Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Environment
Facility
Mountain watch
environmental change and sustainable
development in mountains
Mountain Watch provides a new map-based synthesis of information on
environmental change, and its implications for sustainable development,
in mountains. It is designed to assist achievement both of the Millennium
Development Goals, which aim to ensure environmental sustainability
and improve people's livelihoods, and the Plan of Implementation of the
World Summit on Sustainable Development, agreed in Johannesburg, South
Africa, in 2002.
Mountain Watch profiles methods to assess mountain ecosystems,
the pressures that affect them and the services they provide to people. A new
analysis of global data is supplemented by regional and local case studies
drawn from around the world. Tools are provided for decision-makers to
ensure that development sustains mountain environments and the people
who depend on them.
The report is designed to support an assessment process, launched
at the Bishkek Global Mountain Summit during the International Year of
Mountains, 2002. This will involve a series of regional workshops, bringing
together many stakeholders living in and visiting mountain regions, and will
lead to the production of a World Atlas of Mountain Environments.
Mountain Watch was compiled by UNEP-WCMC and the UNEP
Mountain Programme, in collaboration with the GEF, UNEP Regional Offices,
UNEP GRID Centres and other partners, as a contribution to the
International Year of Mountains, for which FAO is the lead UN agency,
in collaboration with governments, UNEP, UNDP, UNESCO and other partners.
Mountain watch
environmental change
& sustainable development
in mountains
The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP or contributory organizations. The designations employed and
the presentations do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP or contributory organizations concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
THE SPINE (3mmx303)
Mountain watch UNEP-WCMC
Global
Environment
Facility
Mountain watch
environmental change
& sustainable development
in mountains
UNEP-WCMC
Simon Blyth, Brian Groombridge, Igor Lysenko, Lera Miles, Adrian Newton
UNEP World Conservation
Monitoring Centre
219 Huntingdon Road
Cambridge CB3 0DL, UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1223 277314
Fax: +44 (0) 1223 277136
E-mail: info@unep-wcmc.org
Website: www.unep-wcmc.org
2
Mountain watch
Mountain Watch
Project manager King Mahendra Trust for Nature University of Vienna, Austria
Adrian Newton Conservation, Nepal Institute of Ecology and
UNEP World Conservation Siddhartha B. Bajracharya Conservation Biology
Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) Michael Gottfried, Georg Grabherr,
E-mail: adrian.newton@unep- University of Melbourne, Australia Harald Pauli
wcmc.org Kerrie Wilson
WWF-Austria, Vienna, Austria
UNEP Coordinator University of Minnesota, USA Thomas Kaissl
Andrei Iatsenia Lilian Pintea
Coordinator Thanks also to:
UNEP Mountain Programme NASA, USA Martin Price, Centre for Mountain
E-mail: iatsenia@unep.ch Research Division, Studies, University of the Highlands
Office of Earth Science and Islands
Production, analysis, cartography Woody Turner Ron Witt, UNEP GRID, Geneva
UNEP-WCMC Dave Rogge, Doris Nerding,
Simon Blyth, Brian Groombridge, Norwegian University of Science and http://www.geoimages.com/copper/
Igor Lysenko, Lera Miles Technology, and International Peace copper.html
Research Institute, Oslo, Norway Oscar G. Cardenas-Hernandez and
Neville Ash, Jared Bakuza, Halvard Buhaug Luis M. Martinez Rivera, IMECBIO
Philip Bubb, Mark Collins, Chuck Dull, USDA Forest Service,
Mary Cordiner, Florence Jean, UNEP (DEWA), Nairobi, Kenya Washington DC, USA
Valerie Kapos Kofoed Jesper Gerard Hertel, West Chester
University, PA, USA
Contributors UNEP GRID, Geneva Switzerland Rebecca Lindsey, MODIS Rapid
Agricultural University of Norway Pascal Peduzzi Response System, Goddard Space
Mariel Flores, Ingunn Vistnes Flight Center, USA
UNEP GRID Arendal, Norway David Jensen, UNEP PCAU, Geneva,
CGIAR - CIAT, Colombia Hugo Ahlenius, Christian Nelleman Switzerland
Glenn Hyman Antonio Lara, UACH
UNEP GRID, Sioux Falls, USA Ljuba Veselinova, Stockholm
CONDESAN (Consortium for the Mark Ernste University, Sweden
Sustainable Development of
the Andean Ecoregion), Lima, Peru UNEP Post-Conflict Assessment UNEP-WCMC is also grateful to the
Hector Cisneros, and associates Unit, Geneva, Switzerland following providers or originators
Coen Bussink, Pablo Arturo Sánchez, Peter Zahler of spatial data used in global maps
Carlos Cerdán, and Jorge Reinoso BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK
UNEP Regional Resource Centre Muriel Simon, European Space
University of Geneva, Switzerland for Asia and Pacific (RRC.AP), Agency, Frascati, Italy
Remote Sensing Unit and GIS Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Matthew Dryer, University at Buffalo,
Walter Silverio Bangkok, Thailand USA
Surendra Shrestha, Yadvinder Malhi, University of
Global Environment Facility, Mylvakanam Iyngararasan Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Washington DC, USA Marina Zanetti, FAO, Rome, Italy
Fumiko Nakao UNF, UNEP, KWS, Freddy Nachtergaele, FAO, Rome, Italy
University of Bayreuth, WCST Domenico Giardini, Swiss
International Centre for Integrated Christian Lambrechts Seismological Service, Zurich
Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Souad Sellami, Swiss Seismological
USGS, Cascades Volcano Observatory, Service, Zurich
LCSES - Colombia LO, Colombia USA Ruth de Fries, University of Maryland,
Juan Pablo Ruiz Soto Michael Poland USA
3
Mountain watch
Messages
Klaus Töpfer
Executive Director
United Nations Environment Programme
Mohamed T. El-Ashry
Chairman and CEO
Global Environment Facility
4
Mountain watch
5
Mountain watch
Contents
Contributors 3
Messages
Klaus Töpfer 4
Mohamed T. El-Ashry 4
Foreword 5
Executive summary 8
Purpose and approach 9
MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENTS 11
Values
Human population 18
Cultural diversity 20
Water resources 22
Forest resources 24
Cloud forest 26
Biological diversity 28
Pressures
Seismic hazards 30
Fire 34
Climate change 36
Land cover change 42
Agricultural suitability 44
Infrastructure 52
Armed conflict 56
Integrated analysis
Pressures 60
Synthesis 62
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 64
Protected areas 66
GEF and mountains 68
7
Mountain watch
Executive summary
of people dependent upon them. these pressures in the world’s moun-
Despite the importance of environ- tain regions to be assessed. Many
mental change in planning for sus- regional differences have emerged,
tainable development, information has for example:
until now been lacking on how moun-
tain environments might be affected by ● the proportion of mountain area
such change in the future. that may be affected by severe climate
Mountain Watch provides the change is substantially higher in the
first map-based overview of environ- northern hemisphere than in the other
mental change in mountain regions regions considered;
and its implications for sustainable ● African mountains contain a con-
development. New global maps are siderably higher proportion of land
presented to illustrate selected values that is suitable for rainfed crops than
of mountain ecosystems and many any other region;
of the pressures that are causing ● the proportion of mountain area
environmental change. affected by violent human conflict is
The global analyses are sup- substantially higher in Africa than in
ountain environments cover ported by a range of case studies from the other regions considered, although
the world’s people who live within of mountain regions. Particular em- Four of the six pressures considered
mountain regions. Lowland people phasis is given to the use of remote affect a higher proportion of moun-
also depend on mountain environ- sensing and geographic information tain areas in Africa than in any
ments for a wide range of goods system (GIS) technologies, and how other region. With all pressures com-
and services, including water, energy, these approaches can be used to bined, mountains in Eurasia and in
timber, biodiversity maintenance, and provide practical tools for decision- Australasia-Southeast Asia experi-
opportunities for recreation and spiri- makers, to ensure that development ence a combination of multiple pres-
tual renewal. sustains mountain environments and sures over a larger percentage of land
Especially at higher elevation the people that depend on them. area than other mountain regions.
and outside the humid tropics, moun- In this way, Mountain Watch By overlaying the biodiversity
tain people face an environment in aims to support implementation of map with the integrated pressure
which everyday physical demands policy initiatives focusing on sus- dataset it was possible to identify
are great, natural hazards are signi- tainable development of mountains, mountain areas that support high
ficant and agricultural production is including Chapter 13 of Agenda 21 biodiversity and also experience se-
constrained. Only about 3 per cent of and the Plan of Implementation of vere environmental pressures. Among
land ranked as highly suitable for rain- the World Summit on Sustainable areas of particular concern are:
fed agriculture is within mountains, Development (WSSD).
highlighting the restricted livelihood ● the North-Western Andean moist
opportunities available to many moun- HIGHLIGHTS forest and Magdaleña Valley of South
tain people. Difficult access, with eco- A map indicating the biodiversity value America;
nomic and political marginalization, of different areas shows that almost ● the Caucasus mixed forests eco-
compound the problems. every area jointly important for plants, region;
Many mountain environments amphibians and endemic birds is ● montane ecoregions in California.
have been degraded by excess use of located within mountains.
natural resources, inappropriate infra- Analysis of seismic hazards, These regions are priority candidates
structural development, deforestation, fire, climate change, land cover change for global conservation action in the
and the impacts of natural hazards. and agricultural conversion, infra- world’s mountains.
