Professional Documents
Culture Documents
7. Author(s) Peter C. Taylor, Steven H. Kosmatka, Gerald F. Voigt, et al. 8. Performing Organization Report No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center/
Center for Transportation Research and Education 11. Contract or Grant No.
Iowa State University
2711 South Loop Drive, Suite 4700 ISU/FHWA Cooperative Agreement
Ames, IA 50010-8664 No. DTFH 61-01-X-00042
515-294-8103 (voice) Project No. 10
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Federal Highway Administration Manual
Office of Pavement Technology 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
400 7th Street S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20590
15. Supplementary Notes
FHWA Cooperative Agreement Technical Representative: Gina Ahlstrom
16. Abstract
At the heart of all concrete pavement projects is the concrete itself. This manual is intended as both a training tool and a
reference to help concrete paving engineers, quality control personnel, specifiers, contractors, suppliers, technicians, and
tradespeople bridge the gap between recent research and practice regarding optimizing the performance of concrete for
pavements. Specifically, it will help readers do the following:
x Understand concrete pavement construction as a complex, integrated system involving several discrete practices that
interrelate and affect one another in various ways.
x Understand and implement technologies, tests, and best practices to identify materials, concrete properties, and
construction practices that are known to optimize concrete performance.
x Recognize factors that lead to premature distress in concrete, and learn how to avoid or reduce those factors.
x Quickly access how-to and troubleshooting information.
December 2006
Co-Principal Investigators
Mr. Dale Harrington, P.E. (IA), Snyder & Associates
Mr. Jim Grove, National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State University
Technical Editor
Dr. Peter C. Taylor, P.E. (IL), CTLGroup
Authors Chapters
The following content experts contributed significantly to one or more chapters:
Dr. Michael E. Ayers, American Concrete Pavement Association 2, 8, 9,10
Dr. Allen Davis (deceased), CTLGroup 10
Mr. Gary J. Fick, Trinity Construction Management Services, Inc. 8, 9,10
Mr. John Gajda, P.E. (multiple states), CTLGroup 5
Mr. Jim Grove, Iowa State University 4, 9
Mr. Dale Harrington, P.E. (IA), Snyder & Associates 4, 5
Ms. Beatrix Kerkhoff, Portland Cement Association 3, 5, 6
Mr. Steven H. Kosmatka, Portland Cement Association 3, 5, 6
Dr. H. Celik Ozyildirim, P.E. (VA), Virginia Transportation Research Council 3, 5, 9
Mr. James M. Shilstone, Sr., P.E. (TX), The Shilstone Companies, Inc. 3, 6
Mr. Kurt Smith, P.E. (IL), Applied Pavement Technology, Inc. 2, 3
Mr. Scott M. Tarr, P.E. (multiple states), CTLGroup 8, 10
Dr. Paul D. Tennis, Consultant 3, 5, 6
Dr. Peter C. Taylor, P.E. (IL), CTLGroup All
Dr. Thomas J. Van Dam, P.E. (IL, MI), Michigan Tech University 9
Mr. Gerald F. Voigt, P.E. (IL), American Concrete Pavement Association 1, 8, 10
Mr. Steve Waalkes, American Concrete Pavement Association 7
Graphic Designer
Ms. Alison Weidemann, Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University
Illustrator
Ms. Jane Sterenberg, Unlimited Designs
Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University Research Park, 2711 South Loop Drive,
Suite 4700, Ames, IA 50010-8664
This material is based on work supported by the Federal High- The Federal Highway Administration, Iowa State University,
way Administration under grant no. DTFH 61-01-X-0042. principal investigators, authors, editors, designers, and illustrators
This publication is intended solely for use by professional make no representations or warranties, expressed or implied, as
personnel who are competent to evaluate the significance and to the accuracy of any information herein and disclaim liability for
limitations of the information provided herein and who will any inaccuracies.
accept total responsibility for the application of this information. The United States Government does not endorse products
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein
expressed in this material do not necessarily reflect the views of solely because they are considered essential to the objective of this
the Federal Highway Administration or Iowa State University. document.
vi
Acknowledgments
The project team is grateful to many professionals and organizations in the national concrete pavement commu-
nity who believed in the value of this manual and whose contributions are reflected herein. First and foremost,
we are indebted to the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) for its generous support and sponsorship. In
particular, Gina Ahlstrom, Jon Mullarky, and Suneel Vanikar, Office of Pavement Technology, and Rick Meininger,
Office of Infrastructure R&D, gave this project significant attention and energy during the course of the manual’s
development and publication.
The content of this manual reflects the professional expertise of 15 technical authors (see the inside title page).
Collectively, they represent the state of the science and art of concrete pavement design, materials, and construc-
tion in the United States. They also represent the wide variety of discrete processes and variables that must be
integrated in order to optimize the performance of concrete in pavements. The authors helped the project team
assemble a resource that helps bridge the gap between recent research and common practice. Thank you, all.
We also gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the project’s technical advisory committee. The members of
this committee were responsible for the technical direction of the manual. They helped develop the original out-
line and critically reviewed several hefty drafts. Their feedback and suggestions were invaluable. The committee
members were the following:
Mr. Faour H. Alfaour, P.E. (OH), Ohio DOT Ms. Frances A. McNeal-Page, Materials
Mr. Ahmad Ardani, Colorado DOT (retired) Consultant
Dr. Jamshid (Jim) Armaghani, P.E. (FL), Florida Mr. Dave Meggers, P.E. (KS, NE), Kansas DOT
Concrete and Products Association, Inc. Mr. Richard C. Meininger, P.E. (MD, AZ), FHWA
Mr. C. Michael Byers, American Concrete Mr. Jon I. Mullarky, P.E. (MD), Global Consult-
Pavement Association (IN chapter) ing, Inc.
Mr. Ed Denton, Denton Enterprises Mr. Kim A. Murphy, Koss Construction Co.
Mr. Fred Faridazar, FHWA Dr. Anton K. Schindler, Auburn University
Mr. Benjamin J. Franklin, Headwaters Resources Mr. Gordon L. Smith, P.E. (IA, NE), Iowa
Mr. Max G. Grogg, P.E. (VA), FHWA–Iowa Division Concrete Paving Association.
Mr. Todd Hanson, Iowa DOT Mr. Dave Suchorski, P.E. (KS, WI), Ash Grove
Mr. Keith Herbold, Midwest Resource Center, FHWA Cement Co.
Dr. Kenneth C. Hover, P.E. (NY), Cornell University Mr. Shannon Sweitzer, P.E. (NC), North Carolina
Mr. Craig Hughes, Cedar Valley Corporation DOT
Mr. Allen Johnson, W.R. Grace Co. Mr. Jimmie L. Thompson, Ash Grove Cement
Mr. Kevin Jones, Iowa DOT Company
Mr. Keith Keeran, Ohio DOT Dr. Thomas J. Van Dam, P.E. (IL, MI), Michigan
Mr. Kevin Kline, GOMACO Corporation Technological University
Ms. Sandra Q. Larson, P.E. (IA), Iowa DOT Mr. John B. Wojakowski, P.E. (KS), Hycrete, Inc.
Finally, but certainly not least, we want to acknowledge the important role provided by the Midwest Concrete
Consortium and the16-State pooled fund study at Iowa State University, “Materials and Construction Optimiza-
tion for Prevention of Premature Pavement Distress in Portland Cement Concrete Pavements” (TPF‑5[066]). The
consortium’s agency, industry, and academic partners—specifically, their leadership in starting the pooled fund
study—were the impetus behind the preparation of this manual. They saw a critical need within the concrete
pavement community and made the commitment to fill it.
vii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments.............. vii Design Considerations: What Site Factors Do
We Have to Accommodate?......................................................19
List of Figures.................... xvii Key Points ............................................................................19
Support .................................................................................19
List of Tables...................... xxi Environmental Factors .......................................................19
Traffic Considerations ........................................................19
Chapter 1 Design Procedures: Getting What We Want,
Introduction.........................1 Given Site Factors........................................................................20
Key Points ............................................................................20
Purpose of This Manual . .............................................................2
Mechanistic-Empirical Design Procedure .....................20
Today’s Construction Environment..............................................2 Constructability Issues ......................................................21
Principles of Concrete Pavement Mix Design ...................................................................22
as an Integrated System...............................................................2 Pavement Design . ......................................................22
Construction ................................................................22
Optimizing Concrete for Pavements...........................................3
Curing and Opening to Traffic . .................................22
Variables That Affect Concrete Performance .................3
Maintenance ...............................................................22
Mix Properties That Correspond to
Concrete Performance ........................................................3 Concrete Overlays....................................................................... 23
Key Points ............................................................................ 23
Organization of This Manual........................................................4
Types of Concrete Overlays .............................................. 23
Critical Details: Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, and 9 ..........................4
Overlays on Concrete Pavements ........................... 23
Quick References: Chapters 4 and 10 ...............................5
Overlays on Asphalt Pavements
(Whitetopping) ............................................................ 23
Chapter 2 Considerations for Overlays ............................................. 24
Basics of Concrete References . ................................................................................. 25
Pavement Design................. 7
Chapter 3
Integrated Pavement Design.......................................................8
Key Points ..............................................................................8
Fundamentals of Materials
2004 Design Guide ................................................................9 Used for Concrete
Basic Concrete Pavement Types .......................................9 Pavements.......................... 27
JPCP ...............................................................................9
Cementitious Materials............................................................... 28
JRCP .............................................................................10
Key Points ............................................................................ 28
CRCP .............................................................................10 Hydraulic Cement ............................................................... 29
Design Considerations: What Do We Want?..........................11 Portland Cement
Key Points ............................................................................11 (ASTM C 150 / AASHTO M 85) .................................. 29
Pavement Performance . ...................................................11 Blended Cements
Structural Performance . ...........................................12 (ASTM C 595 / AASHTO M 240) ................................ 30
Functional Performance ............................................13 Performance Specification for
Service Life ..........................................................................15 Hydraulic Cements (ASTM C 1157) .......................... 30
Concrete Properties ...........................................................16 Selecting and Specifying Hydraulic Cements ....... 30
Concrete Strength ......................................................16 Supplementary Cementitious Materials ......................... 31
Elastic Modulus ..........................................................17 Types of Supplementary
Drying Shrinkage and Thermal Cementitious Materials ............................................. 32
Expansion/Contraction ..............................................17 Effects of Supplementary Cementitious
Durability ......................................................................18 Materials in Concrete ................................................ 36
ix
Table of Contents, continued
Table of Contents, continued
xi
Table of Contents, continued
Shrinkage....................................................................................125 Significance........................................................................139
Key Points ..........................................................................125 Factors Affecting Sulfate Attack.....................................139
Simple Definitions of Shrinkage .....................................125 Testing.................................................................................140
Significance........................................................................125 Alkali-Silica Reaction................................................................141
Factors Affecting Shrinkage............................................125 Key Points ..........................................................................141
Testing for Shrinkage .......................................................126 Simple Definition................................................................141
Temperature Effects..................................................................127 Significance........................................................................141
Key Points ..........................................................................127 Factors Affecting Alkali-Silica Reaction........................142
Simple Definition................................................................127 Testing.................................................................................142
Significance of Thermal Properties................................127 Aggregate Testing.....................................................142
Effects on Hydration..................................................127 Mitigation Measures Testing...................................143
Effects on Cracking...................................................127 Concrete Testing........................................................143
Factors Affecting Thermal Properties............................128
Abrasion Resistance.................................................................146
Testing for Thermal Properties........................................129
Key Points ..........................................................................146
Permeability................................................................................131
Simple Definition................................................................146
Key Points ..........................................................................131
Significance........................................................................146
Simple Definition................................................................131
Factors Affecting Abrasion Resistance.........................146
Significance........................................................................131
Testing.................................................................................146
Factors Affecting Permeability........................................131
Testing.................................................................................131 Early-Age Cracking....................................................................148
Key Points ..........................................................................148
Frost Resistance........................................................................132
Simple Definition................................................................148
Key Points ..........................................................................132
Significance........................................................................148
Simple Definition................................................................132
Factors Affecting Early-Age Cracking............................148
Significance........................................................................132
Volume Change and Restraint.................................149
Freezing and Thawing Damage...............................132
Curling and Warping: A Variation
Salt Scaling.................................................................133
of Volume Change......................................................150
D-Cracking..................................................................133
Strength and Stiffness..............................................150
Popouts........................................................................133
Lack of Support..........................................................151
Factors Affecting Frost Resistance................................133
Early Loading..............................................................152
Air-Void System..........................................................133
Controlling Early-Age Cracks...........................................152
Strength.......................................................................135
Controlling Early-Age Cracks with Joints..............152
Aggregates.................................................................135
Controlling Early-Age Cracks with Curing.............154
Cementitious Materials............................................135
Preventing Early-Age Cracks...........................................154
Finishing......................................................................135
Using Joints to Prevent Uncontrolled
Curing...........................................................................135 Early-Age Cracks ......................................................154
Testing.................................................................................135 Selecting Materials to Prevent
D-Cracking..................................................................135 Early-Age Cracks ......................................................154
Air-Void System..........................................................136 Preventing Early-Age Cracks with
Rapid Freezing and Thawing...................................137 Moisture Control .......................................................155
Salt Scaling.................................................................137 Preventing Early-Age Cracks with
Temperature Control ................................................156
Sulfate Resistance.....................................................................139 Preventing Early-Age Cracks
Key Points ..........................................................................139 with Uniform Support................................................156
Simple Definition................................................................139 Testing for Cracking Risk..................................................156
xii
Table of Contents, continued
xiii
Table of Contents, continued
xiv
Table of Contents, continued
xv
List of Figures
Chapter 1 Introduction 3-8. An example of a smooth grading curve
that would be preferred (red lines define
1-1. Concrete pavement construction is an an acceptable envelope) and an actual
integrated system, with the concrete aggregate system that was not optimum
material at the center. .................................................3 (blue) (CTLGroup) . .....................................................46
Chapter 2 Basics of Concrete Pavement Design 3-9. Moisture conditions of aggregates (PCA) .............47
2-1. Pavement features (ACPA) ........................................8 3-10. An aggregate particle that has cracked
due to alkali-silica reaction (CTL) ...........................48
2-2. Concrete pavement types (ACPA) .............................9
3-11. D-cracking (Grove, CPTech Center) .......................49
2-3. Pavement condition as a function of
time or traffic (ACPA) .................................................11 3-12. A popout at the surface of concrete (PCA) ...........50
2-4. Corner cracking in jointed concrete 3-13. Effect of compressive strength and
pavement (ACPA) . .....................................................12 aggregate type on the abrasion
resistance of concrete (ASTM C 1138-97) . ...........50
2-5. Transverse crack that represents
structural distress (ACPA) . ......................................12 3-14. Recycled water and reclaimed aggregate
at a ready-mixed concrete plant (PCA) .................54
2-6. Longitudinal crack representing
structural distress (ACPA) . ......................................13 3-15. Entrained air bubbles in concrete (PCA) ...............56
2-7. Shattered slab representing 3-16. Spacing factor is the average distance
structural distress (ACPA) . ......................................13 from any point to the nearest air void.
(Ozyildirim) ..................................................................56
2-8. Faulting in jointed concrete pavement
(ACPA) .........................................................................15 3-17. Stabilization of air voids by air-entraining
admixture molecules (PCA) .....................................57
2-9. Comparison of compressive and
flexural strength correlations, based 3-18. One mechanism by which water reducers
on equations 2.1 and 2.2 ...........................................17 work is dispersion.
(a) Charged cement particles cling together,
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Materials Used for trapping water.
