Chapter One Matter and Life Chem100 General & Consumer Chemistry Natural Sciences Department College of Science

& Information Technology 1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science Chemistry is often referred to as The Central Science because it is crucial to all other sciences. Chapter Two .Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space things you can see, touch, taste, or smell. .Property: a characteristic that can be used to describe a substance. Size, color, temperature are most familiar properties of matter. Less familiar properties include: Chemical composition: what matter is made of. Chemical Reactivity: how matter behaves. . Physical Change: Does not alter the chemical makeup of a substance. Change is reversible. Melting of solid ice is a physical change. In this case only change in form takes place and the change is reversible. . Chemical Change: Alters chemical makeup of a substance. Change is irreversible. Rusting of iron is a chemical change. Here, iron combines with oxygen and produces a new substance rust. 1.2 States of Matter Matter exist in three forms: solid, liquid, and gas. Solid: A substance that has a definite shape and volume. Liquid: A substance that has a definite volume but that changes shape to fill the container. Gas: A substance that has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. Many substances, such as water, can exist in all three states depending on the temperature. The conversion of a substance from one state into another is known as change of state. The three states - the solid state, the liquid state, and the gaseous state - of water are shown in Figure 1.3 below. 1.3 Classification of Matter . Pure Substance: Uniform in its chemical composition and properties. Sugar and water are pure substances. . Mixture: Composition and properties may vary. Different amounts of sugar dissolved in water will determine sweetness of water. Sugar water is an example of a mixture. .Chemical Compounds: Substance that can be broken down into simpler substances. Water is a chemical compound since it can be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen by passing electric current through it. .Element: Substance that can not be broken down chemically into simpler substances.

Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen are example of elements. 1.4 An Example of a Chemical Reaction When the element nickel, a solid metal, is mixed with a colorless solution of hydrochloric acid in a test tube, the nickel is slowly eaten away, the colorless solution turns green, and a colorless gas bubbles out of the test tube. Ni(s) + HCl(aq) .. NiCl2(aq) + H2. 1.5 Chemical Elements and Symbols 115 Elements are known until today. Only 90 of these elements occur naturally, remaining are produced artificially by chemists and physicist. . Some familiar elements are iron, tin, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, etc. . Some unfamiliar elements are niobium, rhodium, thulium, californium etc. Chapter Two 14 Each element has its own unique symbol. One or two letter symbols are used to represent elements. First letter is always capitalized and the second letter is always a lower case. Some symbols came from elements modern name such as H. for hydrogen, O. for oxygen, N. for nitrogen, etc.

.A few symbols for elements are derived from their Latin names. For example, Na. for sodium came from its Latin name Natrium. .All naturally occurring elements are not equally abundant. Oxygen and silicon together constitute 75% of the earth.s crust. .Chemical Formula: A notation for chemical compound using element symbols and subscripts to show how many atoms of each element are present. The formula for water is H2O. H2O indicates that two hydrogen and one oxygen combined together to produce water. When no subscript is given for an element a subscript of 1. is understood. 1.6 Elements and the Periodic Table Periodic Table, shown below, is a representation of 113 elements in a tabular format. Large amounts of information regarding the properties of elements is embedded in periodic table. Elements are roughly divided into 3 groups

. Metals . Nonmetals . Metalloids Metals, nonmetals, and metalloids appear in distinct places on the periodic table Metals: 89 of the 115 elements are metals. They appear on the left side of the Periodic Table. Some common properties of metals are: .Solid at room temperature (except mercury which is a liquid) .Good conductor of heat .Good conductor of electricity .Malleable .Ductile Nonmetals: Appear on the right side of the Periodic Table. 17 elements are nonmetals. Nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Out of these 17 nonmetal elements Eleven are gases at room temperature (H, N, O, etc.) Five are solids (sulfur) One is a liquid (bromine). Metalloids: Appears between metals on the left side and nonmetals on the right side on the periodic table. Their properties are between metals and nonmetals. Boron, silicon, arsenic are examples of some of the metalloids. . Chemistry is the study of matter. . Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. . Physical change does not alter the chemical makeup of a substance. Change is reversible. . Chemical change alters chemical makeup of a substance. Change is irreversible. . Pure substances have uniform chemical composition and properties. . Composition and properties of a mixture may vary. . Substance that can be broken down into simpler substances is a chemical compound. . Substance that can not be broken down chemically into simpler substances is known as an element. . Elements are represented by one or two letter symbols. First letter is always capitalized and the second letter is always a lower case. Chapter Summary Contd. . Chemical Formula is a notation for chemical compound to show how many atoms of each element are present. . Periodic Table is a representation of 115 elements in a tabular format. . Elements are roughly divided into 3 groups Metals Nonmetals Metalloids Chapter Two Measurements in