These changes affect the provision of structural development, and armed
ecosystem services and the livelihoods conflict, has allowed the distribution of
8
Mountain watch
9
Mountain watch
10
Mountain environments
MOUNTAIN
ENVIRONMENTS
any of the subject areas mountains. In all mountain regions, species and habitat types, and
11
Mountain watch
‡ 4 500 m
3 500 – 4 500 m
2 500 – 3 500 m
the effects of latitude and continen- and those in drylands, conditions are would greatly improve the information
tality on climate and local weather marginal for people, their crops and base for integrated research and
patterns, so that some mountains are livestock, and survival demands effort management in the world’s mountains.
almost permanently wet, others dry, and special techniques to sustain An operational quantitative
and others highly seasonal. Geological agricultural production. definition, incorporating elements of
substrate adds a further dimension of both altitude and slope, has only
diversity by influencing the soil type DEFINING MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN become possible with the development
and the potential for erosion. Most people would know a mountain of geographic information system
Several factors, all of which when they see one: a significant (GIS) technology and digital elevation
influence life processes or living landscape feature, relatively elevated, models (DEM). A DEM represents a
conditions, change predictably with with more or less steep approaches. three-dimensional model of conven-
altitude and underlie the marked Elevation and slope are key elements, tional contour information, and GIS
environmental gradients typical of but producing a formal global analysis allows the ups and downs of
high mountains. Temperature, air definition is not simple. Absolute this model surface to be assessed
pressure and humidity decrease with elevation alone cannot provide an against numerical criteria. The first
increasing altitude, while solar radia- adequate criterion; the nature of such definition and global map of
tion (especially UV) and wind speed the terrain is also highly relevant, mountain regions was developed at
increase. The Earth’s very highest especially the degree of slope and UNEP-WCMC and is used throughout
mountain regions (above 8 000 m) are how often it changes direction, i.e. this report (see Figure 1 and page
beyond the range of temperature and how rugged the topography is. Such 74). Future work will aim to address
air conditions that most macroscopic considerations have made it difficult variables, such as temperature and
living organisms can tolerate. In many for geographers to agree on a precipitation, that are not purely
other temperate high mountain areas, standard definition, although this topographic and which help to deter-
12
Mountain environments
mine the conditions of life for human variation in features that depend on With the present configuration
and other species. rock type, such as erosion potential, of continents, more than two-thirds
slope stability and soil. of the world land surface is located
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MOUNTAINS Mountains vary widely in age. in the northern hemisphere, and the
Physically, existing mountains have One of the better known episodes of area of land north of the Tropic of
only slope and elevation in common, ancient folding affected rocks now Cancer slightly exceeds that in the
and the fact that all will ultimately within northwest Europe around 400 rest of the world put together. This
be eroded into insignificance, while million years ago; geological evidence in part explains why the northern
others will be created. They may be for this early mountain-building temperate belt contains a far greater
formed by uplift of extensive blocks of has been largely obscured by later mountain area than any other zone
land around major faultlines, or by earth movements and the levelling (Figure 3). The Antarctic region comes
folding of rock strata, both of which effects of erosion. Much of the folding a distant second in total mountain
result from continental movements, or involved in uplift of the Alpine- area, but owing to the immense extent
by volcanic activity often associated Himalayan chains took place around and thickness of its icecap, it has the
with both faulting and folding. Any 35 million years ago, and these tend to highest proportion of overall area
given segment of land may well have retain the sharp peaks and ridges defined as mountainous and the
been affected by all three processes typical of younger mountain ranges. greatest surface area above 2 500 m
over the course of Earth history, and The Earth’s very youngest peaks are (Figure 4).
so, with the exception of volcanic volcanic in origin. Paricutin in Mexico, Dividing the world’s land by
cones, mountain ranges will often be for example, had built a cinder cone continental groups, rather than by
composed of a variety of igneous, about 500 m high within a year of latitude, shows unsurprisingly that
sedimentary and metamorphic rock its eruption in 1943 (total elevation the enormous Eurasian landmass
types. Accordingly, there is wide about 2 770 m). has by far the greatest mountain area.
13
Mountain watch
Eurasia also has the most extensive Himalaya range extending along the Central Andes. The world’s highest
inhabited land area above 2 500 m southern rim of the Tibet Plateau. individual peak outside Asia is
elevation, in the Tibet (Xizang) Plateau After Eurasia, and excluding Aconcagua, which reaches an ele-
and adjacent ranges. All of the world’s Antarctica, South America has the vation of around 6 959 m in the south-
mountains above 7 000 m in height second most extensive area of high ern Andes. A major part of Greenland
are in Asia, and all the 14 peaks above elevation land (Figure 4), formed by is above 2 500 m, and this region
8 000 m are situated in the Greater the mountains and basins of the resembles Antarctica in that much of
the surface is composed of a deep
icesheet; in both cases most of
Figure 2: Mountain regions worldwide the very small human population is
restricted to the coast.
14
Mountain environments
need to reduce erosion while im- mountain areas. In tropical climates, and other animals is that with
proving soil and water conditions for the sun is high overhead throughout increasing altitude, less oxygen is
crop plants is a key factor behind the season, so that tropical mountains obtained per volume of air inspired,
the widespread adoption of terracing tend to have high temperatures and and fewer oxygen molecules diffuse
by mountain agriculturalists. If wind sometimes high rainfall throughout into the bloodstream to maintain cell
velocity doubles, the force exerted the year. Temperature is one factor function and support physical activity.
increases fourfold; this has a direct determining the natural upper limit Mountaineers and other temporary
physical impact on humans and other of tree growth (the ‘treeline’), which residents at high altitude can achieve
species (leading to the prostrate or varies locally and with latitude, from limited acclimatization to oxygen
cushion-like growth form of many around 5 000 m in parts of the tropics shortage (hypoxia) over a period of
high mountain plants), as well as a to near sea level at high latitudes. days or weeks. Populations that live
desiccating effect that adds to the risk permanently at high altitude are
of water stress. Air pressure and oxygen availability subject to life-long hypoxic stress, and
As a consequence of decreasing air have in some instances evolved the
Temperature pressure, the partial pressure of metabolic capacity to maintain
Air temperature on average decreases oxygen falls with increasing altitude physical activity. Nevertheless, in
by about 6.5° C for every 1 000 m (partial pressure is the constant 21 per human populations hypoxia has
increase in altitude; in mid latitudes cent concentration of oxygen multi- demonstrable adverse effects on
this is equivalent to moving poleward plied by the barometric pressure). At birthweight and reproductive success.
about 800 km. The dry dust-free air at 1 500 m the partial pressure of oxygen
altitude retains little heat energy, is about 84 per cent of the value at sea MOUNTAIN ECOSYSTEMS
leading to marked extremes of level, falling to 75 per cent at 2 500 m Mountains occur on all continents, in
temperature between day and night. and 63 per cent at 3 500 m (with minor all latitude zones, and within all the
In seasonal climates, daytime temp- variation with latitude and season). world’s principal biome types – from
eratures can rise sharply in sunlit The consequence of this for humans hyperarid hot desert and tropical moist
Figure 5: Percent of country Figure 6: Area of high mountains Figure 7: Total mountain area
classed as mountainous Top 20 sequenced by high mountain Top 20 sequenced by total
Top 20 area mountain area
15
Mountain watch
forest to arid polar icecaps – and sup- Africa, this can allow tree growth near downslope from its potential level by
port a correspondingly wide variety the top of mid elevation mountains that burning and agricultural activity.
of ecosystems. emerge from treeless semi-desert The vegetation zones encoun-
Mountain ecosystems tend to plains. In more humid regions, short- tered with increasing elevation on an
be important for biological diversity, stature epiphyte-rich evergreen forest idealized tropical mountain tend to
particularly in the tropics and warmer (cloud forest) may flourish above more resemble the biome types found with
temperate latitudes (see Figure 8). seasonal forest types. increasing latitude. Vegetation types
Although richness declines with Ultimately, temperature and similar to those that succeed one
altitude, lower elevation slopes often moisture availability decrease, and another through more than 80° of
hold a wide range of habitat types windspeed increases, to a point where latitude and 3 000 km distance –
within a relatively short distance. tree growth cannot be sustained. tropical moist forest, deciduous forest,
Isolated mountain blocks are often Above this point, low herbaceous coniferous forest, shrub and grassland,
rich in endemics. vegetation, often including tussock or ice – may be compressed onto the
Polar mountains may be grassland, takes over, to be succeeded slopes of a mountain perhaps 5 000 m
entirely without vegetation; at other by largely bare rock or snow. Such high. Despite superficial resemblance
high latitude sites, mountains may montane grasslands are often impor- in vegetation, there are fundamental
bear only sparse tundra-like scrub. On tant for livestock grazing, as exem- differences between elevational gra-
low elevation mountains at lower plified by the páramo zone of the dients in the tropics and latitudinal
latitudes, vegetation may be broadly northern Andes. This is an extensive gradients. In tropical regions, the sun is
similar to that of surrounding tract of grass and shrub, lying between high overhead throughout the year,
lowlands, often with coniferous or the upper limit of cultivation (around whereas seasonality increases with
broadleaf forest. With increasing 3 250 m) and the high summits increasing latitude. At high arctic
elevation, the effects of temperature, (> 4 000 m). Distinctive giant forms of latitudes, permafrost is common and
precipitation and wind combine to groundsel and lobelia (whose wide- there is little shortage of water during
induce an altitude-related zoning in spread relatives are small herbaceous the short growing season, whereas
vegetation. As elevation increases, the plants) occur above the treeline on alpine environments are less seasonal,
availability of moisture – as rain or high mountains in tropical Africa, while with high light levels and daytime
condensation from cloud or fog – tends giant bromeliads and large compo- warming through much of the year. The
to increase (up to a level that varies sites occur on the Andean páramo. In absence of permafrost means that soil
with latitude and between continents). many hill and mountain regions the water is readily lost through downslope
In arid regions such as the Horn of present treeline has been pushed drainage, leading to water stress.