(b) Water reducers separate cement grains,
Concrete Pavements releasing the water and making it available
3-1. Concrete is basically a mixture of for hydration. ..............................................................59
cement, water/air, and aggregates 3-19. Curing compounds keep concrete
(percentages are by volume). (PCA 2000) .............27 partially saturated near the surface
3-2. Scanning electron micrograph of fly during the curing period. (PCA) . .............................64
ash particles. Note the characteristic
spherical shape that helps improve Chapter 4
workability. Average particle size is
approximately 10 µm. (PCA) .....................................33 4-1. Compounds in cement ..............................................70
3-3. Typical size distributions of cementitious 4-2. General hydration curve delineating the
materials (CTLGroup) ................................................33 five stages . .................................................................70
3-4. Scanning electron micrograph of GGBF 4-3. A very brief heat spike occurs during
slag particles. Note the angular shape. mixing. .........................................................................71
(PCA) ............................................................................34 4-4. A gel-like substance coats cement
3-5. Family of carbonate minerals showing rock and compounds, controlling the reactions
mineral names (CTLGroup) ......................................42 and heat. .....................................................................71
3-6. Aggregates produced by crushing 4-5. The concrete does not generate heat
operation (top) have a rougher surface during the dormancy stage. .....................................71
texture and are angular compared to 4-6. During dormancy, the water becomes
round river gravel bottom). (PCA) ...........................43 saturated with dissolved ions. . ...............................71
3-7. The level of liquid in the cylinders, 4-7. Significant heat is generated during the
representing voids, is constant for hardening stage. ........................................................72
equal absolute volumes of aggregates
of uniform (but different) sizes. When 4-8. Hydration products grow. . .......................................72
different sizes are combined, however, 4-9. Heat energy peaks and then drops during
the void content decreases. (PCA) .........................45 cooling. ........................................................................72
xvii
List of Figures, continued
4-10. Hydration products grow during cooling. . ............72 4-32. A set of field calorimetry data with three
4-11. Very little heat is generated during the different cements and one high-range
final, densification stage. .........................................73 water-reducing admixture (HRWRA),
including one set showing clear
4-12. Hydration products mesh into a dense retardation and low heat output that
solid. . ...........................................................................73 was consistent with delayed setting
4-13. Concrete characteristics, and implications and slow strength gain ...........................................102
for workers .................................................................74
Chapter 5
4-14. Compounds in cement ..............................................75
5-1. Segregated concrete
4-15. Composition of portland cement .............................84 (Hanson, Iowa DOT 2003) .......................................111
4-16. Sample mill certificate (ASTM C 150-04) ...............86
– 5-2. Bleeding (Ozyildirim) ...............................................112
4-17. Reactions of C3A and CS, in solution, 5-3. Penetration resistance of mortar sieved
are responsible for an early heat spike from concrete as a function of time, per
during cement hydration. .........................................89
– ASTM C 403. Initial and final setting times
4-18. Gel-like C-A-S-H limits water’s access are defined as shown. (Dodson 1994) ..................115
to cement particles. ..................................................89 5-4. Loads on a pavement induce flexural
4-19. After sulfate is consumed, remaining stresses in the concrete slab. (ACPA 1994) ........117
C3A reacts with ettringite. ........................................89 5-5. Cementitious systems that produce high
4-20. Dissolving cement results in calcium early-strengths (blue line) tend to have
ions in solution. ..........................................................90 lower strengths in the long term when
4-21. Alite reactions form C-S-H and CH. ........................90 compared to slower hydrating systems
(red line). (CTLGroup) ..............................................118
4-22. Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and
calcium hydroxide (CH) begin to form. . .................90 5-6. (a) In third-point loading, the entire
middle one-third of the beam is stressed
4-23. Hydration products accumulate and uniformly, and thus the beam fails at its
mesh. ...........................................................................91 weakest point in the middle one-third of
4-24. Belite reactions begin contributing to the beam. (b) By forcing the beam to fail
strength gain later. ....................................................91 at the center, the center-point loading
flexural test results are somewhat higher
4-25. Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and than the third-point test results. Typically,
calcium hydroxide (CH) mesh into a center-point results are about 15 percent
solid mass. ..................................................................91 greater than third-point results and vary
4-26. Estimates of the relative volumes of widely, depending on many concrete mix
cement compounds and products of properties. (PCA) .....................................................120
hydration with increasing hydration 5-7. Splitting tensile strength (PCA) .............................120
(adapted from Tennis and Jennings 2000). . ..........93
5-8. Maturity of the field concrete is equivalent
4-27. Ternary diagram illustrating the basic to maturity of the laboratory concrete when
chemical composition of various SCMs the area under the curves is the same.
compared to portland cement .................................94 (CTLGroup) ................................................................122
4-28. Effect of pozzolans on cement hydration ..............96 5-9. Generalized stress-strain curve for
4-29. Early cement reactions are a balance concrete (PCA) . ......................................................123
of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and sulfate 5-10. Total shrinkage is a sum of the individual
(SO4) in solution. Excess of either will shrinkage mechanisms. Minimizing any
cause unexpected setting. (CTLGroup) .................98 or all of the mechanisms will reduce the
4-30. Plot of heat generated by cement risk of cracking. (CTLGroup) ..................................125
hydration of cement pastes containing 5-11. Relationship between total water content
varying amounts of lignosulfonate-based and drying shrinkage. Several mixtures
water-reducing admixture (CTLGroup) ..................99 with various proportions are represented
4-31. A typical example of air voids clustered within the shaded area of the curves.
around an aggregate particle Drying shrinkage increases with
(scale is in mm) ........................................................100 increasing water contents. (PCA) . .......................126
xviii
List of Figures, continued
5-12. A typical field semi-adiabatic 5-28. Effect of initial curing on drying shrinkage
temperature monitoring system for of portland cement concrete prisms.
mortar (Knight, Holcim) . .........................................129 Concrete with an initial 7-day moist cure
5-13. Measuring the coefficient of thermal at 4°C (40°F) had less shrinkage than
expansion . ..............................................................130 concrete with an initial 7-day moist cure
at 23°C (73°F) Similar results were found
5-14. Air-entrained concrete (bottom bar) is with concretes containing 25 percent fly
highly resistant to damage from repeated ash as part of the cementitious material. ............154
freeze-thaw cycles. (PCA) . .......................................132
5-29. A ring shrinkage specimen marked
5-15. Scaled concrete surface resulting from where a crack has occurred (CTLGroup) ............156
lack of air entrainment, use of deicers,
5-30. Typical plastic shrinkage cracks ..........................158
and poor finishing and curing practices
(PCA) ..........................................................................133 5-31. Deep plastic shrinkage cracks . ............................158
5-16. Air voids provide a place for expanding 5-32. Map cracking ...........................................................160
water to move into as it freezes. 5-33. Random transverse crack ......................................161
(CTLGroup) ................................................................134
5-34. Random longitudinal crack ....................................163
5-17. Air bubbles rising in the AVA (FHWA) .................137
5-35. Corner break . ...........................................................164
5-18. Sulfate attack is a chemical reaction
between sulfates and the calcium Chapter 6
aluminate (C3A) in cement, resulting in
surface softening. (EMMONS) ..............................139 6.1. Example w/c ratio vs. strength curve
(laboratory mix target w/c = 0.40) .........................175
5-19. Alkali-silica reaction is an expansive
reaction of reactive aggregates, alkali 6-2. Modified coarseness factor chart
hydroxides, and water that may cause (Shilstone 1990) ........................................................177
cracking in concrete. (EMMONS) ........................141 6-3. 0.45 power chart for 25 mm (1 in.)
nominal maximum aggregate
5-20. Test apparatus for measuring abrasion
(Shilstone personal communication) ...................177
resistance of concrete to ASTM C 779
(PCA) ..........................................................................147 6-4. Percent retained chart ...........................................178
5-21. Rotating cutter with dressing wheels 6-5. Approximate relationship between
for the ASTM C 944 abrasion resistance compressive strength and w/cm ratio
test (Goodspeed UNH) ............................................147 for concrete using 19-mm to 25-mm
(3/4 in. to 1 in.) nominal maximum size
5-22. (a) Cracks generally do not develop in
coarse aggregate. Strength is based
concrete that is free to shrink.
on cylinders moist-cured 28 days per
(b) In reality, slabs on the ground are
ASTM C 31 / AASHTO T 23.
restrained by the subbase or other
(Adapted from ACI 211.1, ACI 211.3, and
elements, creating tensile stresses and
Hover 1995) ................................................................180
cracks. (ACPA) .........................................................150
6-6. Bulk volume of coarse aggregate per
5-23. Curling and warping of slabs .................................151 unit volume of concrete. Bulk volumes
5-24. Exaggerated illustration of pavement are based on aggregates in a dry-rodded
curling. The edge of the slab at a joint condition (ASTM C 29 / AASHTO T 19).
or a free end lifts off the base, creating For less workable concrete (slipform
a cantilevered section of concrete that paving), the bulk volume may be
can break off under heavy wheel increased by about 10 percent.
loading. (PCA) . ........................................................151 (Adapted from ACI 211.1 and Hover
5-25. An eroded base can lead to high tensile [1995 and 1998]) . ......................................................180
stresses, resulting in cracking. ............................152 6-7. Target total air content requirements
5-26. A saw cut that has cracked through as for concretes using different sizes of
planned (PCA) .........................................................152 aggregate. The air content in job
specifications should be specified to
5-27. This joint was cut too late, resulting in be delivered within –1 to +2 percentage
random transverse cracking. points of the target value for moderate
(Crank, ACPA) ...........................................................153 and severe exposure. .............................................181
xix
List of Figures, continued
6-8. Approximate water requirement for 8-14. Artificial turf drag texturing rig, weighted
various slumps and crushed aggregate with sand (source) . .................................................222
sizes for air-entrained concrete (Adapted 8-15. A curing machine coats both the top
from ACI 211.1 and Hover [1995]) ..........................182 surface and sides of a slipform paving
slab. (ACPA) ..............................................................224
Chapter 7
8-16. A monograph to estimate the rate of
7-1. Effects of two examples of nonuniform evaporation (PCA) ...................................................227
support on concrete slabs on the ground
(Farny 2001) . .............................................................192 8-17. Plastic sheeting ready for placement to
protect the fresh surface from rain (ACPA) ........229
7-2. Relation between frost action and
hydraulic properties of soils (ACPA 1995) ...........194 8-18. Typical scaling of concrete pavement
due to rain on nondurable paste surface
7-3. Autograder that references the stringline (ACPA 2003a) ............................................................230
and trims the subgrade material (ACPA) .............195
8-19. Edge erosion of freshly placed slab due to rain
7-4. Trackline of slipform paving machine (ACPA 2003a)..............................................................230
(ACPA) .......................................................................199
8-20. An example plot reported by HIPERPAV
showing a high risk of cracking at about six
Chapter 8 hours after paving ....................................................232
8-1. Portable concrete plant (ACPA) . ..........................205
8-21. Common sawing equipment. (a) For most
8-2. Loader operation is key to stockpile projects, transverse or longitudinal con-
management. (ACPA) ..............................................207 traction joints are cut with single-blade,
8-3. Typical sequence of adding material in walk-behind saws. (b) For wider paving,
a stationary mix plant (Ayers et al. 2000) .............207 contractors may elect to use span-saws
that are able to saw transverse joints
8-4. Typical sequence of adding material in across the full pavement width in one
a truck mixer (Ayers et al. 2000) ............................208 pass. (c) A newer class of saw, the early-
8-5. Depositing concrete in front of the entry saw, is a walk-behind saw that allows
paving machine (ACPA) ..........................................209 sawing sooner than with conventional
saws (ACPA)...............................................................234
8-6. A belt placer/spreader ensures a
consistent amount of concrete in front 8-22. Sawing window (ACPA)............................................234
of the paver. (ACPA) ................................................210 8-23. Closeup of different degrees of raveling caused by
8-7. Components of a typical slipform paving joint sawing (ACPA)...................................................234
machine (ACPA) .......................................................212 8-24. Different forms of joint sealant (ACPA)..................238
8-8. A roller screed (i.e., single-tube finisher)
is one type of equipment that can be used Chapter 9
to strike off the concrete in fixed-form 9-1. Example control chart: concrete
placements. Others include vibratory unit weight ................................................................244
screeds, form riders, and bridge deck
finishers. (ACPA) ......................................................214 9-2. Coarseness/workability chart ...............................254
8-9. An array of vibrators under a slipform 9-3. Combined aggregate gradation power 0.45 ........254
paver (ACPA) ............................................................215 9-4. Combined aggregate gradation 8-18 band ..........254
8-10. Typical string line setup (ACPA 2003b) . ...............216 9-5. Heat signature sample plots ..................................259
8-11. Two types of edge slump . ......................................217 9-6. Sample maturity curve . ..........................................262
8-12. (a) Staking or (b) pinning dowel
cages (ACPA) ...........................................................218 Chapter 10
8-13. Dowel bar insertion equipment (ACPA) ...............219 10-1. Early-age cracking.....................................................273
xx
List of Tables
Chapter 3 Chapter 5
3-1. Portland Cement Classifications 5-1. Requirements for Uniformity of Concrete
(ASTM C 150 / AASHTO M 85) .................................30 (ASTM C 94 2004) .....................................................107
3-2. Blended Cement Classifications 5-2. Factors Affecting Compressive and
(ASTM C 595 / AASHTO M 240) ...............................30 Flexural Strength .....................................................117
3-3. Performance Classifications of 5-3. Chemical Constituents and Heat
Hydraulic Cement (ASTM C 1157) ...........................30 Evolution of Typical Cements (Lea) . .....................128
3-4. Cement Types for Common Applications . .............31 5-4. Requirements for Concrete Exposed to
3-5. Specifications for Supplementary Sulfates in Soil or Water ........................................140
Cementitious Materials ............................................32 5-5. Test Methods for Potential Alkali-Silica
3-6. Chemical Analyses and Selected Ractivity (ASR) and Mitigation Measures ...........144
Properties of Type I Cement and 5-6. FHWA High-Performance Concrete
Several Supplementary Cementitious Performance Grades for Abrasion .......................147
Materials .....................................................................33
3-7. Effects of Supplementary Cementitious Chapter 6
Materials on Fresh Concrete Properties ...............37 6-1. Suggested Laboratory Testing Plan .....................174
3-8. Effects of Supplementary Cementitious 6-2. Suggested Field Trial Batch Testing Plan ............175
Materials on Hardened Concrete
Properties ...................................................................37 6-3. Cementitious Materials Requirements for
Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals ............183
3-9. Mineral Constituents in Aggregates ......................41
3-10. Rock Constituents in Aggregates ...........................41 Chapter 7
3-11. Typical CTE Values for Common Portland 7-1. Soil Index Properties and Their Relation
Cement Concrete Ingredients .................................48 to Potential for Expansion (Bureau of
3-12. Mineral Constituents of Aggregate That Reclamation 1998) ...................................................193
Are Potentially Alkali-Reactive ...............................48 7-2. Alternatives for Reducing Friction or
3-13. Rock Types Potentially Susceptible to Bond between Concrete Pavement and
Alkali-Silica Reactivity ..............................................49 Stabilized Base Materials (ACPA 2002) ...............198
3-14. Acceptance Criteria for Combined Chapter 8
Mixing Water . ............................................................53
8-1. Tests/Tools for Field Verification ...........................204
3-15. Optional Chemical Limits for Combined
Mixing Water . ............................................................53 8-2. Concrete Plant Checklist ........................................206
3-16. Effect of Recycled Water on Concrete 8-3. Common Elements of Paving Machines ..............213
Properties ...................................................................54 8-4. Description of Various Concrete
3-17. Common Chemical Admixture Types for Pavement Texture Options .....................................221
Paving Applications ..................................................55 8-5. Design and Specification Factors That
3-18. Admixture Types Defined by Influence Pavement Smoothness .........................223
ASTM C 494 / AASHTO M 194 . ...............................55 8-6. Construction Factors that Influence
3-19. Effects of Materials and Practices on Pavement Smoothness ...........................................223
Air Entrainment ..........................................................57 8-7. Factors That Shorten the Sawing Window .........235
3-20. Tiebar Dimensions and Spacings..............................62
Chapter 9
Chapter 4 9-1. Example of Testing Precision ................................244
4-1. Major Compounds in Portland Cement ..................85 9-2. Example Concrete Unit Weight Test Results . .....245
4-2. Forms of Calcium Sulfate .........................................87 9-3. Recommended Batch Tolerances for
4-3. Primary Products of Cement Hydration .................92 Ready-Mixed Concrete (ASTM C 94) ...................246
4-4. Comparison of Alite and Belite Reactions . ...........96 9-4. Suite of QC tests from TPF-5(066) .........................250
4-5. Recommended Tests and Their 9-5. Relationship Between Coulombs and
Applications . ............................................................101 Permeability . ............................................................268
xxi
List of Tables, continued
Chapter 10
10-1. Problems Observed Before the Concrete
Has Set ......................................................................275
10-2. Problems Observed in the First Days
After Placing . .......................................................... 282
10-3. Preventing Problems That Are Observed at
Some Time After Construction ..............................286
10-4. Assessing the Extent of Damage in
Hardened Concrete .................................................290
xxii
1 Intro
Chapter 1
2 Design
Introduction
3 Materials
Purpose of This Manual 2
4 Hydration
Optimizing Concrete for Pavements 3
5 Properties
This manual provides a ready reference and/or concrete as the central component of a complex,
instruction guide for anyone involved in designing or integrated pavement system.
constructing concrete pavements. The emphasis is on Readers will find some overlap and repetition of
the concrete material itself—specifically, on optimizing information among the chapters. This is a result of the
concrete’s performance. To optimize concrete’s perfor- integrated nature of the various stages and consider-
6 Mix
mance in today’s pavement construction environment, ations involved in designing and constructing concrete
everyone in concrete paving projects must understand pavement projects.