Chemistry Chem100: General & Consumer Chemistry Natural Sciences Department College of Science & Information Technology 2.1 Physical Quantities Physical properties such as height, volume, and temperature that can be measured are called Physical quantity. A number and a unit of defined size is required to describe physical quantity. The number alone doesnt say much. If you say an average textbook weighs 1. The question would then be asked 1 what? 1 pound? 1 kilogram? 1 ounce? You have to mention the unit of mass along with the number for your statement to be more meaningful. .Physical quantities can be measured in many different units. For example, mass of an object can be measured in pounds, kilograms, ounce, and many other units. .To avoid confusion, scientists around the world have agreed to use a standard units, known as International System of Unit abbreviated as SI units, for some common physical quantities. .In SI Unit, mass is measured in kilogram (kg), length is measured in meters (m), volume is measured in cubic meters (m3), and time is measured in second (s). .Many other widely used units are derived from these SI units. For instance, unit of speed is meters per second (m/s), unit of density is grams per cubic centimeters (g/cm3).

2.2 Measuring Mass .Mass is a measure of amount of matter in an object. .Weight is a measure of gravitational pull on an object. At the same location, two objects with identical masses have identical weights; that is gravity pulls them equally. Thus mass of an object can be determined by comparing the weight of the object to the weight of a known reference standard. 2.3 Measuring Length and Volume .Meter (m) is the standard measure of length or distance in both SI and metric system. One meter is 39.37 inches. .Centimeter (cm; 1/100m) and millimeter (mm; 1/1000m) are commonly used for most measurements in chemistry and medicine.

.Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.

write a very small or a very large number. Written as a product of a number between 1 and 10, times the number 10 raised to power. 2.6 Rounding off Numbers Often calculator produces large number as a result of a calculation although the number of significant figures is good only to a fewer number than the calculator has produced in this case the large number may be rounded off to a smaller number keeping only significant figures. Rules for Rounding off Numbers: Rule 1 (For multiplication and division): The answer cant have more significant figures than either of the original numbers. Rule 2 (For addition and subtraction): The number cant have more digits after the decimal point than either of the original numbers. 2.7 Problem Solving: Converting a Quantity from One Unit to Another Factor-Label-Method: A quantity in one unit is converted to an equivalent quantity in a different unit by using a conversion factor that expresses the relationship between units. When solving a problem, set up an equation so that all unwanted units cancel, leaving only the desired unit. For example, we want to find out how many kilometers are there in 26.22 mile distance. We will get the correct answer if we multiply 26.22 mi by the conversion factor km/mi. 2.9 Measuring Temperature Temperature, the measure of how hot or cold an object is, is commonly reported either in Fahrenheit (oF) or Celsius (oC). The SI unit of temperature is, however, is the Kelvin (K). Temperature in K = Temperature in oC + 273.15 Temperature in oC = Temperature in K 273.15 Freezing point of H2O Boiling point of H2O 32oF 212oF 0oC 100oC 212 32 = 180oF covers the same range of temperature as 100oC covers. Therefore, Celsius degree is exactly 180/100 = 1.8 times as large as Fahrenheit degree. Fig 2.4 gives a comparison of all three scales. Converting between Fahrenheit and Celsius scales is similar to converting between different units of length or volume, but is a little more complex. The following formulas can be used for the conversion:

- The SI unit for volume is the cubic meter (m3). .Liter (L) is commonly used in chemistry as a unit of volume. 1L =0.001m3 = 1 dm3. One liter has the volume a cube 10 cm (1dm) on edge. One liter is further divided into 1000 milliliters (mL). 1 mL has the volume of a cube with 1 cm on edge. .1 milliliter is often called 1 cubic centimeter (1 mL = 1 cm3). 2.4 Measurement and Significant Figures Every experimental measurement, no matter how precise, has a degree of uncertainty to it because there is a limit to the number of digits that can be determined. .To indicate the precision of the measurement, the value recorded should use all the digits known with certainty, plus one additional estimated digit that usually considered uncertain by plus or minus 1 or + 1. .The total number of digits used to express such a measurement is called the number of significant figures. The quantity 65.07 g has four significant figures. Rules for determining significant figures 1. Zeroes in the middle of a number are significant. 69.08 g has four significant figures, 6, 9, 0, and 8. 2. Zeroes at the beginning of a number are not significant. 0.0089 g has two significant figure, 8 and 9. 3. Zeroes at the end of a number and after the decimal points are significant. 2.50 g has three significant figures 2, 5, and 0. 25.00 m has four significant figures 2, 5, 0, and 0.

4. Zeroes at the end of a number and before an implied decimal point may or may not be significant. 1500 kg may have two, three, or four significant figures. Zeroes here may be part of the measurements or for simply to locate the unwritten decimal point. 2.5 Scientific Notation Scientific Notation is a convenient way to

oF = (9oF/5oC x oC) + 32oF oC = 5oC/9oF x (oF 32oF) 2.10 Energy and Heat Energy: Capacity to do work or supply energy. Classification of Energy: 1. Potential Energy: stored energy. Example: a coiled spring have potential energy waiting to be released. 2. Kinetic Energy: energy of motion. Example, when the spring uncoil potential energy is converted to the kinetic energy. .In chemical reactions, the potential energy is often converted into heat. Reaction products have less potential energy than the reactants the products are more stable than the reactants. .Stable products have very little potential energy remaining as a result have very little tendency to undergo further reaction. .SI unit of energy is Joules (J) and the metric unit of energy is calorie (cal). One Calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1oC. 1000 cal = 1 kcal (kilocalorie) 1000 J = 1 kJ 1 cal = 4.184 J 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ Not all substances have their temperature raised to the same extent when equal amounts of heat energy is applied. The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1oC is called the Specific Heat of the substance. Unit of specific heat is cal/g .oC It is possible to calculate how much heat must be added or removed to accomplish a given temperature change of a given mass of a substance. Specific Heat = Calorie Grams X o C

temperature, the density of water is close to 1 g/mL. Thus, specific gravity of a substance at normal temperature is equal to the density. Density of substance (g/ml) Density of water at the same temperature (g/ml) Specific gravity = The specific gravity of a liquid can be measured using an instrument called a hydrometer, which consists of a weighted bulb on the end of a calibrated glass tube, as shown in the following Fig 2.6. The depth to which the hydrometer sinks when placed in a fluid indicates the fluids specific gravity. Chapter Summary .Physical quantity, a measurable properties, is described by both a number and a unit. .Mass, an amount of matter an object contains, is measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g). .Volume is measured in cubic meters (m3) or in liter (L) or milliliters (mL). .Temperature is measured in Kelvin (K) in SI system and in degrees Celsius (oC) in the metric system. Chapter Summary Contd. .Measurement of small or large numbers are usually written in scientific notation, a product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10. .A measurement in one unit can be converted to another unit by multiplying by a conversion factor. .Energy: the capacity to supply heat or to do work. Potential energy stored energy. kinetic energy energy of moving particles.

2.11 Density Density relates the mass of an object with its volume. Density is usually expressed in units as Gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) for solids, and Gram per milliliter (g/mL) for liquids. Density = Mass (g) Volume (mL or cm3) 2. 12 Specific Gravity Specific Gravity (sp gr): density of a substance divided by the density of water at the same temperature. Specific Gravity is unitless. At normal

Chapter Summary Contd. .Heat: kinetic energy of moving particles in a chemical reaction. .Temperature: is a measure of how hot or cold an object is. .Specific heat: amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of the substance by 1oC. .Density: grams per milliliters for a liquid or gram per cubic centimeter for a solid. .Specific gravity: density of a liquid divided by the density of water.