16
Mountain environments
PEOPLE IN MOUNTAINS centuries been an important local and cultural diversity, and the
In most mountain regions, people form of resource extraction in ecosystem services that underpin
have based their livelihoods on mountains, often with local adverse them. Subsequently a number of
agriculture, pastoralism, and use of impacts on mountain ecosystems. important pressures that have affected
forest resources (timber, fuelwood, Tourism is a more recent use of mountain ecosystems or may do so in
fodder). This remains widely true, mountain landscapes with effects future, are introduced.
although very marked changes have ranging from benign to damaging.
occurred in some mountain areas, Low intensity tourist use, such as
gathering pace from the mid-20th adventure travel or trekking, can bring
century onward, with supplementary significant cash benefits to a region,
or entirely new sources of income, but may have adverse impacts on local
often located outside mountains food, water or fuel resources. More
proper, increasing in importance. intensive recreational activities, such
Traditional livelihoods in as skiing, have economic benefits but
mountain environments, particularly are liable to result in infrastructure
outside the humid tropics, have typi- development and landscape-scale
cally been created with difficulty and change to the mountain environment.
at some risk of failure. The growing Marked demographic change
season is shorter at altitude, and in mountain communities is evident
the range of crops that can be grown from historical records and contem-
tends to be narrow (exceptionally so at porary observations, with growth and
higher altitude), with increased risk decline occurring in different areas.
of malnutrition (Figure 9). Physical For example, economic migration and
hazards tend to be high relative to unsustainability of traditional livestock
lowlands, and moving from place to production methods have reduced
place is difficult. The social and numbers in many mountain commu-
economic networks basic to dev- nities in the Alps and Pyrenees, while
elopment may be hard to access. tourism and incoming 'amenity
Nevertheless, mountain people gen- migrants' have increased numbers in
erally have evolved productive agro- others. Local agricultural production,
ecosystems, often involving the crea- local social and cultural factors, and
tion and maintenance of slope economic forces generated in the
terracing, field enclosures and irri- wider region, variously contribute to
gation systems, and effective trading these changes, which remain difficult
relations with lowlanders. or impossible to predict.
Where valued minerals are The following pages outline
exposed or accessible, mining has for some aspects of human demography
< 40
40 – 50
50 – 60
60 – 70
70 – 80
Insufficient data
17
Mountain watch
1 000 – 2 500
100 – 1 000
10 – 100
< 10
Mountain region
Human population
rchaeological evidence shows mountains can be regions of very high report). Population density per unit
18
Values: human population
with livestock maintenance, commonly foothills of the Himalaya, many parts sity is not highly correlated with relief
tend to shift up or downslope, making of central and south India, Java, and type alone. Both flat lowlands and high
use of different categories of land type over enormous areas of central and mountains may in different parts of the
over the year. eastern China. The global inset map world each have relatively low or high
The maps above represent suggests that human population den- population density.
human population density according
to the CIESIN Gridded Population of
the World (version 2) dataset, with the Table 3: Population distribution (millions)
main map representing population
density in mountains. With the REGION IN IN % IN
exception of Australasia-Southeast NON-MOUNTAINS MOUNTAINS MOUNTAINS
Asia and Greenland, South America North and Central America 353 90 20.3
has a smaller area of mountainous South America 221 95 29.9
land than the other continent groups Eurasia 3 061 815 21
used in this report, but has by far the Africa 546 166 23.4
highest proportion of its population Australasia and Southeast Asia 239 75 23.8
in mountain regions, density being Greenland <1 <1 9.6
very low over Amazonia and other Antarctica 0 0
lowlands. GLOBAL VALUES 4 421 1 240 21.9
Population density within
mountains is moderately high over Mountain area (including Antarctica) as percent of global land: 27.2
large areas of Mexico and Central
America, the Ethiopian Highlands Note: Numbers calculated from gridded population density map
and rift mountains to the south, the
19
Mountain watch
Number of speakers
0–1
2 – 100
100 – 1 000
1 000 – 10 000
Mountain region
Cultural diversity
ountain communities tend tion between language and culture or The available data (e.g. www.
20
Values: cultural diversity
21
Mountain watch
0 – 150
150 – 300
300 – 500
500 – 750
750 – 1 500
Wa t e r re s o u rc e s
ountains, where virtually all provide for humans. Although many arid regions, both high and lowland,
22
Values: water resources
Source: Based on 1960-1998 mean, from annual sum maps compiled in raster format by Yadvinder Malhi,
from dataset interpolated by New et al. (1999, 2000), Climatic Research Unit, University of East Anglia
23
Mountain watch
Percent cover
60 – 80
40 – 60
20 – 40
1 – 20
Mountain region
Fo re s t re s o u rc e s
ountain forests provide a where the quenal Polylepis almost ducts include bamboo, fungi, fruit, nuts
24
Values: forest resources
25
Mountain watch
Cloud forest
Mountain region
C l o u d f o re s t
ropical montane cloud forest to the ecosystem over and above Rwanda and Uganda and the resplen-
26
Values: cloud forest
27
Mountain watch
Number of groups
Mountain region
Biological diversity
any mountain ecosystems surrounding lowlands, and endemism elevation, as also with increasing
28
Values: biological diversity
promoting stability on steep slopes The maps (Figure 15) are sified in mountains. A large proportion
prone to slippage. simple overlays of areas delimited by of domestic mammals – sheep, goats,
Data on mountain biodiversity these three studies, in which each grid domestic yak, llama and alpaca –
that can be readily used for compa- cell is scored according to the number originated in mountain regions.
rative analysis are sparse, and very of groups (0 to 3) for which it has Genetic diversity in these resources
few globally comprehensive sets of been identified as ‘important’. This is tends to be higher in mountains,
data exist. In this report, information only a preliminary attempt to make perhaps associated with cultural
on areas identified as important for use of existing datasets, but the very diversity and the extreme variation
biodiversity in three different groups high similarity between the main in local environmental conditions.
of organism has been used. The WWF- map, showing important areas for Some high altitude communities in
IUCN Centres of Plant Diversity biodiversity within mountains, and the Andes maintain more than 150
project used expert information to the inset, showing important areas distinct potato varieties, and mountain
identify semi-quantitatively a set of globally, serves to confirm the ex- farmers in central Africa cultivate
areas of key significance for global tremely high biodiversity value of beans as mixed populations of up to
plant diversity. A set of areas sig- mountain ecosystems. 30 varieties. Such diversity would tend
nificant for global amphibian diversity Mountains are also extremely to reduce the impact of failure in any
has been identified in a similar, but important centres of biodiversity in one variety, and provide adaptability
less formal, expert opinion approach. agricultural resources. Mountains for future change. The global trend
The most structured and objective extend over large parts of the five is for genetic diversity to be eroded
global analysis remains that by principal centres of early agricultural as local varieties are replaced by
BirdLife International, in which dis- development, and several crops – modern varieties or cash crops, but
tribution data on restricted range bird maize, potatoes, barley, sorghum, the rate of loss appears to be slower in
species were analysed to identify a tomatoes, apples – originated in some mountain areas than in the
set of Endemic Bird Areas. mountains; others have further diver- world’s lowlands.
29
Mountain watch
Annihilating
Devastating
Destructive
Very strong
Strong
Mountain region
S e i s m i c h a z a rd s
M
ountain regions are dyna- natural source of fire, and can trigger sources can be severely affected by
mic environments, subject to the migration of people, leading to shift- events such as landslides and ava-
major tectonic processes. ing patterns of resource exploitation lanches, and any increase in soil
Many mountain chains lie along the and increased social tension. Patterns erosion is likely to reduce agricultural
boundaries of continental plates, of land use and development of infra- productivity. These processes can also
increasing the likelihood of earth- structure can influence the occurrence affect biodiversity and other important
quakes and volcanic eruptions. The of catastrophic events; for example, resources such as water.
steep slopes and high precipitation deforestation in mountain areas can Mountain communities often
common to many mountain areas increase the likelihood of floods and have a deep understanding of natural
promote the downslope movement of avalanches, as well as promoting soil hazards and have sometimes found
rocks, soil, water and snow. Sudden erosion. Climate change could affect ways of reducing the likelihood of
events such as earthquakes and storms the frequency and intensity of catas- catastrophic events, for example
increase the risk of catastrophic events trophic events by influencing the through the use of traditional land use
including landslides, rockfalls, floods, seasonal distribution of precipitation practices such as terracing. However,
snow and ice avalanches, as well as the and the positioning of storm tracks. volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
more gradual processes of weathering Volcanic eruptions and earth- are very difficult to predict, severely
and soil erosion. quakes represent a direct threat to constraining the processes of both
Seismic hazards may interact human life, but also influence the risk assessment and environmental
with other causes of environmental provision of environmental services to planning, which are key tools for
change. Volcanic eruptions are a people. Agricultural and forest re- sustainable development.
30
Pressures: seismic hazards
Sources: left: Dunbar et al. (1998); above: seismic hazard, Giardini et al. (1999);
volcanoes, Dunbar (2002)
31
Mountain watch
Mount St Helens
T
he Cascade Range of western the mud is slowly being colonized by
North America contains seve- grasses and box alders, and the effects
ral recently active volcanic of the eruption are becoming less
mountains. The 1914-1917 eruption discernable.
at Lassen Peak had been the latest Although the Mount St Helens
until Mount St Helens erupted in 1980, eruption devastated a landscape, it
having last done so in 1857. The granted biologists an unprecedented
mountain had been a quiet retreat and view into the colonization and recovery
a popular location for skiing, hiking, of natural systems. Future eruptions of
camping and fishing. Following two other volcanoes in the Cascade Range
months of seismic unrest, during are inevitable, and lessons from Mount
which its northern flank bulged St Helens will help such activity to be
increasingly (sometimes at 1.5 m a predicted and its ecological impacts
day), a massive landslide and catas- anticipated. The eruption also resulted
trophic eruption occurred on 18 May. in the recognition of two previously
Mount St Helens and Spirit Lake, two
The entire north flank of the mountain unknown volcanic hazards: debris
years after the 1980 eruption.
collapsed into the Toutle River valley, avalanches and lateral blasts.
reducing the height of the summit by
nearly 400 m, with devastating mud-
Figure 17: The changing extent of
flows entering several drainages. The
vegetation at Mount St Helens,
showing ecosystem recovery after eruption killed 57 people, flattened 600 Mount St Helens during the May 1980
the 1980 eruption km2 of trees, and left the area barren eruption.
and nearly devoid of life. A vertical
eruption column persisted for nine
hours, sending a stream of ash and
pumice 25 km into the atmosphere. In
the years that followed, a dome of
viscous lava formed on the crater
floor, eventually reaching a height of
more than 300 m when it stopped
1973 growing in 1986. In addition, two new
lakes, Castle and Coldwater, formed
where tributaries of the Toutle River
were dammed by the landslide debris.
