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Mathematical Preliminaries
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Mathematical Preliminaries
Sets
Functions
Relations
Graphs
Proof Techniques
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} 3 , 2 , 1 { = A
A set is a collection of elements
SETS
} , , , { airplane bicycle bus train B =
We write
A 1
B shipZ
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Set Representations
C = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k }
C = { a, b, , k }
S = { 2, 4, 6, }
S = { j : j > 0, and j = 2k for some k>0 }
S = { j : j is nonnegative and even }
finite set
infinite set
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A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
Universal Set: all possible elements
U = { 1 , , 10 }
1
2
3
4
5
A
U
6
7
8
9
10
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Set Operations
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}
Union
A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
Intersection
A B = { 2, 3 }
Difference
A - B = { 1 }
B - A = { 4, 5 }
U
A
B
2
3
1
4
5
2
3
1
Venn diagrams
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A
Complement
Universal set = {1, , 7}
A = { 1, 2, 3 } A = { 4, 5, 6, 7}
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
A
A = A
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0
2
4
6
1
3
5
7
even
{ even integers } = { odd integers }
odd
Integers
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DeMorgans Laws
A U B = A B
U
A B = A U B
U
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Empty, Null Set:
= { }
S U = S
S =
S - = S
- S =
U
= Universal Set
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Subset
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A B
U
Proper Subset: A B
U
A
B
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Disjoint Sets
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 5, 6}
A B =
U
A B
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Set Cardinality
For finite sets
A = { 2, 5, 7 }
|A| = 3
(set size)
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Powersets
A powerset is a set of sets
Powerset of S = the set of all the subsets of S
S = { a, b, c }
2
S
= { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }
Observation: | 2
S
| = 2
|S|
( 8 = 2
3
)
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Cartesian Product
A = { 2, 4 } B = { 2, 3, 5 }
A X B = { (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), ( 4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5) }
|A X B| = |A| |B|
Generalizes to more than two sets
A X B X X Z
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FUNCTIONS
domain
1
2
3
a
b
c
range
f : A -> B
A B
If A = domain
then f is a total function
otherwise f is a partial function
f(1) = a
4
5
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Let A & B be sets. A binary relation R from A to B
R = {(x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
), (x
3
, y
3
), }
Where and
R A x B
x
i
R y
i
to denote
e. g. if R = >: 2 > 1, 3 > 2, 3 > 1
RELATIONS
A x
i
B y
i

R b a ) , (
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Equivalence Relations
Reflexive: x R x
Symmetric: x R y y R x
Transitive: x R y and y R z x R z
Example: R = =
x = x
x = y y = x
x = y and y = z x = z
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Equivalence Classes
For equivalence relation R
equivalence class of x = {y : x R y}
Example:
R = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 4), (3, 4), (4, 3) }
Equivalence class of 1 = {1, 2}
Equivalence class of 3 = {3, 4}
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GRAPHS
A directed graph
Nodes (Vertices)
V = { a, b, c, d, e }
Edges
E = { (a,b), (b,c), (b,e),(c,a), (c,e), (d,c), (e,b), (e,d) }
node
a
b
c
d
e
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Labeled Graph
a
b
c
d
e
1
3
5
6
2
6
2
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Walk
a
b
c
d
e
Walk is a sequence of adjacent edges
(e, d), (d, c), (c, a)
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Path
a
b
c
d
e
Path is a walk where no edge is repeated
Simple path: no node is repeated
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Cycle
a
b
c
d
e
1
2
3
Cycle: a walk from a node (base) to itself
Simple cycle: only the base node is repeated
base
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Euler Tour
a
b
c
d
e
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
base
A cycle that contains each edge once
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Hamiltonian Cycle
a
b
c
d
e
1
2
3
4
5
base
A simple cycle that contains all nodes
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Finding All Simple Paths
a
b
c
d
e
origin
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(c, a)
(c, e)
Step 1
a
b
c
d
e
origin
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(c, a)
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
Step 2
a
b
c
d
e
origin
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Step 3
a
b
c
d
e
origin
(c, a)
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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Step 4
a
b
c
d
e
origin
(c, a)
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e), (e,d)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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Trees
root
leaf
parent
child
Trees have no cycles
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root
leaf
Level 0
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Height 3
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Binary Trees
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PROOF TECHNIQUES
Proof by induction
Proof by contradiction
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Induction
We have statements P
1
, P
2
, P
3
,
If we know
for some b that P
1
, P
2
, , P
b
are true
for any k >= b that
P
1
, P
2
, , P
k
imply P
k+1
Then
Every P
i
is true
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Proof by Induction
Inductive basis
Find P
1
, P
2
, , P
b
which are true
Inductive hypothesis
Lets assume P
1
, P
2
, , P
k
are true,
for any k >= b
Inductive step
Show that P
k+1
is true
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Example
Theorem: A binary tree of height n
has at most 2
n
leaves.
Proof by induction:
let L(i) be the maximum number of
leaves of any subtree at height i
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We want to show: L(i) <= 2
i
Inductive basis
L(0) = 1 (the root node)
Inductive hypothesis
Lets assume L(i) <= 2
i
for all i = 0, 1, , k
Induction step
we need to show that L(k + 1) <= 2
k+1
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Induction Step
From Inductive hypothesis: L(k) <= 2
k
height
k
k+1
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L(k) <= 2
k
L(k+1) <= 2 * L(k) <= 2 * 2
k
= 2
k+1
Induction Step
height
k
k+1
(we add at most two nodes for every leaf of level k)
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Remark
Recursion is another thing
Example of recursive function:
f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)
f(0) = 1, f(1) = 1
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Proof by Contradiction
We want to prove that a statement P is true
we assume that P is false
then we arrive at an incorrect conclusion
therefore, statement P must be true
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Example
Theorem: is not rational
Proof:
Assume by contradiction that it is rational
= n/m
n and m have no common factors
We will show that this is impossible
2
2
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= n/m 2 m
2
= n
2
Therefore, n
2
is even
n is even
n = 2 k
2 m
2
= 4k
2
m
2
= 2k
2
m is even
m = 2 p
Thus, m and n have common factor 2
Contradiction!
2
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Languages
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A language is a set of strings
String: A sequence of letters
Examples: cat, dog, house,
Defined over an alphabet:
, z c b a , , , , - = L
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Alphabets and Strings
We will use small alphabets:
Strings
abba w
bbbaaa v
ab u
=
=
=
, b a, = L
b aaabbbaaba
baba
abba
ab
a
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String Operations
m
n
b b b v
a a a w
.
.
2 1
2 1
=
=
bbbaaa
abba
m n
b b b a a a wv . .
2 1 2 1
=
Concatenation
abbabbbaaa
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1 2
a a a w
n
R
. =
n
a a a w .
2 1
=
ababaaabbb
Reverse
bbbaaababa
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String Length
Length:
Examples:
n
a a a w .
2 1
=
n w =
1
2
4
=
=
=
a
aa
abba
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Length of Concatenation
Example:
v u uv =
8 5 3
8
5 ,
3 ,
= = =
= =
= =
= =
v u uv
aababaab uv
v abaab v
u aab u
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Empty String
A string with no letters:
Observations:
I P,
abba abba abba
w w w
= =
= =
=
P P
P P
P 0
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Substring
Substring of string:
a subsequence of consecutive characters
String Substring
bbab
b
abba
ab
abbab
abbab
abbab
abbab
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Prefix and Suffix
Prefixes Suffixes
abbab
abbab
abba
abb
ab
a
P
P
b
ab
bab
bbab
abbab
uv w=
prefix
suffix
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Another Operation
Example:
Definition:

.
n
n
w ww w =
) abbaabba abba =
2
P =
0
w
) P =
0
abba
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The * Operation
: the set of all possible strings from
alphabet
* L
L
,
, - , , , , , , , , , *
,
aab aaa bb ba ab aa b a
b a
P = L
= L
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The + Operation
: the set of all possible strings from
alphabet except

L
L
,
, - , , , , , , , , , *
,
aab aaa bb ba ab aa b a
b a
P = L
= L
P L = L

*
, - , , , , , , , , aab aaa bb ba ab aa b a = L

P
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Languages
A language is any subset of
Example:
Languages:
* L
,
, - , , , , , , , , *
,
aaa bb ba ab aa b a
b a
P = L
= L
,
,
} , , , , , {
, ,
aaaaaa ab aa baba abba
aab aa a
P
P
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Note that:
} { } { P { =
0 } { = =
1 } { = P
0 = P
Sets
Set size
Set size
String length
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Another Example
An infinite language
} 0 : { u = n b a L
n n
aaaaabbbbb
aabb
ab
P
L L abbZ
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Operations on Languages
The usual set operations
Complement:
, ,
, ,
, , , aaaa a ab bb aaaa ab a
ab ab bb aaaa ab a
aaaa bb ab a ab bb aaaa ab a
, , , ,
} { , , ,
} , , , { , , ,
=
=
=
+
7
L L L = *
, , - , , , , , , , aaa bb ab aa b ba a P =
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Reverse
Definition:
Examples:
} : { L w w L
R R
=
, , abab baa ba baba aab ab
R
, , , , =
} 0 : {
} 0 : {
u =
u =
n a b L
n b a L
n n R
n n
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Concatenation
Definition:
Example:
,
2 1 2 1
, : L y L x xy L L =
, ,
, baaa bab abaa abb aaa ab
aa b ba ab a
, , , , ,
, , ,
=
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Another Operation
Definition:
Special case:

.
n
n
L LL L =
, , , ,
, bbb bba bab baa abb aba aab aaa
b a b a b a b a
, , , , , , ,
, , , ,
3
= =
,
, , P
P
=
=
0
0
, , aaa bba a
L
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More Examples
} 0 : { u = n b a L
n n
} 0 , : {
2
u = m n b a b a L
m m n n
2
L aabbaaabbb
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Star-Closure (Kleene *)
Definition:
Example:
. 7 7
2 1 0
* L L L L =
,

,
|
=
- , , , ,
, , , ,
, ,
,
* ,
abbbb abba aabb aaa
bbbb bba abb aa
bb a
bb a
P
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Positive Closure
Definition:
, P =
=

*
2 1
L
L L L . 7 7
,

,
|
=

- , , , ,
, , , ,
, ,
,
abbbb abba aabb aaa
bbbb bba abb aa
bb a
bb a