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Purpose of This Manual processes have become more complex. More ingre-
2 Design
The purpose of this manual is to bridge the gap dients (like supplementary cementitious materials
between recent research and common practice related and chemical admixtures) have been introduced to
to producing concrete for pavements. The intended the concrete mix. New testing procedures have been
audience is agency or industry personnel who are developed. Equipment and placement techniques
3 Materials
• Materials and equipment suppliers. focuses on design details, the contractor focuses on
• Technicians. construction, and rarely do the parties think about or
• Construction supervisors. communicate with each other about the effects of their
• Tradespeople. activities on other parties involved in the process.
Specifically, this manual will help readers do the For example, engineers trying to advance a new
5 Properties
relate and affect one another in various ways. It is probably impossible to go back to the days
• Implement technologies, tests, and best prac- when one engineer handled a concrete paving proj-
tices to identify materials, concrete properties, ect from beginning to end. Therefore, as the number
7 Preparation
and construction practices that are known to of variables and specialties continues to increase, all
optimize concrete performance. personnel involved in every stage of a project need to
• Recognize factors leading to premature distress understand how their decisions and activities affect,
in concrete, and learn how to avoid or reduce and are affected by, every other stage of the project.
those factors. In other words, today’s road-building process must
• Quickly access how-to and troubleshooting be integrated to be cost-effective and reliable.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
information.
As the pavement industry has grown and changed, components include, for example, the pavement’s
processes previously handled by a single engineer structural and functional design, the subgrade/base.)
have been split into separate specialties or depart- • The concrete material is arguably the central
ments. This is at least partly because the various component of the concrete pavement system.
2 Design
judged by the performance of the concrete. performs for a specific application is affected by many
• Concrete’s performance is critically affected factors, including the following:
by many variables throughout the pavement • Structural and functional design of the pave-
system and throughout the process of building ment system. The pavement must carry the
3 Materials
the system. These variables include the sources, design loads without experiencing distresses.
quality, and proportions of its ingredients; con- It should provide a smooth ride and adequate
struction variables like weather, paving equip- traction. During its design life, it may have to
ment, and practices, etc.; and design param- withstand the rigors of extreme temperature
eters like design strength and climate factors cycles.
4 Hydration
(figure 1-1). • Quality of and variability inherent in concrete’s
• Understanding concrete pavements as integrat- constituent materials. Aggregates, admixtures,
ed systems, and pavement construction as an cement, and supplementary cementitious mate-
integrated process, will help readers optimize rials all vary in their properties to some degree
concrete performance. based on their raw materials and manufacturing
processes. These variations in materials, and
5 Properties
Optimizing Concrete for variations in their proportions, affect the degree
of uniformity that can be achieved when they
Pavements are mixed in many separate concrete batches
Optimizing the performance of concrete for pave- during a project.
ments involves understanding the variables that affect • Construction factors, like weather, equipment,
concrete’s performance and the properties of concrete and personnel. Environmental variations can
6 Mix
that correspond to performance. significantly affect the properties of plastic and
hardening concrete. Pavements are built out-
Variables That Affect Concrete side, where weather conditions during concrete
7 Preparation
Performance placement can be unpredictable and can vary
The starting point for achieving a good-quality widely from conditions assumed during mix
concrete pavement is to proportion, make, and use design and materials selection. Site conditions,
a good-quality concrete mixture. The definition of a equipment, and the construction and inspec-
good-quality concrete mix depends on the specific tion teams play vital roles in the development
of good-quality concrete.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Mix Properties That Correspond to
Concrete Performance
Several properties of concrete mixtures correlate
with concrete performance. A 16-State pooled
fund study at Iowa State University, “Materials
and Construction Optimization for Prevention of
Premature Pavement Distress in Portland Cement
Concrete Pavements” (TPF-5[066]), has identified
many of these properties, including workability,
10 Troubleshooting
before paving is begun to verify laboratory findings to Solid: how cement chemistry and the
and determine if adjustments are needed. This is cement’s physical changes during
especially important when using unfamiliar materials. hydration are central to good-quality
These tests provide data that serve as a basis for concrete, and how supplementary
making necessary adjustments in the field. The cementitious materials and chemical
5 Properties
construction team (agency and contractor) should admixtures affect the hydration
prepare in advance for situations that may arise during process.
construction, such as changes in materials sources or
unexpectedly hot or cold weather. The team should Chapter 5. Critical Properties of Concrete: fresh
pre-determine how these changes will likely affect the and hardened properties of concrete
concrete mixture properties, and decide in advance that correlate with concrete performance.
6 Mix
2 Design
quite detailed. successfully integrating the various stages of concrete
Complete coverage of the topics in the remaining pavement projects for optimum concrete performance.
chapters is beyond the scope of this book. These The charts provide a quick reference to help
chapters provide overviews only, but again from readers understand the relationships among cement
the perspective of their relevance for optimizing chemistry, stages of hydration, the implications of
3 Materials
concrete performance. hydration for the construction process, and the effects
on hydration when supplementary cementitious
Quick References: Chapters 4 and 10 materials and mineral admixtures are included in
Some sections of the manual are presented as
the mixture. In addition, the charts highlight some
references:
materials incompatibility issues that can arise.
4 Hydration
Chapter 10 (Troubleshooting). Field personnel in
particular will find chapter 10 useful on site. A full-size Stages of Hydration chart. The chart is
Stages of Hydration charts in Chapter 4 included with this manual as a foldout poster.
(Hydration). Many readers will refer to the Stages of Subject index. The manual ends with an abbreviated
Hydration charts (pages 76–83) again and again. subject index. (See the sidebar below.)
5 Properties
Cross-References and the Subject Index
The topics addressed in this manual are complex. ◦ Chapter 8 describes the importance of
Concrete pavements are complex, integrated managing aggregate stockpiles so as not
systems, and the process of designing and to tip the moisture balance in the mix.
6 Mix
constructing them is a complex, integrated • Testing. As mentioned earlier, testing is
process. Any thorough discussion about critical to an effective QA/QC program to
optimizing concrete as the central component ensure concrete performance. Readers will
7 Preparation
of pavement systems cannot be presented in a find information about testing in several
strictly linear manner. sections of the manual.
Readers will therefore discover overlap, ◦ Chapter 3 includes information about
repetition, and interaction among the chapters. testing required or recommended for the
ingredients of concrete.
Here are two examples: ◦ Chapter 5 covers tests of concrete
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• Aggregates. Aggregates compose the properties, both fresh and hardened.
largest volume in concrete mixes. Readers ◦ Chapter 9 provides suggested procedures
will find pertinent information about aggre- for conducting tests identified and
gates in several sections of the manual. conducted in Iowa State’s study
◦ Chapter 3 describes the ingredients (TPF-5[066]).
of concrete mixtures, including
aggregates—their role in concrete, As a result of this kind of overlap of information,
and the various types and properties of important topics are thoroughly cross-
aggregate that can positively or negatively referenced throughout the manual.
affect concrete performance.
In addition, a basic index at the back of the
◦ Chapter 6 provides guidelines for manual lists primary topics and the chapters and
10 Troubleshooting
proportioning the ingredients, including pages where each is discussed (see page 323).
2 Design
Basics of Concrete Pavement
Design
3 Materials
Integrated Pavement Design 8
4 Hydration
Design Considerations: What Do We Want? 11
5 Properties
To effectively integrate best materials and construc- The chapter begins with brief overviews of the
tion practices, readers need to understand the basics philosophy of integrated pavement design and basic
concrete pavement design types. It then discusses the
6 Mix
of concrete pavement design. This chapter therefore
elements of pavement design: first, determining what
provides an introduction to design. It identifies general
we want; then, determining the specific site variables
materials and construction issues related to design, as
that must be accommodated; and, finally, designing
7 Preparation
well as some of the latest technological changes that pavements that give us what we want in light of the
allow the assumed design variables to relate more variables. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of
closely to as-built results. concrete overlay designs.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Key Points
• The objective of pavement design is to • The Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical Design of
select pavement features, such as slab New and Rehabilitated Pavements (M‑E PDG)
thickness, joint dimensions, and (NCHRP 2004) incorporates an integrated
3 Materials
Pavement design is the development and selection pavement features that will economically meet the
6 Mix
of slab thickness, joint dimensions, reinforcement specific needs and conditions of a particular project.
and load transfer requirements, and other pavement Figure 2-1 shows the variety of basic features that
features. A pavement designer’s objective is to select must be determined when designing a concrete pavement.
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 2-1. Pavement features (ACPA)
2 Design
During the design process, broad assumptions are
often made about materials and construction issues
that have a profound impact on the ultimate perfor-
mance of a specific pavement design, but that are
3 Materials
never verified or achieved in the as-built project. It
is therefore critical to characterize materials properly
through field tests during mix design and verification
and through appropriate subgrade and base construc-
tion activities. Such tests are important not only to
4 Hydration
ensure the quality of each material, but also to ensure
that the actual concrete and base materials reflect the
assumptions made when the pavement was designed.
The focus of concrete pavement design has
generally been on determining how thick the slab
should be. Today, agencies are adopting a more
5 Properties
integrated approach to pavement design. Such an
approach simultaneously considers key pavement
features as well as durable concrete mixtures,
constructability issues, etc. Such an integrated
approach is reflected in the long-life pavement
6 Mix
concepts that have been adopted by many highway
agencies. This integrated approach can also be
observed in the thickness determination concepts
incorporated into the Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical
7 Preparation
Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavements (M‑E PDG)
(NCHRP 2004).
More detailed information on concrete pavement
design may be found in several sources (Yoder and
Witzak 1975; PCA 1984; AASHTO 1993; AASHTO
1998; Smith and Hall 2001; ACI 2002; NCHRP
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
2004).
requirements. Each type is suitable for new construc- Because of their cost-effectiveness and reliability,
tion, reconstruction, and overlays (resurfacing) of the vast majority of concrete pavements constructed
existing roads (see more on overlays later in this today are JPCP designs. They do not contain
chapter, Concrete Overlays, page 23). reinforcement. They have transverse joints generally
spaced less than 5 to 6.5 m (15 to 20 ft) apart. difficult to ensure that joints are cut where the rein-
2 Design
They may contain dowel bars across the transverse forcement has been discontinued. This pavement type is
joints to transfer traffic loads across slabs and may not as common as it once was on State highways, but it
contain tiebars across longitudinal joints to promote is used to some extent by municipalities.
aggregate interlock between slabs.
CRCP
3 Materials
transverse and longitudinal joints, respectively. influences the development of transverse cracks
The reinforcement, distributed throughout the slab, within an acceptable spacing (about 0.9 to 2.5 m [3 to
composes about 0.15 to 0.25 percent of the cross- 8 ft] apart) and serves to hold cracks tightly together.
sectional area and is designed to hold tightly together Some agencies use CRCP designs for high-traffic, urban
any transverse cracks that develop in the slab. It is routes because of their suitability for high-traffic loads.
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Key Points
• For every concrete pavement project, the • Concrete strength has traditionally been the
designer must define certain parameters: most influential factor in design and is still
a primary design input for determining slab
3 Materials
◦ Level of structural and functional thickness.
performance.
• Concrete durability is a critical aspect of long-
◦ Target service life, or design life.
term pavement performance, but it is not a
◦ Levels of various concrete properties— direct input in pavement design procedures.
4 Hydration
durability, strength, rigidity, shrinkage, (Concrete durability is governed through
etc.—required (or tolerated) to achieve appropriate material and construction
optimum performance for the design life. specifications.)
• Pavements must perform well structurally • Concrete stiffness and dimensional stability
(i.e., carry imposed traffic loads) and (drying shrinkage and thermal movement)
5 Properties
functionally (i.e., provide a comfortable influence performance, but have not
ride). Performance is generally described traditionally been considered in design
in terms of structural and functional procedures.
distresses.
6 Mix
For each specific pavement design, a designer deterioration as a function of the imposed loads and/
7 Preparation
defines the desired pavement performance, service life, or time. Poorly designed pavements (even if they are
and various concrete properties. well-constructed) will likely experience accelerated
deterioration (figure 2-3).
Pavement Performance Note that good concrete durability through good
The goal of all pavement design methods is to mix design and construction practices is necessary
provide a pavement that performs well; that is, the
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
goal is to provide a serviceable pavement over the
design period for the given traffic and environmental
loadings. A pavement’s desired performance is generally
described in terms of structural and functional
performance:
• Structural performance is a pavement’s ability to
carry the imposed traffic loads.
• Functional performance is a pavement’s ability
to provide users a comfortable ride for a specified
range of speed.
10 Troubleshooting
to achieve the initial expected level of pavement long-term performance. In general, cracks that do not
2 Design
performance. Poor mix design and/or construction separate and fault (i.e., undergo differential vertical
practices may significantly accelerate functional and/or movement or displacement) are not typically detrimental
structural deterioration, leading to premature failure of to pavement structural performance. The transverse
the pavement. crack shown in figure 2-5 is considered a structural
3 Materials
are indicative of structural failure. Moreover, many Figure 2-5. Transverse crack that represents structural
transverse cracks may have little or no impact on distress (ACPA)
Longitudinal Cracks. Longitudinal cracking may or materials, and environment. Concrete pavement thick-
2 Design
may not be considered a structural distress, depending ness design methods consider structural performance
on whether the crack remains tight and nonworking. directly and functional performance only in terms of
Figure 2-6 shows a longitudinal crack typical of poor pavement smoothness and faulting, widening, lane
support conditions. Note that the crack has significant capacity, etc. Additional functional distress types are
3 Materials
separation and shows differential vertical movement, generally considered through specifications governing
which indicates a structural distress. items like surface friction characteristics.
Longitudinal cracking is generally associated with Some functional distresses, such as alkali-silica
poor or nonuniform support conditions related to reactivity (ASR) and D-cracking, can arise from
frost heave, moisture-induced shrinkage/swelling in materials-related problems (see Aggregate Durability
in chapter 3, page 47). The cracking and spalling
4 Hydration
the subgrade, or poor soil compaction. Longitudinal
cracking may also result from inadequate placement resulting from these distress types affect ride quality,
of longitudinal joints, over-reinforcing of longitudinal safety, and the structural capacity of the pavement.
joints, or too-shallow joint saw cuts. However, distresses like ASR and D-cracking are not
Shattered Slabs. Shattered slabs are divided pavement design issues; they must be addressed
into three or more pieces by intersecting cracks through mix design and materials selection and
5 Properties
(figure 2‑7). These working cracks allow for differen- verification (see Adjusting Properties in chapter 6,
tial settlement of the slab sections at a rapid rate. page 185).