Many geologists and biologists
speculated that it would take hundreds
of years for the region to recover, but
this has proved mistaken. Wind-blown
seeds germinated in the landslide
deposit and soon shrubs and grasses
1983
were growing. Elk, rodents, insects
and other animals followed the plants,
and today, 22 years after the eruption,
a thriving ecosystem exists. Groves of
box alder trees surround quiet ponds
in the landslide deposit, where a Source: Michael Poland, Research
thriving fir forest had stood before the Geophysicist, USGS - Cascades Volcano
eruption. The river valleys, which were Observatory
choked with mud and debris in 1980, Landsat imagery: Mark A. Ernste, UNEP
2000 still bear scars from the eruption, but Sioux Falls, USA
32
Pressures: case study
Avalanche in Peru
T
he increased risk from environ- total. The debris avalanche claimed
mental hazards in mountain around 18 000 lives, and the death toll
regions is exemplified by the from the earthquake was approxi-
long record of disaster and loss of life mately 48 000.
in the Cordillera Blanca, central Peru. Glacial lakes are sometimes
The vicinity of Yungay, southwest of the impacted by ice avalanches, and the
twin peaks of Huascarán, has been resulting floods are known in Peru as
affected by two catastrophic events aluviones. These can have similar
since the mid-20th century. effects to the glacial lake outburst
In 1962 an avalanche of rock, flood (GLOF) events (see page 41), but
ice and snow broke loose from the have a different origin. They occur with
higher, northern peak of 6 768 m, the little or no warning and are composed
highest point in Peru. Sweeping down of liquid mud, transporting large
the Río Santa valley, it wiped out boulders and ice blocks. These were a
several villages and killed more than component in the 1962 Huascarán
3 000 people. avalanche. More than 20 catastrophic
Less than a decade later, on flood events have been recorded since
31 May 1970, a severe earthquake the start of the 18th century, with
(magnitude 7.7 on the Richter scale) settlements being destroyed and many
occurred in the region. This induced lives lost.
a rock and snow avalanche, again The Peruvian Government has
originating from the northern peak of attempted to prevent or mitigate floods
Huascarán. The avalanche started as a from glacial lakes by artificially
sliding mass of glacial ice and rock draining them. Great care is needed to
about 1 500 m long. It grew rapidly in avoid uncontrolled outflow, and the
Figure 19: Aerial view of Yungay in
mass, picking up glacial debris as it very high elevation of 4 000 m or more 1962 and in 1970, when the town
sped downslope at an average speed makes construction work difficult. was destroyed by a debris
estimated to have been around 200 avalanche caused by earthquake
km/hr. The debris buried the towns
of Yungay and nearby Ranrahirca, Source: Walter Silverio, Remote Sensing
1962
about 15 km from its source, and Unit, University of Geneva; additional
eventually extended some 25 km in material, USGS
1970
Source area of
1970 avalanche,
Mount Huascarán
Extent of 1970
avalanche
Extent of 1962
avalanche
Yungay town
33
Mountain watch
> 50
6 – 50
1–5
Mountain region
F i re
F
ire has a major influence on the being used to rapidly convert extensive are not adapted to fire. Fires also have
structure, functioning and com- areas of forest to agriculture. a direct impact on human health, for
position of many ecosystems, Fire can be viewed as a example through the inhalation of
including grassland and forest significant agent of land use change, smoke and smog.
communities. Fires may arise nat- and the incidence of fire is often
urally through processes such as promoted by the development of SPATIAL DATA
lightning strikes and vulcanism. Fire infrastructure. The risk of a fire out- The fire maps are based on remote
also often forms part of traditional break is influenced by rainfall patterns sensing data provided by the ATSR
approaches to land management in and affected by land use practices. satellite, which measures thermal
some areas, for example fire may be Changes in livestock grazing, timber energy (Figure 20]. The data are ‘hot
used to promote the availability of food harvesting and fire suppression poli- spots’ detected at night during the
for grazing animals or to clear the cies can influence the frequency and three years from 1998 to 2000, at a
ground of vegetation prior to planting intensity of such outbreaks. Climate resolution of about 1 km2. A few
of agricultural crops. change is also likely to have a major sources of extreme heat such as
In recent years, fire has be- influence on the probability of fires industrial plants and oil rig flares are
come a major environmental issue on occurring in many areas. visible as well as the fires.
a global scale, following the extensive Fires can influence the provi- The satellite visits all areas at
fires in South America and Southeast sion of many ecosystem services, and least every three days. It visits those
Asia, and their potential impact on threaten biodiversity in those areas at higher latitudes more often, which
global climate. In these areas, fire is such as moist forests where species introduces a bias to the detection
34
Pressures: fire
Source: Copyright ESA 1999, ESA/ESRIN ATSR World Fire Atlas Project (algorithm 2), with support from the
IGBP-DIS Office
Figure 21: The Pacific coast of Mexico, showing fires in April 2002
Table 8: Percent of land
affected by fires in mountain
regions
REGION %
North and Central America 0.23
South America 0.12
Eurasia 0.20
Africa 0.53
Australasia and 0.16
Southeast Asia
Greenland 0.00
GLOBAL VALUES
% of all fires worldwide that 24
occur in mountain regions
35
Mountain watch
Mountain region
Climate change
he Earth’s climate has varied use, such as clearance of forest by vegetation that vary with altitude.
36
Pressures: climate change
Source: Runs used - CGCM1 GSa3: Boer et al. (2000); CCSR/NIES GSa1: Emori et al. (1999); CSIRO Mk2
GSa1: Hirst et al. (2000); GFDL-R15 Gsa1: Haywood et al. (1997); HadCM2 GSa1: Johns et al. (1997)
37
Mountain watch
Alpine plants
M
any of the models and markedly more plant species than
scenarios used to forecast when first studied. The additional
global climate change predict species were plants from lower ele-
that mountain regions will be strongly vations that had moved upslope to
affected by rising temperatures and invade the original vegetation.
changing rainfall patterns. However, In order to predict future
what climatic change will mean for changes and understand their impli-
mountain ecosystems is as yet poorly cations for individual species, the
understood. It is likely that species scientists have been conducting
distributions with respect to elevation detailed studies of plant distribution
will change, resulting in changing in a range of high altitude plant
patterns of biodiversity. It is thought communities. They have inventoried
that some species from lower ele- plants in 1 000 1-m squares on
vations will migrate to higher zones the slopes of Schrankogel (altitude
and that the plants of higher altitudes 3 497 m) in the eastern Alps. The
may be squeezed out by the arrival species composition and cover in the
of these invaders. However, because plots were analysed in relation to
such changes are slow, it is a difficult elevation, aspect and a number of
task to document them and determine topographical characteristics such as
their precise nature. slope and roughness.
Schrankogel, the site of Austrian
scientists’ detailed studies of plant
A team at the University of Based on the relationships of
distributions, rises to 3 497 m in the Vienna has used a variety of tools to species to particular plot charac-
Austrian Tyrol. clarify the changes that have occurred teristics, the scientists could predict
or may develop as a result of climate the distribution of individual species
change in the high altitude ecosystems over entire slopes. This showed that
of the eastern Alps. They resurveyed the transitional areas (ecotones)
plots on 30 alpine summits that were between different vegetation zones
first studied by scientists between had the highest plant diversity. Data
50 and 100 years ago and found that from the plots also showed that many
70 per cent of these areas now have species had very narrow tolerance
38
Pressures: case study
regarding topographic as well as predicted climate change on the of individual species would be affected
climatic conditions, and allowed the distributions of these conditions and by topographic barriers and variation
scientists to define an ‘environmental site characteristics and thus predict in distinctive ways.
envelope’ that described the growing the distribution of species after The models predict that mig-
conditions and preferred sites for each climatic change. The results showed ration of species from lower altitudes
individual mountain plant species. that particular vegetation types and will alter species richness in many
The scientists then used zones would not migrate upwards as parts of the mountain ecosystems.
computer models to test the effects of whole communities, but the response Upward migration of species from
alpine grasslands will increase
competition. Only small patches of the
Figure 24: The effects of climate change on species richness high altitude vegetation in the
roughest terrain will remain unaltered.
Species richness
Many high altitude species may be
Low
unable to migrate because of topo-
Temperature Medium
graphic constraints and may decline or
increase High
even die out because of increased
competition. Those higher altitude
species that are able to migrate
upwards may ‘run out of space’ on the
upper slopes.
Continued monitoring of the
+ 1.5° C
network of plots on Schrankogel will
provide detailed enough data to de-
tect such vegetation changes over a
decade, vastly enhancing our under-
standing in a relatively short time
Changes in plant communities
will almost certainly cause changes in
+ 1.0° C
other components of the ecosystems
that depend on them. Only by under-
standing and predicting such changes
can action be taken to mitigate them
and preserve these distinctive moun-
tain species and ecosystems.
Present
situation
39
Mountain watch
Retreating glaciers
D
uring the last ice age, glaciers reserves stored in the form of ice could
covered more than 30 per cent have significant impacts on water avai-
of the world’s land surface. With lability in the region, and could contri-
climatic warming over the sub- bute to landslide hazard.
sequent 12 000 years these have now
retreated to cover about 10 per cent of MOUNT KILIMANJARO
land. The mass of a glacier reflects the Reaching 5 963 metres above an undu-
balance between ice accumulation and lating savanna plain, Mount Kilimanjaro
melting. A continuous record of mass is Africa’s highest mountain. Named
balance data from the 1960s exists for ‘shining mountain’ after its charac-
about 40 glaciers, with less complete teristic icecap, visible from afar when
data for a few hundred. Such data, with sunlit, it is located 300 km south of the
historical records and recent satellite equator in northern Tanzania. Glaciers
observations, confirm that while a very on Mount Kilimanjaro are now much
few glaciers have increased in bulk, reduced, possibly a result of regional
most continue to retreat, and the rate warming linked to global climate
of retreat is accelerating in many change. In the 38 years between 1962
areas. This apparent increase may be and 2000, the glacier area was reduced
linked to a recent rise in global mean by about 55 per cent. Studies by the
temperature. Several cases of glacier Byrd Polar Research Center (Ohio
retreat in the European Alps and State University) suggest that the
North America are well documented; icecap has diminished by 82 per cent
two less familiar examples are profiled since it was first carefully surveyed in
The southeastern side of Kibo, the
highest peak of Kilimanjaro (top) and below. 1912. If this rate of loss continues, the
remnants of the eastern side of the entire icecap may disappear a couple
northern glacier of Kilimanjaro (above). CORDILLERA BLANCA of decades into the 21st century.
