisdivine status,hebecamedivinebecausethenatureofChristisaselfemptyingnature.

83 84

Ibid.,71. Ibid.,6465.

43

CHAPTER 3: MERTON AND ABE IN DIALOGUE

Sofarwehaveprovidedsufficientbackgroundinformationanddefinedboth MertonsandAbesviewsoftheself.Thischapterwill compareandcontrastthesetwo viewsshowingwheretheyaresimilarandwheretheyarenotandfurtherexpandontheir thoughtthroughthepleroticself. AlthoughThomasMertonisChristianandAbeMasaoisBuddhist,becauseof theirinterestin bothBuddhismandChristianity theyhavesomesimilarinfluences, notably SaintAugustineofHippo(354430)andD.T.Suzuki.Incidentally,ignoring eitherAugustineor Suzuki isdifficultwhenexploringthereligionswithwhichtheyare associated.Forinstance,Augustinehasgreatlyinfluencedboth CatholicandProtestant thoughtandhiswritingsarethebasisformanyChristianintellectual concepts,including baptismandoriginalsin.Suzuki,ontheotherhand,isamuchmorerecentfigurethan Augustine.However,hehasbeen calledtheleadingfigureinspreadingZenin theWest, citinghimasanimportantfigurestronglyaffectingandinfluencingtheWestsperception ofBuddhism.

FUNCTION OF THE SELF AlthoughMertonsideaofthefalseselfandtrueself isseemingly similarto AbesconceptoftotalkenosisanddynamicShunyata,theyhavedifferentmotivationsfor drawingtheirconclusions,andthereforeexpresstheirideasdifferentlyandfordifferent purposes.Mertonisprimarily amysticwhoaimsatinvokingareligiousexperienceinthe readerandthereforetendstospeakmorevaguely,forcingthereadertotranscendthe

44

normalmodeofintellectualconceptualization.Conversely,Abeisprimarilya philosopherwhoaimsatclarifyinghisphilosophytopromotemeaningfulinterreligious dialogue.Inotherwords,ifMertonandAbeweretohaveadiscussion,Mertonwould agreecompletelywith thesubstanceof whatAbesays,andAbewouldagreewith the substanceof whatMertonsays,butalsoexpandonit,eliminatingambiguityand confusion,todeepenMertonsexpressionofhismysticismandtopromoteinterreligious
85 understanding.

AbemaintainsinhisuniqueZenflavorofphilosophythat,althoughheis dissatisfiedwiththecurrentstateofBuddhismandChristianity,thereisacommon spiritualbasisatthedepthofbothreligionsthatwillberevealednotthroughan

86 exchange,butratherthroughaprocessofselfpurification. Thisprocessofself

purification,Abebelieves,willdrawthephilosophyandtheologyofthetworeligions closertogether.Thiswillnotproduceasinglereligionthatisasynthesisofthetwoora newreligionthatwillsupercedethetwo,butratheraphilosophicalsystemwithitsown uniqueconceptsthatcanbeusedtofullyunderstandbothreligions.Ideallythis philosophycouldbeexpandedtohelponefullyunderstandotherreligions.His philosophysuggeststhatunitingthenotionofkenosisinChristianityandthenotionof ShunyatainBuddhismisastepinthedirectionoffindingthiscommon ground. AlthoughThomasMertonwasaCatholicandaTrappistmonk,hedidnotexpress himselfasmostCatholicsandTrappiststraditionallyhave.Dogmaanddoctrinetendto definewhatChristianityisandwhatitisnottheytellonewhatoneshouldandshould

Notethatinthissituation,AbestechniquesubtlyunderminesMertonsbecauseAbeisengagedin philosophizingwhichiscontrarytoMertonsapproachofspeakingmorevaguelytoencouragetheactual transcendenceofconceptswithinthereader. 86 StephenMorris,90.

85

45

notbelieve.However,Mertonwasmoreconcernedwith directreligiousexperience, leavinghim opentomoreideasthanatypical traditionalChristian ofhistimemayhave been.InalettertoD.T.Suzuki,Mertonwrites: Someconclusions:Literature,contemplativesolitude,LatinAmerica, Asia,Zen,Islam,etc.,allthesethingscometogetherinmylife.Itwould bemadnessformetoattempttocreateamonasticlifeformyselfby excludingallthese.Iwouldbelessamonk.Othersmayhavetheirwayof 87 doingitbutIhavemine. Mertonsexpressionofhisreligion andspiritualityhasbeenappropriatelylabeledZen
88 Catholicism. Accordingly,becauseMertonssystemdoesnotreflecttraditional

Christianity,onecannotapproachitinasimilarmannerasonecanapproach traditional Christianity.However,asStephenMorrisargues,althoughMeisterEckharthasbeen regardedasan unorthodoxheretic,heiscurrentlynotregardedasoutsidetheboundsof