This type of distress can be attributed to numerous Surface friction is an important functional charac-
factors, the most important being too-heavy loads, teristic of pavements. Friction is not considered a
inadequate slab thickness, and poor support. design element per se, but has implications for noise
and dry- and wet-weather skid resistance.
6 Mix
Functional Performance The friction necessary for skid resistance increases
Most often, functional performance is thought to with increasing roughness (texture). Surface texture
consist of ride quality and surface friction, although can be affected by materials in the concrete mixture.
7 Preparation
other factors such as noise and geometrics may For example, aggregates that polish under traffic
also come into play. Functional distress is generally eventually result in reduced pavement surface texture
represented by a degradation of a pavement’s driving (see Abrasion Resistance in chapter 5, page 146).
surface that reduces ride quality. Aggregate specifications targeting a minimum silica
The functional performance of a concrete pavement content in the fine aggregate portion of the concrete
is impacted by design, construction practice, concrete mixture are often used to prevent polishing.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Figure 2-6. Longitudinal crack representing structural Figure 2-7. Shattered slab representing structural distress
distress (ACPA) (ACPA)
Surface texture is also affected by construction There are many methods to determine pavement
2 Design
practices. Concrete pavement surfaces are generally smoothness, ranging from profilographs (appropriate
textured to provide adequate friction and skid resis- for construction quality control) to noncontact, high-
tance. A variety of texturing techniques may be used speed inertial profilers (useful for a network-level
to promote good friction characteristics (see Texturing analysis).
3 Materials
smoothness, although this is not always the case. combination of inadequate load transfer at the joints,
Work is ongoing to find the optimum means of achieving adequate friction on roadways with higher speeds when
satisfactory skid resistance while reducing noise effects the concrete mix includes adequate amounts of durable
at the tire/pavement interface (Rasmussen et al. 2004). (e.g., siliceous) sand (Wiegand et al. 2006).
fresh concrete to produce a surface texture. These tools rake controlled by hand or attached to a mechani-
and materials include moistened burlap, brooms, tining cal device) across the plastic concrete surface in the
rakes, and artificial turf. Another technique is diamond direction of the pavement. Although skid trailer friction
7 Preparation
grinding the hardened concrete surface. levels of longitudinally tined textures may not be as high
as those of transversely tined surfaces (see below),
Diamond Grinding. Diamond grinding is a process of
longitudinal tining provides adequate friction on high-
removing a thin layer of hardened concrete pavement
speed roadways while sometimes significantly reducing
using closely spaced diamond saw blades. Diamond
tire-pavement noise.
grinding has traditionally been used to restore smooth-
ness to an existing pavement. However, this process Variations in the amount of concrete displaced to
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
has been shown to significantly reduce tire-pavement the surface during tining appear to affect the level of
noise and increase friction; therefore, diamond grinding tire-pavement noise. As a result, there are conflicting
has become an effective, if somewhat expensive, reports about the effect of tining depth on noise.
option for texturing newly placed concrete pavements Further investigation is needed before optimum
after a minimum specified curing time. dimensions can be recommended.
Drag Textures. Dragging artificial turf or moistened, Transverse Tining. Transversely tined textures are
coarse burlap across the surface of plastic concrete created by moving a tining device across the width of
creates a shallow surface texture. This texturing method the plastic pavement surface. The tines can be uniformly
is inexpensive, results in relatively quiet pavements, and or randomly spaced, or skewed at an angle.
provides sufficient friction characteristics for many road- Transverse tining is an inexpensive method for providing
ways, particularly those with speeds less than 72 km/hr durable, high-friction pavement surfaces. The friction
10 Troubleshooting
(45 mph). Iowa has found that drag textures can provide qualities are especially evident on wet pavements.
2 Design
high corner deflections caused by heavy traffic loading,
and inadequate or erodible base support conditions.
Joint faulting is shown in figure 2-8. Faulting is
also possible where cracks have developed in the
pavement, as described earlier. Faulted cracks have
3 Materials
the same impact on the functional and structural
performance of the pavement as faulted joints.
Service Life
Concrete pavements can be designed for virtually
4 Hydration
any service life, from as little as 10 years to 60 years
or more. The primary factors in the design life are Figure 2-8. Faulting in jointed concrete pavement (ACPA)
5 Properties
(continued from previous page) In Europe, exposed aggregate pavements are regarded
However, uniform transverse tining has been shown to as one of the most advantageous methods for reducing
exhibit undesirable wheel whine noise and should be tire-pavement noise while providing adequate friction.
avoided if possible. Smaller aggregate sizes have been reported to provide
Contrary to earlier studies, recent observations have larger noise reductions, while aggregates with a high
6 Mix
found that, although randomly spaced and/or skewed polished stone value increase durability.
transverse tining may reduce the audible whine while In trial projects in North America, however, reported
providing adequate friction, random and/or skewed noise levels on exposed aggregate surfaces have not
7 Preparation
transverse tining is not an adequate solution for been low. Additional research is ongoing.
reducing tire-pavement noise (Wiegand et al. 2006).
Pervious Concrete. Large voids are intentionally built
If transverse tining is used, it is recommended that a
into the mix for pervious, or porous, concrete, allowing
spacing of 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) be used and that care be
water and air to flow through the pavement. The voids
taken to produce as uniform a texture as possible.
tend to absorb tire-pavement noise. The sound absorption
Innovative Techniques levels of pervious concrete pavements have been shown
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Exposed aggregate pavements and pervious pavements to increase with higher porosity levels and smaller
are being investigated for their friction and noise levels. aggregate sizes.
Exposed Aggregate Pavements. Texture is created on However, European trials have found the acoustical
exposed aggregate pavements via a two-layer, “wet on performance and friction characteristics of pervious
wet” paving process. A thin layer of concrete containing pavements to be poor, and research continues in this
fine siliceous sand and high-quality coarse aggregate country.
is placed over a thicker layer of more modest durability. Other Techniques. New technologies, including poroelas-
A set-retarding agent is applied to the newly placed top tic, euphonic, and precast pavements, have demonstrated
layer. After 24 hours the surface mortar is brushed or ability to reduce noise. However, further research must be
washed away, exposing the durable aggregates. conducted to predict the noise and friction performance
10 Troubleshooting
When designed and constructed properly, these of these construction methods. Contact the National
pavements have been reported to improve friction Concrete Pavement Technology Center for information
and durability while reducing noise. regarding the most recent research (see page iii).
the materials quality and slab thickness. Pavement Flexural strength testing is conducted on a concrete
2 Design
mixtures with enhanced strength and durability char- beam under either center-point or third-point load-
acteristics, combined with enhanced structural design ing conditions. The third-point loading configuration,
elements, are necessary for long life-spans (FHWA 2002). described under ASTM C 78 / AASHTO T 97, is more
Special high-performance concrete mixtures may commonly used in pavement design and provides a
3 Materials
be specified for long-life pavements. Ideally, such more conservative estimate of the flexural strength
mixtures generally contain high-quality, durable, and than the center-point test.
well-graded coarse aggregate; a targeted air content Although flexural strength is specified in design,
(6 to 8 percent entrained, with a spacing factor of many State transportation agencies do not mandate
<0.20 mm [0.008 in.]) for increased freeze-thaw the use of beam tests in determining the strength
protection; an appropriate amount of ground, granu- value. Instead, they develop correlations to other
4 Hydration
lated blast-furnace slag or fly ash for reduced tests, such as compressive strength or split tensile
permeability; and a water-cementitious materials ratio strength, which are more convenient and less variable
of 0.40 to 0.43. Another requirement may include a (Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2002). Each
maximum 28-day rapid chloride penetrability individual concrete mixture has its own correlation
(ASTM C 1202) of 1,500 coulombs for concrete of compressive strength to flexural strength. That is,
5 Properties
permeability. Proper curing is also important. Note the correlation is mix-specific, can vary from mix to
that experienced practitioners, using considerable mix, and should be measured in laboratory tests. In
care, may be able to construct long-life pavements general, the correlation can be approximated by the
with gap-graded aggregate and/or higher water- use of either of two equations:
cementitious materials ratios. (2.1) (ACPA 2000)
6 Mix
crete performance include strength and stiffness, b = 2.3 for lb/in2, or 0.445 for MPa (exact
dimensional stability (drying shrinkage and thermal coefficient must be determined for specific mix).
sensitivity), and durability, which are discussed in the
following sections. The more conservative equation should be
used, depending on the range of values being used
Concrete Strength (figure 2‑9).
Concrete strength is a primary thickness design Maturity tests are becoming more common in
input in all pavement design procedures. Usually, assessing the in-place strength of concrete for
flexural strength (also called the modulus of rupture) opening the pavement to traffic (ASTM C 1074;
is used in concrete pavement design because it ACPA 2003). Maturity testing provides a reliable
characterizes the strength under the type of loading technique for continuously monitoring concrete
10 Troubleshooting
that the pavement will experience in the field (bending) strength gain during the first 72 hours. The technol-
(see Strength and Strength Gain in chapter 5, ogy offers several advantages over traditional testing
page 116.) methods. Most important, maturity testing allows
pavement owners to open any pavement to traffic as slab distributes loads. The determination of elastic
2 Design
soon as it has attained the necessary strength, with- modulus is described in ASTM C 469. However, elas-
out delay, whether or not it is a fast-track project (see tic modulus is often determined from the empirical
Maturity Testing in chapter 5, page 121). formula related to compressive strength (ACI 318):
3 Materials
Another concrete property important in pave-
ment design is the elastic modulus, E, which typically (2.4)
ranges from 20 to 40 gigapascal (GPa) (3,000 to where,
6,000 ksi). The modulus of elasticity, or stiffness, of
E = modulus elasticity, lb/in2 or MPa.
concrete is a measure of how much the material will
4 Hydration
deflect under load and strongly influences how the = compressive strength, lb/in2 or MPa.
5 Properties
Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in chapter 5,
pages 125 and 127, respectively). The effects depend
on a number of influential factors, including total
water content, types and amounts of cementitious
materials, water-cementitious materials ratio, coarse
and fine aggregate types and quantities, and curing
6 Mix
method.
Slab curling and warping (vertical deflections in the
slab due to differential temperatures and moisture
7 Preparation
contents) are functions of volume changes in the
concrete. Excessive curling and warping have a
substantial effect on long-term pavement performance
in terms of cracking, faulting, and smoothness (see
Curling and Warping in chapter 5, page 150).
In the past, concrete volume changes were not
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
a design input. However, volume changes play an
important role in the M-E PDG (NCHRP 2004).
Accounting for drying shrinkage and thermal expan-
sion/contraction properties in thickness design
evaluation leads to better designs that optimize the
slab thickness required for the design circumstances.
Joint spacing, another important element of concrete
pavement design, should take into account potential
volume changes of the concrete from temperature expan-
sion/contraction and curling/warping. Reducing joint
10 Troubleshooting
________________________________________________
Figure 2-9. Comparison of compressive and flexural of thermal expansion can be accommodated without
strength correlations, based on equations 2.1 and 2.2 increasing the risk of cracking problems.
Durable concrete is stable in its environment; be controlled by specifying the quality or maximum
that is, it experiences minimum deterioration due size of the coarse aggregate.
to freeze-thaw cycles, adverse chemical reactions However, a pavement designer must be aware of the
between the concrete and its surroundings (for exam- potential impact of materials selection (made to improve
3 Materials
ple, deicing chemicals), or internal reactions between durability) on structural and functional performance. A
the portland cement and aggregates (see the sidebar list of some potential impacts is listed here for illustration:
on Concrete Durability in chapter 5, page 130). • Small top-sized coarse aggregates, selected to avoid
Concrete durability is the most critical aspect of D-cracking, will likely reduce load transfer at joints.
long-term pavement performance. However, durability • Air content targets (for freeze-thaw durability) that
is not characterized by concrete strength and is not a exceed six percent will likely decrease the concrete
4 Hydration
direct input in design procedures. Instead, durability strength achieved at given levels of cement.
is assumed in design and governed through appropri- • Gravel or relatively hard coarse aggregates
ate-quality materials and construction specifications. produce concrete with a relatively higher elastic
For example, freeze-thaw durability is primarily modulus (rigidity) than softer aggregates. The
affected by the environment and the air-void system elastic modulus affects crack spacing devel-
5 Properties
of the concrete. Alkali-silica reactivity is controlled opment on CRCP designs and joint spacing
through specifications by controlling the amount of requirements on JPCP designs.
alkali in the concrete, prohibiting aggregates that have • Higher levels of strength used in design may drive
detrimental reactivity, adding an aggregate that limits increased cement content in the concrete
the expansion of the concrete to an acceptable level, mixture, leading to increased paste content,
or using an adequate amount of effective pozzolans or decreased durability, and a higher risk of cracking.
6 Mix
Durability is not a function of concrete strength. Rather, aggregates. Durability also includes the ability of
it is an indication of a particular concrete’s stability in concrete to protect reinforcing steel from corrosion and
its environment. Durability is determined by a concrete’s to resist abrasion.
susceptibility (preferably, lack of susceptibility) to Concrete durability is not an input in pavement design
deterioration due to freeze-thaw cycles, adverse but is assumed during the pavement design process.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
chemical reactions between the concrete and its Concrete durability is generally the goal of good mix
surroundings (for example, deicing chemicals), or design and materials selection.
internal reactions between the portland cement and
10 Troubleshooting
Environmental Factors
2 Design
Key Points
Environmental factors like precipitation and
• Concrete pavements need adequate, well- temperatures can significantly affect pavement perfor-
draining, uniform subgrade/base support. mance.
Uniformity is especially important. Generally, pavements exposed to severe climates
3 Materials
(e.g., higher rainfall or more freeze-thaw cycling)
• Environmental factors can have may not perform as well as pavements in moderate
a significant effect on pavement climates. Pavements in similar climatic regions or
performance but are not considered in exposed to similar climatic forces should perform in a
most design procedures. (The design similar manner if similar materials, proportions, and
4 Hydration
procedure in the NCHRP M‑E PDG construction practices are followed.
attempts to incorporate important Most design procedures, however, do not incor-
environmental factors.) porate environmental factors, or may consider only a
few of them indirectly. The M‑E PDG (NCHRP 2004)
• Traffic data, particularly regarding the attempts to incorporate some of the important envi-
anticipated number of trucks and their ronmental factors into the pavement design process.
5 Properties
loadings, are major factors in pavement Daily and seasonal environmental variations can
design. influence the behavior of concrete pavement in the
following ways (Smith and Hall 2001):
• Opening and closing of transverse joints in
response to daily and seasonal variation in slab
6 Mix
Factors unique to the location of a particular paving temperature, resulting in fluctuations in joint
project that significantly affect its design and perfor- load transfer capability.
mance are site factors: subgrade support conditions, • Upward and downward curling of the slab due
environmental forces, and anticipated traffic loadings. to daily cycling of the temperature gradient
7 Preparation
through the slab thickness (see Curling and
Support Warping in chapter 5, page 150).
Concrete pavements distribute wheel loads over a • Permanent curling (usually upward), which
large area through the slab. Poor or nonuniform sup- may occur during construction as high set tem-
port under the slab, or support degrading with time, perature dissipates.
causes settlement that leads to cracking and failure. • Upward warping of the slab due to variation in
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Concrete pavements do not require as much support the moisture gradient through the slab thickness.
as other pavement materials, thus reducing the extent • Erosion of base and foundation materials due to
of necessary base preparation, but they do require inadequate drainage.
uniform support for good long-term performance. • Freeze-thaw weakening of subgrade soils.