Records show that glaciers in the
Cordillera Blanca (Ancash, Peru) have Source: Cordillera Blanca: Walter
been shrinking since at least the 1970s, Silverio; Kilimanjaro: Christian
amounting to a decrease in area of Lambrechts, UNEP-DEWA
about 75 per cent over a 25-year Remote sensing image (bottom left):
period. This changing balance in water Walter Silvieri, University of Geneva
Figure 25: Remote sensing image of
the Pasto Ruri glacier, Huascarán Figure 26: The Kilimanjaro icecap in 1962 (yellow), and 2000 (black outline)
National Park, showing current ice
extent in pale blue, with larger 1987
area outlined in yellow
40
Pressures: case study
Figure 27: 1999 image of Tsho Rolpa, demonstrating how remote lakes can be
visualized by draping remote sensing data over a digital elevation model
Ice-cored area
Outlet
Canal
Ice-cored area
41
Mountain watch
To cropland
To grazing land
Mountain region
42
Pressures: land cover change
43
Mountain watch
Level of suitability
Moderate
Marginal
Very marginal
Mountain region
Agricultural suitability
S
uitability for agricultural pro- adjacent lowlands. In extreme cases of the economic viability of production
duction can be considered both land degradation people may be forced systems, and can lead directly to
as a potential service provided to leave the mountain region to seek major changes in land use. Urban
by mountain systems and a threat to alternative employment. development can have a major impact
existing biological diversity in moun- Agricultural intensification in- on land cover change in areas outside
tain regions. cludes greater use of existing land towns and cities by changing patterns
Soil erosion from mountain as well as conversion of new land. of consumption and increasing the
slopes can be rapid once the original The most productive lands are typically demand for resources.
vegetation cover is removed, par- cultivated first, with marginal lands
ticularly on sites where soils are being called upon when pressures SPATIAL DATA
immature with a low humus content. increase, for example in the Hindu The maps illustrate suitability for one
Complex terracing and irrigation sys- Kush-Himalaya region. type of agricultural production: rainfed
tems have been developed in many Intensification can be caused crops. Crop-specific limitations of
mountain regions to retain soil and both by land scarcity in developing climate, soil and terrain resources
water that would otherwise be lost economies and by population growth. were modelled under assumed levels
during cultivation. If deforestation In market economies, intensification of inputs and management conditions
upslope or an extreme event causes is driven by a combination of com- (Fischer et al. 2001). Yield calcula-
these systems to fail, devastating mercial opportunities and political tions for each map unit were then
floods can occur, affecting populations subsidies. Collapses in product mar- based on mapped climate and soil
both on the mountain slopes and in kets or subsidy programmes affect characteristics. The set of maps was
44
Pressures: agricultural suitability
Source: Data as Plate 46 (optimizing technology mix) from Fischer et al. (2000, 2001)
45
Mountain watch
Figure 31
46
Pressures: case study
47
Mountain watch
48
Pressures: case study
49
Mountain watch
C
hile’s extensive temperate biologically rich, the native temperate process are outlined below:
forests occur between 36.5° S forests are subject to high rates of
and 54° S, mainly on uplands, loss, especially through conversion to 1: Identify variables that may function
and isolated by physical and climatic plantations of exotic species, particu- as proximate causes for the conver-
barriers. Isolation has resulted in high larly of Pinus and Eucalyptus. sion of native forest to plantations;
endemism in plants and animals: If the impact of future conver- these include distance to nearest
almost 90 per cent of the 850-900 sion is to be minimized, it is important roads, soil type and climatic factors.
woody species in Chile are endemic to to identify high priority areas of native 2: Use existing land cover maps to
the temperate forest region. Although forest, defined as areas that are both assess spatial distribution of planta-
tion conversion in the recent past.
3: Develop a multivariate spatial
Figure 36: Chile’s forests and probability of conversion to plantation model of plantation conversion to
identify forest areas that are vul-
nerable to future conversion.
4: Generate a grid-based map output
(see Figure 36), with each grid cell
assigned a vulnerability rating repre-
senting the probability of conversion.
50
Pressures: case study
51
Mountain watch
Level of impact
High
Medium – high
Low – medium
Mountain region
I n f r a s t r u c t u re
E
conomic growth is often sup- which may suffer increased noise and has a major influence on patterns
ported by the development of air pollution. of land use. Road construction can
infrastructure, including con- Infrastructural development significantly increase the rate of forest
struction of roads, dams, pipelines can have significant negative environ- conversion to agricultural land, and
and other industrial features. Such mental impacts. Road construction can industrial development can alter the
developments can improve access to promote the overexploitation of natural role of different land uses in local
resources and link communities to resources and result in environmental economies. Infrastructure can also
markets, potentially improving live- degradation, for example through influence the likelihood of human
lihoods in the process. Road con- timber extraction and deforestation. conflict. Improved access can facilitate
struction facilitates the export of Roads can also increase immigration law enforcement in areas remote from
minerals, timber and other resources, into an area, resulting in increased use centres of government, but may also
increases access by tourists, and im- of resources, agricultural expansion lead to immigration and an increased
proves communication. and urban development. Dam con- risk of social tension.
However, the development of struction has major impacts on the Infrastructure can have a major
infrastructure in mountain areas is hydrology of mountain watersheds, and effect on biodiversity, as many species
often driven by the demands of lowland affects water flow and sedimentation are unable to disperse across features
economies and political needs. The downstream. Mineral extraction can such as roads and pipelines. Habitat
presence of major transit routes may lead to increased pollution, and some- fragmentation and the increased iso-
benefit people living outside mountain times causes social problems. lation of populations that results there-
areas more than local communities, Development of infrastructure fore increase the risk of extinction.
52
Pressures: infrastructure
53
Mountain watch
Agricultural area
Forest
Grassland, heathland
Water
54
Pressures: case study
Norway’s reindeer
O
ver thousands of years, the reduced and undisturbed sites far tional migration route for reindeer that
mountain landscape in Norway from development are overgrazed. As has now been interrupted by infra-
has been modified by subsis- infrastructural development continues, structure for more than 80 years.
tence activities. In the past 50 years a predators and prey become concen-
vast network of logging roads has trated in smaller fragments of former
penetrated the mountain forests. range, escalating both conflicts and
Extensive hydropower development management problems. The red fox
and mining have affected most moun- Vulpes vulpes, a small generalist
tains and drainage systems with an predator, has increased dramatically
extensive network of roads and in numbers, while the specialized
power lines. Arctic fox Alopex logopus is now
The cumulative impacts have threatened with extinction as a result
been substantial. By the end of the of range fragmentation and compe-
20th century, nearly 90 per cent of the tition from the red fox.
country was subject to the effects Decentralization of govern-
of infrastructure. More than 2 000 ment control appears to have reduced
cabins have been built annually since strategic planning, promoting piece-
the 1980s, resulting in extensive dis- meal development in favour of com-
turbance of wildlife in the mountain mercial and corporate interests, with
forests and subalpine areas. The resultant loss of wildlife habitats.
last remaining population of less Positive steps include a large reduc- Figure 40: Reindeer populations
than 30 000 wild mountain reindeer tion in sulphur (SO2) deposition from 10
Rangifer tarandus tarandus in Europe Europe, and the establishment of
8 Bulls
now share their range with the more national parks. The potential
Reindeer per km2
55
Mountain watch
High
Intermediate
Low
Conflict ellipse
Mountain region
Armed conflict
C
onflict may be considered en- Evidence suggests that civil wars, strife. Many mountain areas are also
demic to human society. Most rather than interstate wars, may be centres of narcotics production, which
conflicts are resolved by nego- more likely in mountain regions. can also lead to armed conflict. The role
tiation, bargaining or institutional Mountains give strategic advantage to that mountain regions play in water
processes. Violent conflict is relatively insurgents by providing places of provision may become the focus of
rare, but can result in serious environ- refuge. Mountainous terrain hinders increasing conflict in future.
mental impacts, as well as causing road building, thereby restricting law The environmental impacts of
substantial loss of human life. enforcement. A lack of infrastructure wars can be substantial. Military opera-
Conflicts arise for social, can therefore make insurgent civil war tions can directly result in environ-
political or economic reasons, but are more likely or prolonged. mental degradation, overexploitation
often triggered by some form of Conflicts can also arise over of natural resources and increased
injustice. However, the processes that competition for natural resources, pollution. Wars also often result in the
determine whether or not conflicts which intensifies as populations in- migration of large numbers of people,
become violent are poorly understood. crease and access to resources resulting in increased pressure on
Although many national boun- improves through the development of natural resources, for example around
daries occur within mountain regions infrastructure. In countries dependent refugee camps. Conflicts can also have
and can become the focus of interstate on natural resources for income, major impacts on biodiversity, as a
conflict, mountains also form a bar- competition between powerful elites result of habitat destruction, pollution,
rier to invasion, and are inherently over ‘lootable resources’ such as timber increased harvesting of species and
easier to defend than lowland areas. and minerals can lead to prolonged civil disruption of migration routes.