89 Christianityrather,heisrepresentativeofthedepthofChristianity. Inasimilarvein,

althoughMertonsthoughtcannotbeapproachedaccordingtoatraditionalChristianlens, hestillisnotoutsideoftheChristiantradition. AlsobecauseMertonisnotprimarilyconcernedwithdogmaanddoctrine,theself inMertonssystem isbasedonandaimedatpersonalreligiousexperienceinsteadof beingaimedattheologicalcorrectness.It therefore overcomestheobstaclethatisthe dualityofconceptualization.Likewise,transcendingdualityhashistoricallybeen fundamentaltotheteachingofShunyatainBuddhism,andovercomingthedualityof conceptualizationisimplicitinthewordShunyata.Inotherwords,theselfinMertons system andShunyatasimilarly pushonetowardstranscendingthedualityof conceptualizationandmovetowardsdirectreligiousexperience.Theatheistmay tendto
87 88

RobertE.Daggy,Ed., Encounter:ThomasMerton&D.T.Suzuki,90. ChalmersMacCormick,TheZenCatholicismofThomasMerton. 89 StephenMorris,92.

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thinkaboutGodwhilethemysticmay tendtonotthinkaboutGod.Therefore,something thatliesbeyondthinkingisimportantinthelifeofthemystic:thedirectexperienceof God. ExperiencingGodislikeplayingbaseball.Whenyouswingattheball,youdonot thinkabouthowtheballisflyingandyoudonotmathematicallycalculateyourswing, butratheryoufindthatjustswingingattheballismoreeffective.Evenmoreso,onecan studybaseballandlearnaboutallofitsrulesanditshistory,butlearningaboutbaseball cannotbecomparedtoactuallyplayingthegame.Likewise,thedirectexperienceofGod isamuchmoreimportantandeffectivetransformativepowerthanconceptualizingGod andlearningaboutGod.Atheistsarenotpersuadedbytheancientphilosophicalproofs forGodof SaintAnselm ofCanterbury,SaintThomasAquinas,orRenDescartes becauseonesreasoningandthoughtprocessesdonotproduce thedirectreligious experienceonemay lack. Likewise,thefirstovertfunctionoftheselfinAbessystemisaimedatreligious experienceandisdesignedtoovercometheobstaclethatisthedualityof conceptualization.However,Abesselfhasasecondovertfunctionthatresultsfromhis activityinthefieldofinterreligiousdialogue.Abesselfisaimedatdeepeningboth BuddhismandChristianitytowardacommonspiritualbasis.Interestingly,Abeunitesthe ChristianandBuddhistconceptsofkenosisandShunyataunderhisphilosophy. Moreover,themajordifferenceinthetwoviewsoftheselfistheirdependence andnondependenceonhistory.Mertonsthoughtrequiresthepersonalandhistorical necessityofChristskenosiswhereasAbesthoughtstressestheahistoricalandnon personalaspectoftrueShunyata.Mertonsviewoftheself,however,isnotnecessarily exclusiveforthosewhobelieveinthehistoricalfactofChristbecausehisideaofthetrue

47

selfdoesnothingeononehavingfaithinthehistoricalfactofChrist.Rather,thegraceof theHolySpiritmysticallyworkinginpeopleslivestobringabouttransformationis possiblebecauseofChristshumanityandkenosis.ForMerton,Godsgrace,therefore,is notrestrictedtothosewhobelieveinChristbutratherisonlyrestrictedtothosewho activelyignoreanddistancethemselvesfromit.

TOTAL KENOSIS AND TRUE SHUNYATA BothMertonandAbearguethatinorder foronetolivean existentially meaningfullifeandattaineternalpeace,onemustexperienceaspiritualawakening. Mertonexpressesthisspiritualawakeningasalettinggoofthefalseself thatgivesriseto thetrueself,whileAbeexpressesitasemptyingonesselfegothroughthedynamic actionoftrueShunyata.BothpointtowardsimilarpassagesintheBiblethattalkabout thenotionofkenosis.Essentially,Mertonsfalseselfthatmustbeletgoisanalogousto Abesegoselfthatmustbenegated,andMertonstrueselfisanalogoustoAbes Shunyata.Likewise,bothemphasizethatthisspiritualawakeningmustbeatotal conversionexperience.Abeputsitmosteloquentlyby stressingthat,inChristianity, oneskenosismustbeatotalkenosisand,inBuddhism,onemustattaintrueShunyata. JustasAbeassertsthat,attheirdepths,ChristianityandBuddhismsharea commonspiritualground,attheirdepths,kenosisandShunyataareidenticalhowever, theyareapproachedandexpresseddifferentlyfrom withinChristianityandBuddhism respectively.Abeaffirmstheirsimilarityinsayingthattheintersectionbetween immanenceandtranscendence,issymbolizedinChristianitybyJesusChristwhoisthe truehumanandthetrueGod,andinBuddhismbyShunyata,inwhichemptinessand