In concrete pavement design, subgrade support is • Freeze-thaw damage to some coarse aggregates.
characterized by the modulus of subgrade reaction • Corrosion of steel, especially in coastal environ-
(k). The modulus of subgrade reaction can be deter- ments and in areas where deicing salts are used.
mined through a plate load test, back-calculation of
deflection data, or correlation to other readily deter- Traffic Considerations
mined soil strength parameters. Traffic types and loadings anticipated on a roadway
10 Troubleshooting
The support value used in design generally repre- over its design life represent a major factor in pave-
sents a seasonally adjusted average over the design ment design. Of particular interest is the number of
life of the project. It is assumed that the support is trucks and their axle loads (axle type, axle weight,
nonerodible and relatively constant. number of axles, axle spacing, and load footprint).
Key Points
companion software and supporting technical docu-
mentation, has been released on a limited basis for
• The design procedure in the NCHRP
industry evaluation. The M‑E PDG was developed
M‑E PDG, which uses mechanistic-
in an effort to improve the basic pavement design
empirical design principles, will
3 Materials
as inputs and the values used for local (stress/strain/deflection analysis and resulting damage
conditions in the models. accumulation) with field verification and calibration.
The M-E procedure in the M‑E PDG is considered to
• In a constructability review process, be a more scientifically based approach than the 1993
designers partner with construction AASHTO procedure, incorporating many new aspects
of pavement design and performance prediction, and
6 Mix
procedure will likely replace the 1993 AASHTO and finally a transfer function is used to estimate the
design procedure. Additionally, many agencies are distress resulting from the load. A similar procedure is
developing a constructability review process for the followed for each load (based on traffic spectra) under
early stages of concrete pavement design to help the conditions existing in the pavement at the time of
ensure the success of their projects. load application (considering load transfer, uniformity
and level of support, curling and warping, concrete
Mechanistic-Empirical Design material properties, and so on). The final step is to
Procedure sum all of the distresses that accumulate in the
Currently, most State agencies are using the 1993 pavement as a function of time or traffic.
AASHTO design procedure. The 1993 design proce- A benefit of M-E analysis is that it predicts specific
10 Troubleshooting
dure is an empirical procedure based on the results distress types as a function of time or traffic. Cracking,
of the AASHO Road Test conducted near Ottawa, faulting, and changes in smoothness (based on the
Threshold values for each distress type are input by To help ensure the success of their construction
2 Design
the designer based on experience, policy, or risk projects, many agencies are exploring development
tolerance. of a constructability review process (CRP). As defined
by the AASHTO Subcommittee on Construction,
Constructability Issues constructability review is “a process that utilizes
3 Materials
Constructability refers to the feasibility of con-
construction personnel with extensive construc-
structing the proposed pavement design, including the
materials, construction, and maintenance aspects. It is tion knowledge early in the design stages of projects
the assurance that the pavement design can be capa- to ensure that the projects are buildable, while also
bly constructed using available materials and methods being cost-effective, biddable, and maintainable”
and then effectively maintained over its service life.
4 Hydration
(AASHTO 2000).
5 Properties
1. What do we want? 3. What can we adjust?
All of the following are modeled, based on These are the parameters that can be adjusted
experience and experimentation, to predict the in the design process in order to achieve the
state of each parameter at the end of the selected properties and performance required in item 1.
6 Mix
design life. The model uses inputs from items 2 • Pavement type (JPCP, JRCP, or CRCP).
and 3 below. If the results are unacceptable, then • Joint details (load transfer, spacing, sealant).
the parameters that can be changed are adjusted
• Edge support (if any).
and the model recalculated.
7 Preparation
• Drainage.
• Acceptable surface roughness at the end of the
• Layer 1: Concrete properties.
life.
◦ Thickness.
• Acceptable cracking at the end of the life. ◦ Strength and modulus of elasticity.
• Acceptable faulting at the end of the life. ◦ Thermal properties (coefficient of thermal
expansion, conductivity, heat capacity).
2. What do we have to accommodate? ◦ Shrinkage.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
These are parameters that vary from location ◦ Unit weight.
to location and cannot be changed, but must be • Layer 2: Stabilized layer properties.
accounted for in the modeling. ◦ Material type.
• Expected traffic loading. ◦ Thickness.
◦ Type of traffic (classes). ◦ Strength.
◦ Growth of traffic density with time. ◦ Thermal properties.
• The climate in which the pavement is built. • Layer 3: Crushed stone properties.
◦ Strength.
• Water table depth.
◦ Gradation.
• Layer 4: Soil properties .
10 Troubleshooting
◦ Gradation.
Implementing a CRP is expected to offer the follow- design elements been developed as a part of the entire
2 Design
ing advantages (AASHTO 2000): pavement system? Has an effective jointing plan been
• Enhance early planning. developed for intersections or other complex locations?
• Minimize scope changes.
Construction
• Reduce design-related change orders.
Are competent contractors available to do the
3 Materials
• Construction. or conditions?
• Curing and opening to traffic.
• Maintenance. Maintenance
Is the design maintainable? Are there features that
7 Preparation
2 Design
Key Points
existing pavement type and the bonding condition
between layers, as described below (Smith, Yu, and
• Concrete overlays are used as a
Peshkin 2002).
rehabilitation technique on existing
concrete and asphalt pavements. Overlays on Concrete Pavements
3 Materials
Concrete overlays on concrete pavements are either
• The following types of concrete overlays bonded or separated.
may be considered: (on existing concrete) Bonded Concrete Overlays. A bonded concrete
bonded concrete overlays and separated overlay is a thin concrete surface layer (typically 76
concrete overlays, and (on existing to 102 mm [3 to 4 in.] thick) that is bonded to an
4 Hydration
asphalt) conventional whitetopping and existing concrete pavement, creating a monolithic
thin and ultrathin whitetopping. structure. Bonded overlays are used to increase the
structural capacity of an existing concrete pavement or
• If the existing pavement is cracked, the to improve its overall ride quality.
cracks are likely to reflect through the new Bonded overlays should be used only where the
layer unless a separation layer is provided.
5 Properties
underlying pavement is free of structural distress and
in relatively good condition, without existing cracks
• If the existing pavement is suffering from
that will reflect through the new layer. To perform
materials-related distress, in general it
well, the joints should be aligned with joints in the
should not be overlaid.
support layer, and there should be an adequate bond
between the two layers.
• The most important aspect of overlay
6 Mix
Bonding is generally accomplished by milling and
design is the interface with the existing
then shot-blasting or sand-blasting the existing con-
pavement.
crete surface before the overlay is placed.
7 Preparation
Separated Concrete Overlays. Separated overlays
(sometimes incorrectly called unbonded concrete
overlays) contain an interlayer between the existing
As with conventional concrete pavements, con- concrete pavement and the new concrete surface layer.
crete overlays require the use of a durable concrete The separation layer is typically one inch of hot mix
mixture to produce an effective project. However, a asphalt. It is placed to ensure independent movement
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
few additional issues need to be considered specific to between the two concrete slabs, thereby minimizing the
the design and construction of concrete overlays (see potential for reflection cracking.
Preparation for Overlays in chapter 7, page 200). The asphalt interlayer bonds to both the original
concrete slab and the concrete overlay, adding load
Types of Concrete Overlays carrying capacity but remaining flexible enough to
Concrete overlays are being used more often as provide required stress relief.
a rehabilitation technique on existing concrete and Separated concrete overlays are typically con-
existing asphalt pavements. Several types of concrete structed about 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 in.) thick.
overlays are available, depending on the type and Because of the separation layer, they can be placed
condition of the existing pavement. Concrete overlays on concrete pavements in practically any condi-
offer many important advantages, including extended tion. However, overlays on pavements in advanced
10 Troubleshooting
service life, increased load-carrying capacity, fast con- stages of deterioration or with significant materials-
struction times, reduced maintenance requirements, related problems (such as D-cracking or alkali-silica
and lower life-cycle costs. reactivity) should be considered cautiously, because
Concrete Overlays
expansive materials-related distresses can cause crack- In separated overlays, using a whitewash layer will
2 Design
ing in the new overlay. help cool the asphalt separation layer and reduce
differential thermal stresses in the new concrete layer,
Overlays on Asphalt Pavements (Whitetopping)
but may reduce the bond between the asphalt and the
Concrete overlays on asphalt pavements include
concrete. To cool the asphalt separation layer without
conventional whitetopping and thin or ultrathin
3 Materials
If the existing concrete pavement is cracked, the If the existing pavement is suffering from materials-
cracks are likely to reflect through the new layer related distress, it should not be overlaid.
unless a separation layer like asphalt is provided.
2 Design
Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods Software User Guide. MCO16P. Skokie, IL: American
of Sampling and Testing, 24th Edition, and AASHTO Concrete Pavement Association.
Provisional Standards, 2004 Edition, HM-24-M. https://www.
Anderson, S. D. and D. J. Fisher. 1997. Constructibility
transportation.org/publications/bookstore.nsf.
Review Process for Transportation Facilities. NCHRP
AASHTO. 1993. AASHTO Guide for Design of Pave- Report 390. Washington, DC: Transportation
3 Materials
ment Structures. Washington, DC: American Research Board.
Association of State Highway and Transportation FHWA. 2002. High Performance Concrete Pavements:
Officials. Project Summary. FHWA-IF-02-026. Washington,
———. 1998. Supplement to the AASHTO Guide for DC: Federal Highway Administration.
Design of Pavement Structures, Part II—Rigid Pave- Kosmatka, S. H., B. Kerkhoff, and W. C. Panarese.
ment Design and Rigid Pavement Joint Design. 2002. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures.
4 Hydration
Washington, DC: American Association of State Engineering Bulletin 001. Skokie, IL: Portland
Highway and Transportation Officials. Cement Association.
———. 2000. Constructibility Review Best Practices NCHRP. 2004. Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Guide. Washington, DC: American Association of New and Rehabilitated Pavements. NCHRP Project
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 1-37a. Washington, DC: Transportation Research
Subcommittee on Construction. Board.
5 Properties
PCA. 1984. Thickness Design for Concrete Highway
and Street Pavements. EB109.01P. Skokie, IL:
ASTM standards may be found in Annual Book of ASTM Portland Cement Association.
Standards, ASTM International. www.astm.org. Raphael, J. M. 1984. Tensile Strength of Concrete.
ASTM C 78, Standard Test Method for Flexural ACI Journal 81.2: 158–165.
Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Rasmussen, R.O., Y.A. Resendez, G.K. Chang, and
6 Mix
Third-Point Loading) T.R. Ferragut. 2004. Concrete Pavement Solutions For
ASTM C 469, Standard Test Method for Static Reducing Tire-Pavement Noise. FHWA/ISU Coopera-
Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete tive Agreement DTFH61-01-X-00042. Ames, IA:
7 Preparation
in Compression Center for Transportation Research and Education,
Iowa State University. Smith, K. D. and K. T. Hall.
ASTM C 1074, Standard Practice for Estimating 2001. Concrete Pavement Design Details and Con-
Concrete Strength by the Maturity Method struction Practices. Reference Manual for Course
ASTM C 1202, Standard Test Method for Electrical 131060. Arlington, VA: National Highway Institute.
Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Smith, K. D., H. T. Yu, and D. G. Peshkin. 2002.
Ion Penetration Portland Cement Concrete Overlays: State of the
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
ACI. 2002. Guide for Design of Jointed Concrete Technology Synthesis. FHWA-IF-02-045. Washing-
ton, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
Pavements for Streets and Local Roads.
ACI 325.12R-02. Farmington Hills, MI: American Wiegand, P. T. Ferragut, D.S. Harrington, R.O. Ras-
Concrete Institute. mussen, S. Karamihas, and T. Cackler. 2006.
Evaluation of U.S. and European Concrete Pavement
———. 2002. Hot Weather Concreting. ACI 305R-99. Noise Reduction Methods. FHWA/ISU Cooperative
Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute. Agreement DTFH61-01-X-00042 (Project 15).
———. 2002. Cold Weather Concreting. ACI 306R-88. Ames, IA: Center for Transportation Research and
Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute. Education, Iowa State University.
———. 2005. Building Code Requirements for Yoder, E. J. and M. W. Witzak. 1975. Principles of
Structural Concrete. ACI 318-05. Farmington Hills, Pavement Design. Second Edition. New York, NY:
MI: American Concrete Institute. John Wiley and Sons.
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Fundamentals of Materials
Used for Concrete Pavements
3 Materials
Cementitious Materials 28
Aggregates 39
4 Hydration
Water 52
Chemical Admixtures 55
5 Properties
At its simplest, concrete is a mixture of glue curing compounds are applied to the concrete surface.
(cement, water, and air) binding together fillers All these materials affect the way concrete behaves in
(aggregate) (figure 3-1). But other materials, like both its fresh and hardened states.
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and
6 Mix
chemical admixtures, are added to the mixture. This chapter discusses each material in turn: why it
During pavement construction, dowel bars, tiebars, is used, how it influences concrete, and the standard
and reinforcement may be added to the system, and specifications that govern its use.
7 Preparation
9–15% Cement
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Paste (cement + water)
15–16% Water
Mortar (paste + fine aggregate)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 3-1. Concrete is basically a mixture of cement, water/air, and aggregates (percentages are by volume). (PCA)
Cementitious Materials
2 Design
Key Points
• Cement is the glue that binds concrete ◦ Pozzolans react chemically with calcium
together, and its chemical composition hydrate (CH) to form additional calcium silicate
influences concrete behavior. hydrate (C-S-H), a beneficial product of cement
3 Materials
(SCMs) and, like portland cement, are used prescriptive-based specifications (ASTM C 150 /
in all aspects of concrete construction. AASHTO M 85 or ASTM C 595 / AASHTO M 240)
or by a performance specification (ASTM C 1157).
Fly ash and natural pozzolans can be specified
7 Preparation
Cement paste (cement, water, and air) is the granulated blast-furnace (GGBF) slag are typically
glue that binds together the aggregates in concrete. added to portland cement in concrete for pavements.
Although aggregates account for most of the volume in This section introduces the characteristics and
concrete, cement significantly influences the behavior behavior of all cementitious materials, including
of fresh and hardened concrete. For example, the hydraulic cements (portland cements and blended
hydration products of cement are most likely to be cements) and SCMs.
affected by chemical attack and to change dimensionally For specific information on the chemistry of
10 Troubleshooting
with a changing environment (e.g., drying shrinkage). cements and cement hydration, see all of chapter 4.
Portland cement is the most common cement used (For specific information on proportioning cementi-
in concrete for construction. Supplementary cementi- tious materials in concrete mixtures, see Absolute
tious materials (SCMs) like fly ash and ground, Volume Method in chapter 6, page 179.)
2 Design
Hydraulic cement is a material that sets and hard- tively narrow band.
ens when it comes in contact with water through a Portland cement is made by heating carefully
chemical reaction called hydration, and is capable controlled amounts of finely ground siliceous materi-
of doing so under water (ASTM C 125-03). Hydra- als (shale) and calcareous materials (limestone) to
3 Materials
tion is a nonreversible chemical reaction. It results in temperatures above 1,400°C (2,500°F). The product
hydrated cement paste, a strong, stiff material. (For a of this burning is a clinker, normally in the form of
complete discussion of hydraulic cement chemistry hard spheres approximately 25 mm (1 in.) in diam-
and hydration, see chapter 4, page 69.) eter. The clinker is then ground with gypsum to form
Hydraulic cements include portland cement and the gray or white powder known as portland cement.
(The inventor of the first portland cement thought its
4 Hydration
blended cements. (Other types of hydraulic cements
are rapid-setting calcium sulfo-alumina cements used color was similar to that of rock found near Portland,
for repair materials or for pavements where fast turn- England; thus, the name.) The average Blaine fineness
around times are critical [Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and of modern cements ranges from 300 to 500 m2/kg.