56
Pressures: armed conflict
Source: Based on PRIO/Uppsala Armed Conflict 1946-2001 v1.1; Buhaug and Gates (2002); Gleditsch et al. (2002)
57
Mountain watch
Afghanistan: post-conflict
T
he environment is often for- Administration in striving for political
gotten in post-conflict recovery stability, reconstruction, and the safe
plans, although it provides the return of millions of Afghan refugees.
foundation of human society and These refugees will need a sustainable
civilization. If the environment has resource base if repatriation is to
degraded to the point where eco- succeed.
system processes are impaired and More than 60 per cent of
services are no longer available, Afghanistan’s land surface consists of
reconstruction efforts are likely to fail mountains and hills. The core of the
no matter how much money and country is dominated by the Hindu
energy are put into the recovery effort. Kush range, with the Wakhan corridor
Without addressing the enor- extending northeast to the Pamirs.
mous direct human cost of the past This rugged terrain once held
three decades of armed conflict in important wild pistachio woodlands
Afghanistan, the broader environment and forests of spruce, pine, deodar,
has also suffered heavy damage from juniper and oak at higher elevations.
military activity, refugee movements, The forests have been important
Current reforestation schemes at overexploitation of natural resources, refuges for threatened wildlife
Bamian (above) and near Kabul and lack of management and insti- populations, including Asiatic black
(opposite), bring welcome shade and
tutional capacity. The past three bear, Persian leopard, Caspian tiger
greenery to a region with very little
tree cover. years of drought have added further and Bactrian deer, among larger
pressure. This presents an enormous mammals. These forests are highly
challenge to the Afghan people, over important not just in harbouring
80 per cent of whom live an agrarian biodiversity, but in restricting erosion
lifestyle and thus depend directly on in the steep and arid terrain, main-
natural resources for their survival. taining soil conditions, and sustaining
During the December 2001 Bonn the water table by slowing runoff.
negotiations, the international com- Unfortunately, Afghanistan is
Cut timber being transported through munity made a commitment to estimated to have lost up to 30 per
Konar Province, Afghanistan. support the post-conflict Afghan cent of its forests in the past two
decades, and the remaining frag-
mented forest patches may cover less
than 2 per cent of the country. Already
the Caspian tiger and Bactrian deer
are thought to have been lost from the
country, and many other species of
mammals and birds are undoubtedly
threatened with extinction. The forests
have been felled to provide wood
for heating, cooking and housing
construction. Some of the timber has
also been illegally cut and exported to
neighbouring countries for use as
building materials. Regeneration has
been hampered by soil erosion and
grazing pressure. Few of Afghanistan’s
remaining timber stands are within
existing protected areas, which only
cover about 1 per cent of the country
and have not had any management
58
Pressures: case study
Figure 43: Landmine-contaminated areas in Afghanistan, May 2002 Percent of settlements within 5 km of
areas contaminated with landmines
and unexploded ordnance (UXO)
0*
0 – 25
25 – 50
50 – 75
75 – 100
Province boundary
* 0 = no communities within
5 km of known/suspected
contaminated areas
59
Mountain watch
5–6
Mountain region
P re s s u re s
P
ressures causing environmental 5’ latitude-longitude resolution; those pressure. Ideally, in future analyses,
change in mountain areas can that differed from this were trans- the potential impacts of each pressure
have a greater impact in com- formed using GIS prior to the binary variable would be assessed to enable
bination than in isolation. Climate classification. The values from the six identification of those areas most
change, for example, may alter the binary maps were summed to give an vulnerable to environmental change.
probability of fire occurrence and its overall score of 0-6. This requires information on the
potential spread. Pressures can also One of the challenges of ability of a given area or ecosystem to
interact in unexpected ways: conflicts combining pressures is that each is tolerate the impact of the pressure
can decrease land conversion by assessed in a different way. The under consideration, but information
reducing opportunities for trade in pressures illustrated include a combi- of this kind is often lacking. It may in
agricultural goods or timber. nation of future scenarios (for climate future be possible to undertake such
To produce this preliminary change, infrastructural development analyses, and to integrate data on
assessment of areas of high combined and seismic hazard), and past or different approaches more effectively,
pressure in mountain regions, six present reality (fire and conflict) (see through the development and use of
global pressure maps presented in Table 15). The agricultural suitability modelling approaches. Analysis and
this report were reclassed as binary map defines areas that may be under presentation of the uncertainty asso-
data (i.e. a 1 value where each pres- pressure from conversion, but in the ciated with pressure data and model
sure was considered to be severe, and present preliminary analysis, does not outputs would also be of value to
a 0 value in all other locations; see distinguish between land already decision-makers.
Table 15). The maps generally had a converted and land subject to future Mountain areas are slightly
60
Integrated analysis: pressures
more likely to experience three or respectively). Results suggest that rience a combination of multiple pres-
more severe pressures than non- Eurasian mountains and those in sures over a larger percentage of land
mountain areas (24 and 23 per cent Australasia and Southeast Asia expe- area than other mountain regions.
61
Mountain watch
3 areas, 3 – 6 pressures
3 areas, 1 – 2 pressures
2 areas, 3 – 6 pressures
2 areas, 1 – 2 pressures
1 area, 3 – 6 pressures
1 area, 1 – 2 pressures
Mountain region
Synthesis
T
his analysis identified several the Chocó-Darién moist forests are history of logging and land conversion
areas of concern, which experi- also of highest concern. Habitat loss in for agriculture. There is some pro-
ence or are projected to undergo North-Western Andean forests is so tection in the form of National Parks,
at least three severe pressures, and far limited to low altitudes, but the and intact habitats are more commonly
fall within three priority areas for Magdaleña Valley forests in Colombia found on the higher slopes than in
biodiversity conservation. They are have undergone major deforestation. the lowlands.
located primarily in South America and Crucially, there are no protected areas The analysis presented here
Eurasia, with a third group in North in the Magdaleña Valley. should be considered as preliminary.
America, and constitute a very small Most of the Eurasian area falls Relatively few groups of organisms
proportion of total land area. within the Caucasian mixed forests were included in the assessment. As
The South American area falls ecoregion, with some in the Crimean Figure 15 shows, centres of diversity
largely within the North-Western submediterranean forest complex, or endemism for one group of orga-
Andean moist forest and Magdaleña which includes montane pine forest. nisms do not necessarily correspond
Valley dry and montane forest eco- This Crimean mountain area has with those of another. Therefore
regions, as defined by WWF (see http:// suffered from deforestation, but is still an additional set of areas of high
www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions). rich in endemic species. value would be expected were similar
These represent dry and moist mon- A third area of concern criteria applied to additional taxa.
tane forest ecosystems in North-West includes parts of four Californian Furthermore, components of bio-
South America. Some parts of sur- ecoregions, from chaparral to coastal diversity unique to mountains, such as
rounding montane ecoregions such as redwood forests. This area has a alpine plants, have not been explicitly
62
Integrated analysis: synthesis
considered here. As improved data relative biodiversity value, as presented ted or likely to be affected by different
become available on patterns of diver- here, could similarly be applied to pressures could be used as indicators
sity in other groups of species, they assessments of value based on cultural, of sustainable development.
could be incorporated into this assess- amenity or economic criteria. Assessing In future it would be useful to
ment. In addition, the approach here the value accorded to biodiversity by integrate data on pressures with other
focuses on species diversity, but does different stakeholders is increasingly values and services. These analytical
not consider other elements such as recognized as an important element of approaches could be applied to assess
genetic variation and ecosystems. sustainable development. the impacts of change on the provision
Biodiversity is a complex, multi- Furthermore, several pres- of water, forest resources or food.
faceted variable, which could be illus- sures of known significance for moun-
trated in many different ways. The most tain systems have not been included
important information required by in this analysis. Ideally, a measure Table 17: Percent of mountain
decision-makers is the identification of of deforestation risk would be used, land with three or more severe
areas of high value for biodiversity, so as would an assessment of suitability pressures and three values
that this information can be incor- for other agricultural practices such
porated into environmental planning. as grazing. Habitat fragmentation REGION %
The identification of high value areas and invasive species have not been in- North and Central America 0.19
at risk of environmental change, by cluded despite their importance for South America 0.70
combining pressure data with assess- biodiversity. Future analyses should Eurasia 0.13
ments of value, can assist in the incorporate comprehensive assess- Africa 0.04
prioritization of management action. ments of different pressures, including Australasia and 0.13
Southeast Asia
However, it should be noted that those of particular importance within
Greenland 0.00
biodiversity can be valued in many specific regions.
different ways. The simple scores of Assessments of the area affec-
63
Mountain watch
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
C
hapter 13 of Agenda 21 recog- Sustainable Development, which took appropriately to ensure that environ-
nizes the need to strengthen place in Johannesburg in 2002, deve- mental impacts are minimized. Ideally,
knowledge about the ecology loped a Plan of Implementation for an environmental impact assessment
and sustainable development of sustainable development of mountain would be carried out prior to dev-
mountain ecosystems, and to promote regions (see page 80). This section elopment taking place, and impacts
integrated watershed development highlights some approaches and tools should be monitored to enable
and alternative livelihood opportuni- that could be used by decision-makers management approaches to be adap-
ties in mountain areas. to work towards achieving these goals. ted appropriately. In some countries,
Implementation has been such assessment and monitoring is
led by the Food and Agriculture APPROACHES FOR SUSTAINABLE required by legislation.