48

90 fullnessaredynamicallyidentical. However,kenosisandShunyataareandcannotbe

identical,justasChristianityandBuddhismareandcannotbeidentical.Rather,kenosis andShunyataareuniqueparallelsoriginatingfromthesamepoint.Theuniquenessofone describestheuniquenessoftheother,deepeningonesunderstandingofit. However,theprimaryproblemwith theconceptsoftotalkenosisandtrue ShunyataisthefactthattheyareintrinsicallyChristianandBuddhistconcepts,whichisa barrierto theinterreligiousunderstandingthatMertonexperiencedandAbehasworked forinhisphilosophy.Totalinterreligiousunderstandingisachievedwhenconceptsfrom anotherreligioncanbeunderstoodintermsthatrelatetoandmakesensefromwithinthe contextofonesownreligion.Therefore,ifconceptsfromtwodifferentreligionsare completelycompatiblewithoneanother,onecanmoreeasilyhaveinterreligious understanding.However,interpretingconceptstobecompletelycompatiblewithone another often doesnotaccuratelyrepresenttheirrespectivereligionsandoftenisa misinterpretation.Therefore, termsthatarenotdefinedfromwithinanysinglereligion areimportanttoadvanceinterreligiousunderstanding.

PLEROTIC SELF PlerosisliterallymeansafulfillingandisderivedfromtheancientGreekpleros meaningfull.Hereplerosismeansselffulfillingmuchinthesamewaythatkenosisis usedtomeanselfemptying.Therefore,ifthekenoticselfistheselfemptyingself,the pleroticselfistheselffulfillingself.Paradoxically,kenosisisplerosis,orinotherwords, theactionofselfemptyingisparadoxicallytheactionofselffulfilling.Although our

90

TheEmptyingGod,175.

49

definitionofShunyatahasbeenderivedfromBuddhism,ourdefinitionofkenosishas beenderivedfrom Christianity,andthewordplerosisitselfcomesfromancientGreek andChristianity,ourdefinitionofplerosisisnotderivedfromthecontextof Christianity. Rather,ourdefinitionofplerosisisbasedon both thetheologyofThomasMertonandthe philosophyofAbeMasao. Therefore,thepleroticselfisthecounterparttoandcataphatic interpretationoftheultimateeffectof totalkenosisandtrueShunyata. Thepleroticselfis,byitsnature, thedynamicandcontinuousactiveultimate existentialfulfillmentinoneslife.Inotherwords,itistheontologicalrealityforboth BuddhismandChristianity.Thisassumesthat,contrarytonihilism,onesexistencehasa purpose. Inotherwords,accordingtoAbesphilosophyoftotalkenosisandtrue Shunyata, thepurposeoftheselfistobeselfnegating,andthusselffulfilling.The kenoticselfistheactiveselfemptyingselfandthepleroticself istheactiveselffulfilling self,thereforekenosisisplerosisandplerosisiskenosis.Additionally,trueShunyatais active,totalemptinessandtotalplerosisisactive,completefulfillness,therefore,true ShunyataisplerosisandplerosisistrueShunyata.However,thisisnottosaythat Shunyataandkenosisarethesame.Rather,thenotionofplerosisnotonlypreservesthe distinctivenessofthetwoconcepts,ourdefinitionofplerosisdescribesthis distinctiveness.Plerosiscanbelookedatasthecataphaticdistillationofkenosisand Shunyata.Therefore,weareleftwithathreepart definitionofplerosis: Kenosisisselfemptying,Shunyataistotalemptiness,andplerosisisself fulfilling. Kenosis=plerosisandShunyata=plerosisbecauseplerosisistheultimate effectandcounterpartofkenosisandShunyata. However,althoughkenosis=plerosisandShunyata=plerosis,kenosis Shunyata.

50

BecausethepleroticselfisboththetotalkenoticselfandtrueShunyata,onewho hasbeenawakenedtothepleroticselfsimilarlybehavesjustasonewhohasattainedtotal kenosisor trueShunyata.Infact,onewhohasnotbeenawakenedtothepleroticself cannotknowwhatitlookslikeandthereforecannotknowwhattolookfor,makingitan undetectablemodeofexistence.Therefore,thepleroticselfisnotwithinthereachof anyone.Rather,itisalreadywithineveryonejustasShunyataandChristskenoticnature

91 arebuthasmerely notbeenfully realized.

91

ThisispossiblysimilartotheTathagatagarbhadoctrineorthenotionofBuddhanature.

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