Panarese 2002].) Different types of portland cement are manufactured
to meet physical and chemical requirements for spe-
5 Properties
Portland Cement (ASTM C 150 / AASHTO M 85) cific purposes and to meet the requirements of ASTM
Portland cement is the most common hydraulic C 150 / AASHTO M 85 or ASTM C 1157 (Johansen
cement used in concrete for construction. It is com- et al. 2005). Despite their broad similarities, there are
posed primarily of calcium silicates, with a smaller some significant differences between the AASHTO and
proportion of calcium aluminates (see chapter 4 for ASTM requirements. When ordering cements, be sure
more details of these compounds). By definition, the to inform the manufacturer which specification applies.
6 Mix
Cementitious Materials
7 Preparation
Hydraulic cements Pozzolans (or materials with
pozzolanic characteristics)
Portland cement
Blended cement
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Supplementary GGBF slag Class C fly ash
cementitious materials Class C fly ash Class F fly ash
Natural pozzolans (calcined clay,
calcined shale, metakaolin)
Silica fume
Simple Definitions
Cement (hydraulic cement)—material that sets and hardens by a series of nonreversible chemical reactions with
water, a process called hydration.
Portland cement—a specific type of hydraulic cement.
Pozzolan—material that reacts with cement and water in ways that improve microstructure.
10 Troubleshooting
Cementitious Materials
ASTM C 150 / AASHTO M 85 describe types of attributes rather than by their chemical composition.
2 Design
portland cement using Roman numeral designations Under ASTM C 1157, hydraulic cements must meet
(table 3-1). You might see these type designations physical performance test requirements, as opposed to
with the subscript “A,” which indicates the cement prescriptive restrictions on ingredients or chemistry as
contains air-entraining admixtures. However, air- found in other cement specifications.
3 Materials
entraining cements are not commonly available. ASTM C 1157 is designed generically for hydrau-
lic cements, including portland cement and blended
Blended Cements (ASTM C 595 /
cement, and provides for six types (table 3-3).
AASHTO M 240)
Blended cements are manufactured by grinding Selecting and Specifying Hydraulic Cements
or blending portland cement (or portland cement When specifying cements for a project, check the
4 Hydration
clinker) together with SCMs like fly ash, GGBF slag, local availability of cement types; some types may not
or another pozzolan (see Supplementary Cementitious be readily available in all areas. If a specific cement
Materials later in this chapter, page 31).
Blended cements are used in all aspects of concrete Table 3-1. Portland Cement Classifications (ASTM C 150 /
construction in the same way as portland cements. AASHTO M 85)
Like portland cements, blended cements can be the
5 Properties
type is not available, you may be able to achieve the Project specifications should focus on the needs of
2 Design
desired concrete properties by combining another the concrete pavement and allow the use of a variety
cement type with the proper amount of certain of materials to meet those needs. A cement may meet
SCMs. For example, a Type I cement with appropriate the requirements of more than one type or specifica-
amounts of fly ash may be able to provide a lower heat tion. Table 3-4 lists hydraulic cement types for various
3 Materials
of hydration. applications.
Allow flexibility in cement selection. Limiting a
project to only one cement type, one brand, or one Supplementary Cementitious
standard cement specification can result in increased Materials
costs and/or project delays, and it may not allow for In at least 60 percent of modern concrete mixtures
the best use of local materials.
4 Hydration
in the United States, portland cement is supplemented
Do not require cements with special properties or partially replaced by SCMs (PCA 2000). When
unless the special properties are necessary. used in conjunction with portland cement, SCMs con-
tribute to the properties of concrete through hydraulic
Using Unfamiliar Cements or pozzolanic activity or both.
Hydraulic materials will set and harden when
5 Properties
As with other concrete ingredients, if an unfamiliar mixed with water. Pozzolanic materials require a
portland cement or blended cement is to be used, the source of calcium hydroxide (CH), usually sup-
concrete should be tested for the properties required plied by hydrating portland cement. GGBF slags are
in the project specifications (PCA 2000; Detwiler,
hydraulic materials, and Class F fly ashes are typically
Bhatty, and Bhattacharja 1996).
pozzolanic. Class C fly ash has both hydraulic and
6 Mix
pozzolanic characteristics.
7 Preparation
Table 3-4. Cement Types for Common Applications*
Cement General Moderate High early Low heat of Moderate High Resistance to
specification purpose heat of strength hydration sulfate sulfate alkali-silica
hydration (patching) (very resistance resistance reactivity **
(massive massive (in contact (in contact (for use with
elements) elements) with sulfate with sulfate reactive
soils) soils) aggregates)
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
STM C 150 /
A I II III IV II V Low alkali option
AASHTO M 85 (moderate
portland heat option)
cements
STM C 1157
A GU MH HE LH MS HS Option R
hydraulic
cements ***
10 Troubleshooting
* Check the local availability of specific cements, as all cements are not available everywhere.
** The option for low reactivity with aggregates can be applied to any cement type in the columns to the left.
*** For ASTM C 1157 cements, the nomenclature of hydraulic cement, portland cement, modified portland cement, or
blended hydraulic cement is used with the type designation.
Cementitious Materials
Use of SCMs in concrete mixtures has been grow- Fly ash generally affects concrete as follows:
2 Design
ing in North America since the 1970s. There are • Less water is normally required to achieve
similarities among many of these materials: workability.
• SCMs’ basic chemical components are similar • Setting time may be delayed.
to those of portland cement. • Early strengths may be depressed, but later
3 Materials
• Most SCMs are byproducts of other industrial strengths are increased, because fly ash reaction
processes. rates are initially slower but continue longer.
• The judicious use of SCMs is desirable not only • Heat of hydration is reduced.
for the environment and energy conservation, • Resistance to alkali-silica reaction and sulfate
but also for the technical benefits they provide attack may be improved when the appropriate
ash substitution rate is used.
4 Hydration
to concrete.
SCMs can be used to improve a particular concrete • Permeability is reduced; consequently, resis-
property, like resistance to alkali-aggregate reactiv- tance to chloride ion penetration is improved.
ity. However, mixtures containing SCMs should be • Incompatibility with some cements and chemi-
tested to determine whether (1) the SCM is indeed cal admixtures may cause early stiffening.
improving the property, (2) the dosage is correct (an
5 Properties
Class F and Class C fly ashes are pozzolans. Some Silica fume ASTM C 1240
Class C ashes, when exposed to water, will hydrate
and harden, meaning that they may also be Highly reactive AASHTO M 321
pozzolans
considered a hydraulic material.
2 Design
Fly ash is primarily silicate glass containing silica,
alumina, calcium, and iron (the same primary com- the typical particle size measuring under 35 µm. The
ponents of cement). Minor constituents are sulfur, surface area is typically 300 to 500 m2/kg, similar to
sodium, potassium, and carbon, all of which can affect cement (figure 3-3).
concrete properties. Crystalline compounds should Fly ash will lose mass when heated to 1,000°C
3 Materials
be present in small amounts only. The relative density (1,830°F), mainly due to organic volatiles and
(specific gravity) of fly ash generally ranges between combustion of residual carbon. This mass loss is
1.9 and 2.8. The color is gray or tan. Particle sizes referred to as loss-on-ignition (LOI) and is limited in
4 Hydration
5 Properties
6 Mix
Figure 3-2. Scanning electron micrograph of fly ash particles. ________________________________________________
Note the characteristic spherical shape that helps improve Figure 3-3. Typical size distributions of cementitious
workability. Average particle size is approximately 10 µm. materials (CTLGroup)
(PCA)
7 Preparation
Table 3-6. Chemical Analyses and Selected Properties of Type I Cement and Several Supplementary Cementitious Materials
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Alumina (Al2O3), % 5.00 23.00 18.00 12.00 0.40 43.00
Total eq. alkali (as Na2O), % 0.77 2.20 6.30 0.60 1.90 0.30
Cementitious Materials
most specifications to less than 6 percent. Class F fly tive density (specific gravity) for GGBF slag is in the
2 Design
ashes typically contain less than 10 percent calcium range of 2.85 to 2.95. The bulk density varies from
(CaO), with 5 percent LOI. Class C materials often 1,050 to 1,375 kg/m3 (66 to 86 lb/ft3).
contain 18 to 30 percent calcium (CaO), with less GGBF slag consists essentially of silicates and
than 2 percent LOI. aluminosilicates of calcium, the same basic com-
3 Materials
ASTM C 618 / AASHTO M 295 Class F and Class ponents in portland cement or fly ash. GGBF slag
C fly ashes are used in many different types of con- generally does not contain tricalcium aluminate (C3A),
crete. For more information on fly ash, see ACAA which affects setting.
(2003) and ACI 232 (2003). ASTM C 989 / AASHTO M 302 classify GGBF
Ground, Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag. GGBF slag, slag by its level of reactivity as Grade 80, 100, or
also called slag cement, has been used as a cementi- 120 (where Grade 120 is the most reactive). ACI 233
4 Hydration
tious material in concrete since the beginning of (2003) provides an extensive review of GGBF slag.
the 1900s (Abrams 1924). Because of its chemistry, Natural Pozzolans. In general, pozzolans are
GGBF slag behaves as a cement in that it will hydrate included in concrete mixtures to help convert calcium
without the presence of added calcium, although hydroxide (CH), a less desirable product of hydration,
hydration rates are accelerated when the pH of the into the more desirable calcium silicate hydrate
5 Properties
• Early strengths may be depressed, but later use of volcanic ash and calcined clay dates back to
strengths are increased. 2,000 BCE and earlier in other cultures. Many of the
• Resistance to chloride penetration is signifi- Roman, Greek, Indian, and Egyptian pozzolan
7 Preparation
The granulated material is normally ground to a Figure 3-4. Scanning electron micrograph of GGBF slag
Blaine fineness of about 400 to 700 m2/kg. The rela- particles. Note the angular shape. (PCA)
2 Design
to a fine powder; they include calcined clay, calcined
Effect of Pozzolans in Cement Paste
shale, and metakaolin.
In very broad terms, the primary reaction in hydrating
Calcined clays are used in general purpose concrete
cement is the following:
construction in much the same way as other poz-
water + cement = calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) +
3 Materials
zolans. They can be used as a partial replacement for
calcium hydroxide (CH)
cement, typically in the range of 15 to 35 percent,
and can enhance strength development and resistance Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) is the primary
to sulfate attack, control alkali-silica reactivity, and compound that contributes to the strength and
reduce permeability. Calcined clays have a relative impermeability of hydrated cement paste. Calcium
hydroxide (CH) is not as strong and is more soluble, so it
density between 2.40 and 2.61, with Blaine fineness
4 Hydration
is somewhat less desirable.
ranging from 650 to 1,350 m2/kg.
Calcined shale may contain on the order of 5 to Adding a pozzolan like fly ash, in the presence of water,
10 percent calcium, which results in its having some results in conversion of the calcium hydroxide (CH) to
cementing or hydraulic properties. more calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H):
Metakaolin is produced by low-temperature calcium hydroxide (CH) + pozzolan + water =
5 Properties
calcination of high-purity kaolin clay. The product is calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)
ground to an average particle size of about 1 to 2 µm; This conversion is a significant benefit of adding
this is about 10 times finer than cement, but still 10 pozzolans like fly ash to the mixture. (See chapter 4,
times coarser than silica fume. Metakaolin is used in page 69, for a detailed description of cement chemistry
special applications where very low permeability or and hydration, including the effects of specific SCMs on
very high strength is required. In these applications, the hydration process.)
6 Mix
metakaolin is used more as an additive to the concrete
rather than a replacement of cement; typical additions
are around 10 percent of the cement mass.
7 Preparation
Natural pozzolans are classified as Class N tumbling in an air stream that causes the particles to
pozzolans by ASTM C 618 / AASHTO M 295. agglomerate into larger grains held together by elec-
ACI 232 (2003) provides a review of natural trostatic forces. It is important that concrete mixtures
pozzolans. containing silica fume are batched and mixed in a way
Silica Fume. Because it can reduce workability and that ensures that the agglomerations are broken up
is expensive, silica fume is typically not used in pave- and the material is uniformly distributed in the mix.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
ments except for special applications such as those The material is used as a pozzolan and is specified
subjected to studded tires or in curbs and gutters. in ASTM C 1240. The water requirement of silica
Silica fume, also referred to as microsilica or con- fume may be high, requiring that superplasticizers be
densed silica fume, is a byproduct of the silicon or used in concrete containing more than five percent
ferrosilicone industries. The product is the vapor that by mass of cement. The resulting concrete normally
rises from electric arc furnaces used to reduce high- exhibits significantly increased strength and reduced
purity quartz with coal. When it cools, it condenses permeability. Concrete containing silica fume is often
and is collected in cloth bags, then processed to at higher risk of plastic shrinkage cracking because
remove impurities. The particles are extremely small, bleeding is markedly reduced. Specific gravity of silica
some 100 times smaller than cement grains, and are fume is in the range 2.2 to 2.6.
10 Troubleshooting
mainly glassy spheres of silicon oxide. Other Pozzolans. Other industrial byproducts like
The loose bulk density is very low and the rice husk ash are potentially useful as concrete con-
material is difficult to handle. In order to make it stituents. A specification has been recently developed
easier to handle, silica fume is usually densified by by AASHTO M 321 to serve as a specification for
Cementitious Materials
2 Design
these materials, which may not fall under categories expected when the paving operation will be
covered by other specifications. conducted.
Durability/Permeability. SCMs generally improve
Effects of Supplementary Cementitious potential concrete durability by reducing
Materials in Concrete
permeability. Almost all durability-related failure
3 Materials
SCMs in concrete affect a wide range of fresh and mechanisms involve the movement of fluids through
hardened concrete properties. Some of the effects the concrete. Tests show that the permeability of
may be considered desirable and are the reason why concrete decreases as the quantity of hydrated
the materials are used. Other side effects may be less cementitious materials increases and the water-
desirable and have to be accommodated. An under- cementitious materials ratio decreases.
standing of all the potential effects is essential to
4 Hydration
nations is essential to provide assurance of critical reactivity (ASR) of most reactive aggregates (see Aggre-
concrete properties. gate Durability later in this chapter, page 47) can be
Fresh Properties. In fresh concrete, SCMs can affect controlled with the use of certain SCMs. Low-calcium
7 Preparation
workability and setting times in the following ways: Class F fly ashes have reduced reactivity expansion
• Workability is always changed by SCMs. Fly up to 70 percent or more in some cases. At optimum
ash will generally increase workability, as will dosage, some Class C fly ashes can also reduce reactiv-
GGBF slag to a lesser extent. Silica fume may ity, but at a low dosage a high-calcium Class C fly ash
significantly reduce workability at dosages can exacerbate ASR.
above five percent. SCMs reduce ASR (Bhatty 1985, Bhatty and Green-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• The rate of slump loss (stiffening) may be ing 1978) by (1) providing additional calcium silicate
increased if there are chemical incompatibilities hydrates (C-S-H) that chemically tie up the alkalies
(see Potential Materials Incompatibilities in in the concrete, (2) diluting the alkali content of the
chapter 4, page 97). system, and (3) reducing permeability, thus slowing
• Setting times may be delayed and early the ingress of water.
strength gain slowed if GGBF slag and fly ash It is important to determine the optimum dosage
are included. However, this effect will depend for a given set of materials to maximize the reduction
on the product used. in reactivity and to avoid dosages and materials that
All of these factors can have a significant effect can aggravate reactivity. Dosage rates should be veri-
on the timing of finishing and saw cutting in pave- fied by tests, such as ASTM C 1567 or ASTM C 1293.
10 Troubleshooting
ments, making it important that the performance of (Descriptions of aggregate testing and preventive
the cementitious system being selected for a project measures to be taken to prevent deleterious alkali-
be tested in trial batches well before the project starts. aggregate reaction are discussed later in this chapter
Trial batches need to be tested at the temperatures under Aggregate Durability, page 47.)