Organization of the United Nations DEVELOPMENT In areas that have experienced
(FAO), in collaboration with a wide Development options that are par- environmental degradation as a result
range of partners. The Millennium ticularly important in mountain areas of inappropriate development or over-
Summit of September 2000 reaffirmed include tourism, mining, and develop- exploitation of resources, ecological
international commitment to sustain- ment of water and energy resources restoration or rehabilitation may be
able development and the elimination including dams. As with other required. The aim of restoration is to
of poverty, and defined the Millennium development options, such as agri- re-establish the key characteristics of
Development Goals, all of which cultural intensification and forest an ecosystem, such as composition,
are relevant to mountain areas. management, these approaches need structure and function, which were
Furthermore, the World Summit on to be planned and implemented present prior to the degradation taking
64
Sustainable development
place. Such restoration can signifi- applied to assess environmental con- resented spatially together with the
cantly improve the provision of eco- dition and trends, often by incor- likely environmental impacts of dif-
system services to people. A large porating remote sensing data. The ferent land use strategies, to indicate
number of restoration projects have global maps present spatial data on development domains, where particu-
now been initiated in different parts different pressures affecting mountain lar livelihood options are preferable.
of the world. In mountain areas, environments. Such analyses enable The definition of areas where potential
re-establishment of forest cover is areas at risk of environmental change environmental impacts and trade-offs
often a priority. For example, in the to be identified and considered as are particularly high is of critical
European Alps, reforestation is being priorities for action. For example, importance for ensuring that develop-
undertaken on a large scale to reduce areas of particular importance for ment decisions are environmentally
avalanche risk. biodiversity conservation that are sustainable.
threatened by infrastructural develop- Indicators summarizing com-
TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE ment might be prioritized for desig- plex data in relatively simple forms are
DEVELOPMENT nation as protected areas. now widely used to inform decision-
Geographical information systems GIS databases can be used making. Indicators can be developed
(GIS) are computer systems that can as decision support systems in a for different environmental pressures,
be used to assemble, analyse and number of other ways. Modelling ecosystem condition, impacts and
display geographically referenced approaches such as GLOBIO can be response measures, and can also be
information. GIS technology is of used to develop scenarios of possible used as a tool to monitor change over
particular value for resource manage- future change. These can be produced time. Many initiatives focusing on
ment and development planning, by for different management options, sustainable development have identi-
enabling maps to be produced incor- providing an assessment of possible fied the need for indicators to assist in
porating a variety of different data consequences. GIS tools can also be the assessment of policy implemen-
layers. This can support an integrated used to evaluate the potential of tation, and to provide practical tools for
approach to land use planning and different rural livelihood options. The resource managers. The methods of
development, which is a key require- factors considered important for rural analysing and presenting spatial data
ment for sustainable development. development, such as agricultural illustrated in this report provide a
The previous sections of this potential, access to markets and basis for the development of such
report illustrate how GIS can be population pressure, can be rep- indicators.
65
Mountain watch
Protected areas
Mountain region
P ro t e c t e d a re a s
he initial purpose of many INTERNATIONAL SYSTEMS natural, 16 mixed). Ramsar sites are
66
Protected areas
67
Mountain watch
68
GEF and mountains
catalyst to the implementation of especially important when people in but which are categorized under other
a more comprehensive, ecosystem- lowland and highland work together to operational programmes in the
based approach in managing inter- protect their watershed environment biodiversity focal area.
national waters, which includes res- and achieve sustainable development. Global projects, and other projects for
toring and maintaining mountain which it is difficult to indicate the project
ecosystems associated with inter- PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS area are not included. Locations are
national waters. The Bermejo River (POPS) AND LAND DEGRADATION approximate.
Binational Basin projects in Argentina Research has demonstrated a high
and Bolivia offer an example of GEF concentration of POPs in some remote
International Waters activities in mountain lakes. GEF has been desig-
mountains. nated as the interim financial mecha-
nism for the Stockholm Convention on
INTEGRATED ECOSYSTEM Persistent Organic Pollutants, and
MANAGEMENT supports governments in preparing
GEF has started to catalyse wide- national implementation plans. GEF
spread adoption of comprehensive has also been financing activities to
ecosystem management interventions prevent and control land degradation,
that integrate ecological, economic cutting across the focal areas des-
and social goals to achieve multiple cribed above. In late 2002, the addition
and cross-cutting benefits. Typical of POPs and land degradation as GEF
GEF activities may include: improved focal areas was expected to enhance
management of a forested watershed GEF’s holistic support of mountain
to achieve multiple benefits, including regions.
improvements in soil and water
conservation; aquatic biodiversity Note: The map above only includes:
conservation; flood control, minimi- (a) GEF's large and medium-sized
zation of sedimentation of globally projects categorized under GEF
important water bodies; and reduction mountain ecosystem operational
of net emissions or improved storage programme OP N°4
of greenhouse gases. This integrated (b) GEF large and medium-sized
ecosystem management approach is projects whose area includes mountains,
69
Mountain watch
Annapurna, Nepal
N
epal is centrally located in the and management of protected areas
Himalaya chain, and mountain have traditionally been government
ecosystems cover about 77 per responsibilities, the Annapurna Con-
cent of the country, supporting 52 per servation Area is, for the first time
cent of the human population. Nine in Nepal, managed by a national
of the world’s 14 recognized peaks non-governmental organization – the
rising above 8 000 m are within or King Mahendra Trust for Nature
border Nepal, and many rare species Conservation. The Annapurna Conser-
occur, such as the snow leopard vation Area extends over 7 629 km2.
and Himalayan thar. Nepal is a low- The rationale behind the
income country, ranked by the United project is to link conservation directly
Nations as among the 49 ‘least with quality-of-life issues and the
developed countries’, and has among basic human needs of the people
the lowest scores in the United living in an environmentally sensitive
Nations Development Programme’s mountain region. ACAP promotes
Human Development Index. environmentally sound multiple land
Most people in the mountains use, incorporating traditional methods
depend on forests for fuel, fodder, of resource utilization and animal
timber and medicine. Traditional husbandry.
energy sources, notably firewood and This integrated bottom-up
agricultural residues, respectively approach to resource management
supply about 75 per cent and 20 per distinguishes the Annapurna Conser-
cent of the total energy demand in the vation Area from many other environ-
country. Poverty and high dependence mental protection programmes. A
on firewood as the source of energy fundamental element in ACAP is that
for cooking and heating have caused instead of relying on legislation and
deterioration in the quality and quan- force to exclude people, as in many
tity of forest cover and often contri- protected areas elsewhere, the local
buted to soil degradation, erosion, communities are actively involved in
landslides and flooding. The rate of conservation and development work
population growth and lack of liveli- toward long-term biodiversity conser-
hood options in villages are two of the vation goals. Community needs, such
factors underlying pressure on forest as drinking water, health, schools
resources. The mountain ecosystem is and trail maintenance, are carefully
also affected by improper development integrated into the development
interventions, high out-migration and, programme.
at present, insecurity caused by insur- At present, ACAP is one of
gence and political instability. the most frequently cited models in
Various past initiatives have protected area management. The
tried to address these issues, especially success of this approach was formally
poverty, population growth and the recognized by the Nepal Government,
environment in mountain ecosystems, which took a bold step in amending
but there remains a need to learn from the existing 1973 National Park and
these experiences and modify current Wildlife Conservation Act N° 2029
initiatives accordingly. The Annapurna with development of a new conser-
Conservation Area Project (ACAP) in vation area regulation 1996 (KMTNC
Nepal attempts to build on past 1996) and supporting guidelines 1999
experience in a way that emphasizes (KMTNC 1999). The establishment of
the needs and aspirations of the local two new conservation areas suggests
community. Although the creation that this community-based conser-
70
Case study
China (Tibet)
Annapurna Conservation
Area Project
Environmental research
Nepal Manaslu Conservation and monitoring in the
Area Project Annapurna Conservation
Area is supported by the
Darwin Initiative
Bardia Pokhara
Conservation Kathmandu
Program Central Zoo
Nepal Conservation
Research and Training
Center
National Park India
Conservation Area 200 km
71
Mountain watch
Table 19: Interventions in cropland in the caseríos of La Torre and Shirac Figure 50: Classified slope map
for Asunción watershed
CASERÍO ANNUAL CROPPING AREA (HA) Slope (%)
Intervention Infiltration Sloping Create Create 0–5 15 – 40
not ditches terraces permanent permanent 5 – 15 > 40
recommended ground ground Shirac
cover with cover for
restricted use protection
La Torre 41 35 127 0 17
(La Encañada)
Shirac 6 39 8 0 106
(Asunción)
2 km
72
Case study
I
n part because of its location in monitoring of different aspects of
northern South America, Colombia representative, effective and viable the region’s biodiversity, emphasizing
is exceptionally rich in biodiversity Andean protected area system; information for decision-making.
(one of the world’s five ‘megadiversity’ ● identify conservation opportunities
countries), and the Andes is the richest in rural landscapes;
region. Some 21 distinct ecosystem ● develop and promote management
types differ markedly in altitude, cli- tools for biodiversity conservation;
mate and geology, tending to isolate ● expand, organize and disseminate
populations in valleys and mountain the knowledge base on biodiversity in
tops, resulting in very high rates of the Andes to a wide audience of
endemism. stakeholders and policy-makers and
Although the biological diver- implement monitoring tools;
sity of the region remains incompletely ● promote intersectoral strategies to
documented, about two-thirds of the address some root causes of bio-
area is highly affected by human diversity loss in the Andes.
activities; some ecosystem types are
now greatly reduced in extent, and One project component will promote
many species are at risk. consolidation of Colombia's national
The Global Environment Facility protected areas system in the Andean
(GEF) is supporting an ambitious region, and support planning for
project, focusing on the conservation conservation zones and management
and sustainable use of biodiversity in in priority protected areas. A second
the Andean Region of Colombia, with will address the conservation and
implementation over a six-year period sustainable use of biodiversity in rural
led by the Alexander von Humboldt landscapes, a crucial component for
Research Institute (Instituto de Inves- an integrated strategy for the Andean
tigación de Recursos Biológicos region. Some ecosystem types and
Alexander von Humboldt). The project threatened species are found only in
launches Colombia's National Bio- landscapes already modified by agri-
diversity Policy and Proposed Action cultural practices near and around the
Plan, prepared within the framework protected areas. The third component Source: Juan Pablo Ruiz Soto, Natural
of the Convention on Biological will support and expand existing Resources Management Specialist,
Diversity, and aims to: efforts to improve knowledge and LCSES-Colombia LO, GEF
73
Mountain watch
74
Mountain watch
75
Mountain watch
Mountain Laws and Peoples: POLICIES AND CONVENTIONS UNESCO in the Mountains of the
Moving Towards Sustainable UN Division of Sustainable World. An overview of the principal
Development and Recognition of Development UNESCO programmes operating in
Community-Based Property Rights. The text of Chapter 13, Agenda 21 – mountain regions
Synthesis of an electronic managing fragile ecosystems: http://valhalla.unep-wcmc.org/
conference, 1998 sustainable mountain development unesco/index.htm
http://www.mtnforum.org/ http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/
resources/library/mlp_01.htm agenda21chapter13.htm Banff Centre for Mountain Culture
http://www.banffcentre.ab.ca/cmc/
Community-Based Mountain Sustainable mountain development.