2 Design
3 Materials
4 Hydration
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
Table 3-8. Effects of Supplementary Cementitious Materials on Hardened Concrete Properties
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Cementitious Materials
SCMs that reduce alkali-silica reactions will not Resistance to Freeze-Thaw Damage and Deicer
2 Design
reduce alkali-carbonate reactions, a type of reaction Scaling. There is a perception that concrete contain-
involving cement alkalies and certain dolomitic ing SCMs is more prone to frost-related damage than
limestones. plain concrete. This is partially due to the severity of
Sulfate Resistance. With proper proportioning and the test methods used (ASTM C 666, ASTM C 672),
3 Materials
materials selection, silica fume, fly ash, natural poz- but may also be related to the changing bleed rates
zolans, and GGBF slag can improve the resistance and finishing requirements for concretes with SCMs
of concrete to external sulfate attack. This is done (Taylor 2004). With or without SCMs, concrete that is
primarily by reducing permeability and by reducing exposed to freezing cycles must have sound
the amount of reactive elements (such as tricalcium aggregates (see Aggregate Durability later in this
chapter, page 47), adequate strength, a proper air-void
4 Hydration
ronments. However, one long-term study in a very on local experience. Durability should be demon-
severe environment showed only a slight improvement strated by field or laboratory performance when new
in sulfate resistance in concrete containing GGBF materials and dosages are introduced.
7 Preparation
slag compared to concrete containing only portland Drying Shrinkage. When used in low to moderate
cement as the cementing material (Stark 1989, 1996). amounts, the effect of fly ash, GGBF slag, calcined
Calcined clay has been demonstrated to provide clay, calcined shale, and silica fume on the drying
sulfate resistance greater than high-sulfate resistant shrinkage of concrete of similar strength is generally
Type V cement (Barger et al. 1997). small and of little practical significance.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Key Points
• In concrete, aggregate (rocks and minerals) is paste. It also contributes to achieving a workable
the filler held together by the cement paste. mix with a minimum amount of water.
Aggregate forms the bulk of the concrete system.
3 Materials
• For durable concrete pavements, the aggregate
• Aggregates are generally chemically and should be durable (in general, not alkali reactive,
dimensionally stable; therefore, it is desirable prone to frost damage, or susceptible to salt
to maximize aggregate content in concrete damage). Many kinds of aggregate can be used,
mixtures compared to the more chemically but granite and limestone are common in concrete
4 Hydration
reactive cement paste. pavements.
• Aggregate strongly influences concrete’s fresh • Always prepare trial batches of concrete using the
properties (particularly workability) and long- specific project aggregates to establish the final
term durability. mixture characteristics and, if necessary, make
adjustments to the mix.
5 Properties
• It is critical that aggregate be well-graded (that
is, there should be a wide range of aggregate • The physical and durability requirements of
sizes). Well-graded aggregate has less space aggregate for concrete mixtures, as well as
between aggregate particles that will be filled classifications of coarse and fine aggregates, are
with the more chemically reactive cement covered in ASTM C 33.
6 Mix
7 Preparation
Aggregate—rocks and minerals—is the filler held aggregates should be tested before they are used in
together by cement paste. Aggregate typically accounts concrete. As with the introduction of any material
for 60 to 75 percent of concrete by volume. Compared into a concrete mix design, prepare trial batches using
to cement paste, aggregates are generally more chemi- the specific project aggregates to establish the charac-
cally stable and less prone to moisture-related volume teristics of the resultant concrete mixture and identify
changes. Therefore, in concrete mixtures it is desirable any necessary mix adjustments.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
to maximize the volume of aggregate and reduce the This section describes the types of aggregate and
volume of cement while maintaining desired concrete the properties of aggregates that affect concrete mixes
properties. for pavements.
Aggregates used in concrete mixtures for pavements
must be clean, hard, strong, and durable and relatively Aggregate Types
free of absorbed chemicals, coatings of clay, and other Aggregates are sometimes identified by their mineral-
fine materials that could affect hydration and bonding ogical classification, that is, by their chemistry and how
with the cement paste. Aggregates are often washed they were formed. These classifications are important
and graded at the pit or plant. Some variation in type, because they provide a means of partially predicting
quality, cleanliness, grading, moisture content, and a specific aggregate’s effect on plastic and hardened
10 Troubleshooting
other properties is expected from load to load. concrete mixtures. However, different materials from
Service records are invaluable in evaluating the same geological formation may be significantly
aggregates, particularly with respect to alkali-silica different. Before using aggregate from a new source or
reactivity. In the absence of a performance record, quarry, verify its performance in concrete mixtures.
Aggregates
Ways to Describe Aggregates Igneous rocks are the product of cooled molten
Aggregates—rocks and minerals—can be described magma, sedimentary rocks are the product of sedi-
by their general composition, source, or origin: ment deposits squeezed into layered solids, and
• General composition. metamorphic rocks are the product of igneous or
3 Materials
◦ Mineral: naturally occurring substance with an sedimentary rocks that have been transformed under
orderly structure and defined chemistry. heat and pressure.
◦ Rock: mixture of one or more minerals. Coarse-grained igneous rocks (for example, granite)
• Source. and sedimentary rocks consisting of carbonate materi-
◦ Natural sands and gravels: formed in riverbeds als from deposited sea shells (for example, limestone)
or seabeds and usually dug from a pit, river, are two rock types commonly used as aggregate in
4 Hydration
lake, or seabed; sands are fine aggregates; concrete, as discussed below. Carbonate materials are
gravels are coarser particles. primarily composed of calcium compounds, while
◦ Manufactured aggregate (crushed stone or siliceous materials (including granite) are predomi-
sand): quarried in large sizes, then crushed and nantly based on compounds of silica.
sieved to the required grading; also, crushed For a detailed discussion of other rock types, see
5 Properties
◦ Sedimentary: deposits squeezed into layered cial in reducing expansion and shrinkage in climates
solids; includes carbonate materials from
where large fluctuations in temperature occur (see the
deposited sea shells (for example, limestone).
section on Aggregate Coefficient of Thermal Expan-
◦ Metamorphic: igneous or sedimentary rocks
7 Preparation
or quarries, are a mixture of rocks and minerals (see (1) limestone, composed primarily of calcite, and
ASTM C 294 for brief descriptions). A mineral is a (2) dolomite, composed primarily of the mineral
naturally occurring solid substance with an orderly dolomite. Mixtures of calcite and dolomite are
internal structure and a narrow chemical composition. common (figure 3-5).
Rocks are generally composed of several minerals. Carbonate rock has several different modes of
Single-mineral rocks that may be used for concrete origin and displays many textural variations. Two
aggregates include dolomite and magnetite. Minerals carbonate rocks having the same origin may display a
that appear in rocks used for aggregates include silica great range of textures. In some carbonated rocks, the
(e.g., quartz), silicates (e.g., feldspar), and carbonates texture is so dense that individual grains are not visible.
(e.g., calcite). Rock types composed of more than Others may have coarse grains with the calcite or
10 Troubleshooting
one mineral include granite, gabbro, basalt, quartzite, dolomite readily recognizable. In many carbonate rocks
traprock, limestone, shale, and marble. fragments of seashells of various kinds are present.
These lists are not exhaustive. More information is Shell sands and shell banks, as well as coral reefs and
shown in tables 3-9 and 3-10. coralline sands, are examples of carbonate deposits.
Table 3-9. Mineral Constituents in Aggregates Carbonate rocks display a large range of physi-
2 Design
Minerals cal and chemical properties. They vary in color from
almost pure white through shades of gray to black.
Silica Quartz
Opal The darker shades are usually caused by plant-
Chalcedony based (carbonaceous) material. The presence of iron
Tridymite
3 Materials
Cristobalite oxides creates buffs, browns, and reds. Dolomite is
Silicates commonly light in color. It often has ferrous iron
Feldspars
Ferromagnesian compounds that may oxidize, tinting the rock shades
Hornblende of buff and brown.
Augite
Clay The properties of limestone and dolomite vary with
Illites the degree of consolidation. The compressive strength
4 Hydration
Kaolins
Chlorites of commercial limestone typically varies from 70 to
Montmorillonites 100 MPa (10,000 to 15,000 lb/in2). The porosity of
Mica
Zeolite most limestone and dolomite is generally low, and the
Carbonate absorption of liquids is correspondingly small.
Calcite
Dolomote
5 Properties
Granite
Sulfate
Gypsum Granites are igneous rocks composed predomi-
Anhydrite nantly of forms of silica (for example, quartz) and
Iron sulfide
Pyrite silicates (for example, feldspar). The grain or texture
Marcasite varies from fine to coarse. Granites may vary markedly
Pyrrhotite
Iron oxide in color and texture within individual quarries, but
6 Mix
Magnetite more commonly the color and texture are uniform for
Hematite
Goethite large volumes of rock.
Imenite Because of its mineral composition and interlock-
Limonite
7 Preparation
ing crystals, granite is hard and abrasion resistant.
Source: Kosmatka, Kerkoff, and Panarese (2002) Its compressive strength typically ranges from 50
to 400 MPa (7,000 to 60,000 lb/in2), with the typi-
cal value of 165 MPa (24,000 lb/in2) in the dry state.
Most granite is capable of supporting any load to
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks
Granite Conglomerate Marble
Syenite Sandstone Metaquartzite
Diorite Quartzite Slate
Gabbro (Traprock) Graywacke Phyllite
Peridotite Subgraywacke Schist
Pegmatite Arkose Amphibolite
Volcanic glass Claystone, siltstone, Hornfels
Obsidian argillite, and shale Gneiss
Pumice Carbonate Serpentinite
Tuff Limestone
Scoria Dolomite
Perlite Marl
10 Troubleshooting
Pitchstone Chalk
Felsite Chert
Basalt
Source: Kosmatka, Kerkoff, and Panarese (2002)
* Roughly in order of abundance
Aggregates
which it might be subjected during ordinary con- Sand and gravel deposited at higher elevations from
2 Design
struction uses. The flexural strength of intact granite, glaciers may be superior to deposits in low areas. The
expressed as a modulus of rupture, varies from about reason is that the rock high in an ice sheet has been
9 to 28 MPa (1,300 to 4,000 lb/in2). The modulus of carried from higher, more mountainous areas, which
elasticity of granite is higher than that of any of the tend to consist of hard, sound rocks. Sand and gravel
3 Materials
other rock types for which data are available. that have been smoothed by prolonged agitation in
water (figure 3-6[b]) usually are considered better
Gravel and Sand
quality because they are harder and have a more
Close to half of the coarse aggregates used in
rounded shape than less abraded sand and gravel.
concrete in North America are natural gravels dug or
dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Weather- Manufactured Aggregate
4 Hydration
ing and erosion of rocks produce particles of stone, Manufactured aggregate (including manufactured
gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Gravel (including sand) is sand) is often used in regions where natural gravels
natural material that has broken off from bedrock and and sands are either not available in sufficient quanti-
has been transported by water or ice. During trans- ties or are of unsuitable quality (Addis and Owens
port, gravel is rubbed smooth and graded to various 2001). It is produced by crushing sound parent rock
sizes. at stone crushing plants.
5 Properties
Gravel and sand are often a mixture of several Manufactured aggregates differ from gravel and
minerals or rocks. The quality (or soundness) of sand sand in their grading, shape, and texture. Because
and gravel depends on the bedrock from which the of the crushing operation, they have a rough surface
particles were derived and the mechanism by which texture, are very angular in nature (figure 3-6[a]),
they were transported. Sand and gravel derived from and tend to be cubical in shape (depending on the
6 Mix
sound rocks, like many igneous and metamorphic method of crushing) and uniform in grade (size)
rocks, tend to be sound. Sand and gravel derived (Wigum et al. 2004). In the past, manufactured sands
from rocks rich in shale, siltstone, or other unsound were often produced without regard to sizing, but
7 Preparation
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 3-5. Family of carbonate minerals showing rock and mineral names (CTLGroup)
material meeting specified particle shapes and grada- the expectation of less clay contamination (Addis and
2 Design
tions (Addis and Owens 2001). In many cases, the Goldstein 1994).
particle elongation and flakiness of manufactured The sharpness and angularity of manufactured
sands can be reduced through appropriate crushing sands may result in a “harsh” mixture: one that is dif-
techniques. Impact crushers generate better particle ficult to work and finish. Such mixtures also typically
3 Materials
shape than compression crushers. require more water (Quiroga and Fowler 2004). On
Many of the characteristics of manufactured the other hand, the appropriate use of manufactured
aggregates are attributable directly to the inherent sand can improve edge slump control during slip-
properties of the rock type from which they were form paving and may also lead to slight increases in
produced. Manufactured aggregates are less likely concrete strength for a fixed water content (McCaig
than gravel and sand to be contaminated by deleteri- 2002). As with the introduction of any material into
4 Hydration
ous substances such as clay minerals or organic matter a concrete mix design, prepare trial batches using the
(Addis and Owens 2001). Some specifications permit specific project materials to establish the characteris-
higher fines content in manufactured sands because of tics of the resultant concrete mixture and identify any
necessary mix adjustments.
5 Properties
a) Aggregates from crushing Recycled Aggregates
Recycling concrete pavement is a relatively simple
process. It involves breaking and removing the pave-
ment, removing reinforcement and other embedded
items, and crushing the concrete into material with a
specified size. The crushing characteristics of hard-
6 Mix
ened concrete are similar to those of natural rock and
are not significantly affected by the grade or quality of
the original concrete.
7 Preparation
According to an FHWA study (2002), many States
use recycled aggregate as an aggregate base. Recycled-
aggregate bases have experienced some leaching of
calcium carbonate into the subdrains (Mulligan 2003).
b) River gravel In addition to using recycled aggregate as a base,
some States use recycled concrete in new portland
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
cement concrete. Most of these agencies specify
recycling the concrete material directly back into
the project being reconstructed. When used in new
concrete, recycled aggregate is generally combined
with virgin aggregate. Recycled material is not recom-
mended for use as fine aggregate, however, because of
the high water demand.
The quality of concrete made with recycled coarse
aggregate depends on the quality of the recycled
aggregate. Typically, recycled coarse aggregate is softer
than natural aggregate and may have a higher alkali
10 Troubleshooting
________________________________________________
Figure 3-6. Aggregates produced by crushing operation
or chloride content than natural aggregate. Recycled
(top) have a rougher surface texture and are angular aggregate may also have higher porosity, leading to
compared to round river gravel (bottom). (PCA) higher absorption. Therefore, relatively tighter quality
Aggregates
gate by dirt or other materials, such as asphalt. in the aggregate, in general it is desirable that the
aggregate have the following qualities:
Physical Properties of Aggregates • Well-graded (for mixtures that require less water
The factors that can be monitored in an aggregate than mixtures with gap-graded aggregates,
from a given source are the grading, particle shape, have less shrinkage and permeability, are easier
texture, absorption, and durability. In general, the to handle and finish, and are usually the most
4 Hydration
11/2 in.).
aggregate with a balanced variety of sizes—is
• Fine: Aggregate passing a #4 sieve (less than
preferred, because the smaller particles fill the voids
4.75 mm [3/16 in.] in diameter) (Abrams and
between the larger particles, thus maximizing the
Walker 1921); consists of natural sand, manu-
aggregate volume (figure 3-7).
factured sand, or a combination.
In addition, the amount of mix water is often
• Clay: Very small, fine particles with high sur-
governed by the aggregate properties. In order to be
face area and a particular chemical form.
workable, concrete mixtures must contain enough
Why Well-Graded Aggregate is Critical. Because aggre- paste to coat the surface of each aggregate particle. But
gates are generally more chemically and dimensionally too much water in the paste reduces long-term con-
stable than cement paste, it is important to maximize crete durability by reducing strength and increasing
10 Troubleshooting
the amount of aggregate in concrete mixtures (within permeability. So, it is important to achieve optimum
other limits, like the need for sufficient paste to coat water content—not too little, not too much. This, too,
all the aggregate particles for workability). This can can largely be accomplished by selecting the optimum
be accomplished largely by selecting the optimum aggregate size and grading. Smaller (finer) aggregates
2 Design
to-volume ratios. In natural sands, it is common for Consistent Grading is Critical
much of the very fine (<150 μm, #100 sieve) particles Variations in aggregate grading between batches can
to be clay, with extremely high surface areas. There- seriously affect the uniformity of concrete from batch to
fore, the amount of such fine materials is limited in batch.