Tourism: Practices for Linking The state of implementation of CIPRA: Commission Internationale
Conservation with Enterprise. Chapter 23 of Agenda 21, on pour la Protection des Alpes
Synthesis of an electronic sustainable mountain development http://www.cipra.org/
conference,1998 http://www.un.org/documents/
http://www.mtnforum.org/ ecosoc/cn17/2000/
resources/library/cbmt_01.htm ecn172000-6add3.htm
76
Mountain watch
Bibliography
SELECTED PUBLICATIONS ON MOUNTAIN Mountain Agenda. 2000. Boer, G.J., Flato, G.M., Reader, M.C.
ECOSYSTEMS AND ISSUES Mountains of the World: Mountain and Ramsden, D. 2000.
Allen, N.J.R. (ed). 1995. Forests and Sustainable Development. A transient climate change simulation
Mountains at Risk: Current Issues Mountain Agenda group, Centre for with greenhouse gas and aerosol
in Environmental Studies. Development and Environment (CDE), forcing: experimental design and
Manohar Publishers and Distributors, University of Berne. comparison with the instrumental
New Delhi. record for the twentieth century.
Mountain Agenda. 2001. Climate Dynamics 16(6): 405-425.
Funnell, D. and Parish, R. 2001. Mountains of the World: Mountains,
Mountain Environments and Energy and Transport. Buhaug, H. and Gates, S. 2002.
Communities. Mountain Agenda group, Centre for The Geography of Civil War.
Routledge, London and New York. Development and Environment (CDE), Journal of Peace Research 39(4):
University of Berne. 417–433.
Körner, Ch. and Spehn, E.M. 2002.
Mountain Biodiversity: A Global Mountain Agenda. 2002. Carter, T.R., Hulme, M. and Lal, M.
Assessment. Mountains of the World: Sustainable 1999.
The Parthenon Publishing Group, Development in Mountain Areas: The Guidelines on the use of scenario data
London and New York. Need for Adequate Policies and for climate impact and adaptation
Instruments. assessment v1. [online].
Messerli, B. and Ives, J.D. (eds). 1997. Mountain Agenda group, Centre for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Mountains of the World: A Global Development and Environment (CDE), Change, Task Group on Scenarios for
Priority. University of Berne. Climate Impact Assessment.
The Parthenon Publishing Group, Available from:
London and New York. Price, M.F., Mather, T.H. and http://ipcc-ddc.cru.uea.ac.uk/
Robertson, E.C. 1999. cru_data/support/guidelines.html
Mountain Agenda. 1997. Global Change in the Mountains. Accessed 30 Aug 2002.
Mountains of the World: Challenges The Parthenon Publishing Group,
for the 21st Century. London and New York. Dunbar, P. 2002.
Mountain Agenda group, Centre for NGDC Volcano Database.
Development and Environment (CDE), MAIN DATA SOURCES FOR Available from:
University of Berne. PRESSURES SECTION http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/
Arino, O. and Plummer, S. 1999. hazard/vol_srch.shtml
Mountain Agenda. 1998. Along Track Scanning Radiometer Last accessed 22 Aug 2002.
Mountains of the World: Water Towers World Fire Atlas. Validation of the
for the 21st Century. Mountain Agenda 1997-98 Active Fire Product. Dunbar, P.K., Lockridge, P.A. and
group, Centre for Development and European Space Agency, ESRIN, Whitewide, L.S. 1998.
Environment (CDE), University of Frascati, Italy. 67pp. [online] Catalog of Significant Earthquakes
Berne. Available from: 2150 B.C.-1991 A.D. (with addendum
http://shark1.esrin.esa.it/ionia/FIRE/ through 1998) Including Quantitative
Mountain Agenda. 1999. DOCS/validation_report.pdf Casualties and Damage. [online]
Mountains of the World: Tourism and Accessed 30 July 2002. National Geophysical Data Center,
Sustainable Mountain Development. NOAA, Boulder, USA.
Mountain Agenda group, Centre for Available from:
Development and Environment (CDE), http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/
University of Berne. hazard/sigintro.shtml
Accessed 30 Aug 2002.
77
Mountain watch
Emori, S., Nosawa, S., Abe-Ouchi, A., Goldewijk, K.K. 2001. UNEP. 2002.
Numaguti, A., Kimoto, M. and Estimating global land use change Global Environment Outlook 3
Nakajima, J.N. 1999. over the past 300 years: The HYDE (GEO-3).
Coupled ocean-atmosphere model Database. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London,
experiments of future climate change Global Biochemical Cycles 15: UK: 416 pp.
with an explicit representation of 417-433.
sulfate aerosol scattering. WWF. 2001.
Journal of the Meteorological Society Haywood, J.M., Stouffer, R.J., Comoros forests. [online]
of Japan 77(6): 1299-1307. Wetherald, R.T., Manabe, S. and Available from:
Ramaswamy, V. 1997. http://www.worldwildlife.org/
Fischer, G., van Velthuizen, H., Transient response of a coupled wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/
Nachtergaele, F.O. and Medow, S. model to estimated changes in at0105_full.html
2000. greenhouse gas and sulphate Accessed 20 Sept 2002.
Global Agro-Ecological Zoning (GAEZ) concentrations.
2000 CD-ROM. FAO/IIASA, Geophysical Research Letters 24(11): OTHER SOURCES CITED
Rome/Laxenburg, Italy/Austria. 1335-1338. Aldrich, M., Billington, C., Edwards,
Available from: M. and Laidlaw, R. 1997.
http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/ Hirst, A.C., O’Farrell, S.P. and A Global Directory of Tropical
LUC/GAEZ/index.htm Gordon, H.B. 2000. Montane Forests (Draft)
Accessed 19 Aug 2002. Comparison of a coupled ocean- World Conservation Monitoring
atmosphere model with and without Centre, Cambridge, UK.
Fischer, G., van Velthuizen, H.T. and oceanic eddy-induced advection. Unpublished. 268 pp.
Shah, M. 2001. Part I: Ocean spinup and control
Global Agro-ecological Assessment integrations. Draulans, D. and van Krunkelsven, E.
for Agriculture in the 21st Century: Journal of Climate 13(1): 139-163. 2002.
Methodology and Results. IIASA The impact of war on forest areas in
Research Report RR-02-02. Johns, T.C., Carnell, R.E, the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Available from: Crossley, J.F., Gregory, J.M., Oryx 36(1): 35-40.
http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/ Mitchell, J.F.B., Senior, C.A.,
LUC/Papers/gaea.pdf Tett, S.F.B. and Wood, R.A. 1997. Duellman, W.E. (ed) 1999.
Accessed 19 Aug 2002. The second Hadley Centre coupled Patterns of distribution of
ocean-atmosphere GCM: Model amphibians: a global perspective.
Giardini, D., Grünthal, G., Shedlock, K. description, spinup and validation. John Hopkins University Press,
and Zhang, P. 1999 Climate Dynamics 13(2): 103-134. Baltimore, USA.
GSHAP Global Seismic Hazard Map
[online]. Available from: Lambin, E. et al. 2001. Ethnologue. 2001.
http://seismo.ethz.ch/GSHAP/global/ The causes of land-use and land- Ethnologue language name index.
Accessed 05 Sept 2002. UN/IDNDR. cover change: moving beyond Available from:
the myths. http://www.ethnologue.com/
Gleditsch, N.P., Wallensteen, P., Global Environmental Change 11: language_index.asp.
Eriksson, M., Sollenberg, M. and 261-269. SIL International, Dallas, USA.
Strand, H. 2002.
Armed Conflict 1946-2000: A New Loveland, T.R. and Belward, A.S. IFPRI. 2001.
Dataset. 1997. Assessment of strategic land use
Journal of Peace Research 39(5): The IGBP-DIS global 1km land cover options for Uganda.
615-637. data set, DISCover: first results. Phase I draft completion report.
Dataset available from: International Journal of Remote IFPRI, Washington, DC, USA.
http://www.prio.no/cwp/Armed Sensing 18: 3289-3295.
Conflict/
78
Mountain watch
Rzedowski, J. 1996.
Análisis preliminar de la flora
vascular de los bosques mesofilos de
montaña de México.
Acta Botanica Mexicana 35:25-44.
79
Mountain watch
Plan of Implementation
Paragraph 40
« Mountain ecosystems support particular livelihoods, and include significant watershed resources, biological diversity
and unique flora and fauna. Many are particularly fragile and vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change and
need specific protection. Actions at all levels are required to:
a develop and promote programmes, policies and approaches that integrate environmental, economic and social
components of sustainable mountain development and strengthen international cooperation for its positive impacts on
poverty eradication programmes, especially in developing countries;
b implement programmes to address, where appropriate, deforestation, erosion, land degradation, loss of
biodiversity, disruption of water flows and retreat of glaciers;
c develop and implement, where appropriate, gender-sensitive policies and programmes, including public and
private investments that help eliminate inequities facing mountain communities;
d implement programmes to promote diversification and traditional mountain economies, sustainable livelihoods
and small-scale production systems, including specific training programmes and better access to national and
international markets, communications and transport planning, taking into account the particular sensitivity of
mountains;
e promote full participation and involvement of mountain communities in decisions that affect them and integrate
indigenous knowledge, heritage and values in all development initiatives;
f mobilize national and international support for applied research and capacity-building, provide financial and
technical assistance for the effective implementation of sustainable development of mountain ecosystems in developing
countries and countries with economies in transition, and address the poverty among people living in mountains through
concrete plans, projects and programmes, with sufficient support from all stakeholders, taking into account the spirit of
the International Year of Mountains 2002.»
80