3 Materials
specifications. (Crushed fine aggregate is less likely to
contain clay particles, and consideration may be given
to permitting slightly higher dust contents.)
Finally, mixtures containing well-graded aggregate
generally will have less shrinkage and permeability, range in grading can be used without a measurable
will be easier to handle and finish, and will be the
4 Hydration
effect on strength. However, it may be most eco-
most economical. nomical to adjust the proportions of fine and coarse
The use of gap-graded (single-sized) aggregate, on aggregate according to the gradation of local aggre-
the other hand, can result in mixtures that segregate gates.
and require more water to achieve workability. Very In general, increasing amounts of fine material will
fine sands are often uneconomical; they may increase increase the water demand of concrete. Fine-aggregate
5 Properties
water demand in the mixture and can make entraining grading within the limits of ASTM C 33 /
air difficult. Very coarse sands and coarse aggregate AASHTO M 6 is generally satisfactory for most
can produce harsh, unworkable mixtures. In gen- concretes. The amounts of fine aggregate passing the
eral, aggregates that do not have a large deficiency or 300 µm (#50) and 150 µm (#100) sieves affect water
excess of any size (they will give a smooth grading demand, workability, surface texture, air content, and
curve) will produce the most satisfactory results.
6 Mix
bleeding of concrete. Large amounts of fine material
Fine-Aggregate Grading Requirements. ASTM C 33 / may increase the water demand and increase sticki-
AASHTO M 6 permit a relatively wide range in fine- ness, while insufficient fines could result in bleeding.
aggregate gradation. In general, if the ratio of water to Most specifications allow 5 to 30 percent to pass the
7 Preparation
cementitious materials is kept constant and the ratio 300 µm (#50) sieve.
of fine-to-coarse aggregate is chosen correctly, a wide Other requirements of ASTM C 33 / AASHTO M 6
are as follows:
• The fine aggregate must not have more than
45 percent retained between any two consecu-
tive standard sieves.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• The fineness modulus must be not less than
2.3, nor more than 3.1, nor vary more than 0.2
from the typical value of the aggregate source.
If this value is exceeded, the fine aggregate
should be rejected unless suitable adjustments
are made in the proportions of fine and coarse
aggregate.
The fineness modulus (FM) is a measure of the
fineness of an aggregate—the higher the FM, the
coarser the aggregate. According to ASTM C 125, the
10 Troubleshooting
Aggregates
ability, (2) a maximum fraction of the minimum in concrete to obtain high strength and durability, pro-
concrete thickness or reinforcing spacing, and vided the quantity of mortar at a given ratio of water
(3) ability of the equipment to handle the concrete. to cementitious materials is adjusted. However, keep
7 Preparation
shrinkage properties.
Figure 3-8. An example of a smooth grading curve that
A perfect gradation does not exist in the field,
higher flexural strengths due to aggregate inter- 10 percent for lightweight or manufactured materials.
2 Design
lock. However, the absorption values of most aggregates
• Angular, nonpolishing fine aggregate particles range from 0.2 to 4 percent by mass.
are also desirable at the surface to promote Using aggregates with high absorption values often
high skid resistance, although they also reduce results in large variations in concrete quality because
3 Materials
workability. of the difficulties controlling the aggregates’ moisture
• Flat or elongated particles may reduce concrete content. Aggregates that are less than SSD will absorb
workability due to particle interference while in water from the paste, making the concrete stiffen and
the plastic state. This is especially true of par- lose workability. This effect is reduced when probes
ticles between the 9.5-mm (3/8-in.) and 2.36- are used to monitor the moisture of the aggregates
mm (#8) sieves. in storage and when the water in the concrete mix is
4 Hydration
adjusted to accommodate the difference between the
Aggregate Surface Texture
actual moisture content and the SSD condition (see
Aggregate with any texture, varying from smooth to
Moisture/Absorption Correction in chapter 6, page
rough, can be used in portland cement concrete, pro-
183, and Stockpile Management and Batching in
vided the mixture is properly proportioned. A rough
chapter 8, pages 206–207).
5 Properties
texture is an advantage when beams are tested for
quality control because better bond and interlock is Aggregate Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
provided at the junction of the mortar and aggregate. A material’s coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
is a measure of how much the material changes in
Aggregate Absorption length (or volume) for a given change in temperature.
Absorption is the penetration of liquid into aggre- Typically, an increase in temperature will result in
6 Mix
gate particles. The amount of water added to the lengthening, and a decrease will result in shortening.
concrete mixture at the batch plant must be adjusted Because aggregates make up a majority of a concrete’s
for the moisture conditions of the aggregates in order volume, the CTE of the aggregate particles will domi-
to accurately meet the water requirement of the mix
7 Preparation
nate the CTE for the concrete overall.
design. If not accounted for, dry aggregate particles CTE values are considered in design calculations
will absorb water from the concrete mixture, so water for pavements (NCHRP 2004) and are used in ther-
will have to be added to the mix to achieve the desired mal modeling of concretes. Limestone and marble
workability; this may ultimately reduce long-term have the lowest, and therefore most desirable, thermal
concrete durability. expansions. Table 3-11 shows some typical linear
The moisture conditions of aggregates (figure 3-9)
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
CTE values of several aggregates.
are designated as follows:
• Oven dry—fully absorbent. Aggregate Durability
• Air dry—dry at the particle surface but contain- One of the reasons that concrete pavements are
ing some interior moisture, thus still somewhat economically desirable is that they last longer than
absorbent.
• Saturated surface dry (SSD)—neither absorb-
ing water from nor contributing water to the
concrete mixture.
• Damp or wet—containing an excess of mois-
ture on the surface (free water).
10 Troubleshooting
Aggregates
pavements made from other systems. It is therefore susceptibility of an aggregate to ASR if the performance
2 Design
important to ensure that new pavements are as dura- of the aggregate in the field is not available. (These
ble as possible. Some of the aggregate mechanisms and other tests and methods for controlling ASR are
related to pavement durability include alkali- discussed in detail under Alkali-Silica Reaction in
aggregate reactivity, frost resistance, coefficient of chapter 5, page 141.)
3 Materials
10-6/°C 10-6/°F
in the aggregate and the concrete (figure 3-10).
Reactive minerals are often found in specific types Aggregate
of rocks (table 3-12), which in turn may or may not Granite 7 to 9 4 to 5
be reactive, depending on the exact makeup of the Basalt 6 to 8 3.3 to 4.4
rock (table 3-13). The reactivity is potentially harmful Limestone 6 3.3
5 Properties
w/c = 0.6 18 to 20 10 to 11
(ASTM C 1260 / AASHTO T 303 and ASTM C 1293)
and petrography (ASTM C 295) are the most com-
Steel 11 to 12 6.1 to 6.7
monly used methods to determine the potential
Sources: FHWA (2004b) and PCA (2002)
Note: These values are for aggregates from specific
sources, and different aggregate sources may
provide values that vary widely from these values.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
2 Design
To prevent ACR, avoid using reactive rock. If this is
not feasible, then dilute the aggregate with nonreactive mise the integrity of concrete. It cannot be stopped
stone (Ozol 1994). or undone; it can only be prevented. Therefore, when
Aggregate Durability and Frost Resistance. Concrete designing a mixture it is critical to select aggregates
containing aggregates that are not frost resistant may that are not susceptible to freeze-thaw deterioration.
3 Materials
experience D-cracking, popouts, or deterioration from If marginal aggregates must be used, you may be able
deicing salts. to reduce D-cracking susceptibility by reducing the
D-Cracking maximum particle size and by providing good drain-
Aggregate particles with coarse pore structure may age for carrying water away from the pavement base.
be susceptible to freeze-thaw damage. When these Popouts
A popout is usually a conical fragment that breaks
4 Hydration
particles become saturated and the water freezes,
expanding water trapped in the pores cannot get out. out of the surface of concrete, leaving a shallow,
Eventually, the aggregate particles cannot accom- typically conical, depression (figure 3-12). Gener-
modate the pressure from the expanding water; the ally, a fractured aggregate particle will be found at the
particles crack and deteriorate. In concretes with bottom of the hole with the other part of the aggregate
appreciable amounts of susceptible aggregate, this still adhering to the point of the popout cone. Most
5 Properties
freeze-thaw deterioration of the aggregate ultimately popouts are about 25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.) wide;
results in cracking in the concrete slab, called however, popouts caused by sand particles are much
D-cracking. D-cracking is generally a regional problem smaller, and very large popouts may be up to 300 mm
caused when locally available, susceptible aggregate is (1 ft) in diameter.
used in concrete. Unless they are very large, popouts are only a cos-
D-cracks are easy to identify. They are closely metic flaw and do not generally affect the service life
6 Mix
spaced cracks parallel to transverse and longitudinal of the concrete.
joints (where the aggregate is most likely to become
saturated). Over time, the cracks multiply outward
7 Preparation
from the joints toward the center of the pavement slab
(figure 3-11).
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Silica Reactivity
Rocks
Arenite
Argillite
Arkose
Chert
Flint
Gneiss
Granite
Graywacke
Hornfels
Quartz-arenite
Quartzite
10 Troubleshooting
Sandstone
Shale
Silicified carbonate
Siltstone
Source: Folliard, Thomas, and Kurtis (2003) Figure 3-11. D-cracking (Jim Grove, CPTech Center)
Aggregates
Popouts may occur in concretes where the surface Salt (Sulfate) Susceptibility
2 Design
contains small amounts of coarse (rather than fine) Certain aggregates such as ferroan dolomites are
aggregate particles with higher porosity values and susceptible to damage by salts. These aggregates may
medium-sized pores (0.1 to 5 μm) that are easily exhibit excellent freeze-thaw resistance but deteriorate
saturated. (Larger pores do not usually become satu- rapidly when deicing salts are used. In the presence
3 Materials
rated or cause concrete distress, and water in very of salts, the crystalline structure of such aggregates is
fine pores does not freeze readily.) As the offending destabilized, therefore increasing the rate of damage
aggregate absorbs moisture and freezing occurs, the under freeze-thaw conditions.
swelling creates enough internal pressure to rupture Aggregate Durability and Abrasion Resistance. An
the concrete surface. Sometimes, all that is needed for important property of pavements is their ability to
expansion to occur is a season of high humidity. provide an adequate skid resistance by resisting
4 Hydration
Aggregates containing appreciable amounts of abrasion or resisting wear. The abrasion resistance of
shale, soft and porous materials (clay lumps, for concrete is related to both aggregate type and concrete
example), and certain types of chert may be prone to compressive strength (figure 3-13). Strong concrete
popouts. These particles are often of lighter weight has more resistance to abrasion than does weak con-
and can float to the surface under excessive vibration. crete, while hard aggregate is more wear-resistant than
5 Properties
This will increase the number of popouts, even when soft aggregate. In other words, high-strength concrete
the amount of these particles is small or within speci-
fication limits. Specifications for concrete aggregates,
such as ASTM C 33, allow a small amount of deleteri-
ous material because it is not economically practical
to remove all of the offending particles.
6 Mix
________________________________________________
made with a hard aggregate is highly resistant to abra- abrasion than calcareous (acid-soluble) materials. As a
2 Design
sion (Liu 1981) The use of natural sands in concrete result, some specifications limit the amount of
mixtures will improve abrasion resistance and can calcareous material in aggregate to ensure adequate
result in improved abrasion resistance of concrete, abrasion resistance (see Abrasion Resistance in
even when soft coarse aggregates are used. chapter 5, page 146).
3 Materials
The abrasion resistance of an aggregate can be Coarse aggregate abrasion resistance is usually mea-
used as a general indicator of its quality. Using aggre- sured using the Los Angeles (LA) abrasion test method
gate with low abrasion resistance may increase the (ASTM C 535 and ASTM C 131). The MicroDeval
quantity of fines in the concrete during mixing and test, developed in France during the 1960s, is under
consequently may increase the water requirement. evaluation as an alternative to the LA abrasion test
In general, siliceous aggregates are more resistant to (Kandhal and Parker 1998).
4 Hydration
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Water
• Water contained in admixtures also represents
2 Design
Key Points
part of the mixing water if it affects the mix-
ture’s ratio of water to cementitious materials by
• Mixing water can consist of batch water,
0.01 or more.
ice, free moisture on aggregates, water in
admixtures, and water added after initial
Water Quality
3 Materials
mixing.
The quality of water used in concrete mixtures
• Ideally, water for concrete should be potable can play a role in the quality of concrete. Excessive
(fit for human consumption). impurities in mixing water may affect setting time and
concrete strength and can result in salt deposits on the
• Some water recycled from returned concrete pavement surface, staining, corrosion of reinforcement
4 Hydration
and plant washing can be acceptable. materials, volume instability, and reduced pavement
• Questionable mixing water should be tested durability.
for its effect on concrete strength and setting Many State departments of transportation have
time. specific requirements for mixing water in concrete
(NRMCA 2005). In general, suitable mixing water for
5 Properties
• The specification for mixing water in making concrete includes the following:
concrete mixtures is ASTM C 1602. • Potable water.
• Nonpotable water.
• Recycled water from concrete production
operations.
Both nonpotable water and recycled water must be
6 Mix
mixtures must contain enough paste [cement and per million (ppm) of total dissolved solids can gener-
water] to thoroughly coat the aggregates and to make ally be used satisfactorily for making concrete. Water
the mix workable. Too much water reduces long-term containing organic materials or more than 2,000 ppm
concrete durability. It is critical to achieve optimum of dissolved solids should be tested for its effect on
water content for each specific mix and project.) strength and time of set (Kosmatka 2002).
Water of questionable suitability can be used for
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
2 Design
AASHTO T 106) made with it have seven-day requirement, strength, and setting time while adversely
strengths equal to at least 90 percent of companion affecting concrete durability and other properties.
specimens made with potable or distilled water.
Setting time tests should be conducted to ensure that Recycled Water
impurities in the mixing water do not adversely Recycled water is primarily a mixture of water,
3 Materials
shorten or extend the setting time of concrete admixtures, cementitious materials, and aggregate
(ASTM C 403 / AASHTO T 197) or cement fines resulting from processing returned concrete.
(ASTM C 191 / AASHTO T 131). In addition, the Recycled water may also include truck wash water
density of the water (ASTM C 1603) has to be tested and storm water from the concrete plant. Usually,
if water from concrete production operations or water recycled water is passed through settling ponds where
4 Hydration
combined from two or more sources is to be used the solids settle out, leaving clarified water. In some
as mixing water. Acceptance criteria for water to be cases, recycled water from a reclaimer unit is kept agi-
used in concrete are given in ASTM C 1602 / tated to maintain the solids in suspension for reuse as
AASHTO T 26 (table 3-14). a portion of the batch water in concrete (figure 3‑14).
Optional limits may be set on chlorides, sulfates, Solid content in recycled water varies from 2.5 to
alkalies, and solids in the mixing water (table 3-15), 10 percent by mass.
5 Properties
or appropriate tests should be performed to determine Using recycled water in concrete mixtures may
the effect the impurity has on concrete properties. affect the water requirement, setting time, strength,
Some impurities may have little effect on water and permeability of concrete. ASTM C 1602 /
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Table 3-15. Optional Chemical Limits for Combined Mixing Water
Water
AASHTO M 157 permit the use of wash water as solids content of approximately 50,000 ppm repre-
2 Design
concrete mix water, with approval from the purchaser sents water with a relative density (specific gravity)
who can invoke chemical limits for chlorides, sul- of 1.03. Research at the National Ready Mixed Con-
fates, alkalis, and solids. The maximum permitted crete Association (Lobo and Mullings 2003) identified
solids content is 50,000 ppm, or five percent, of the several important effects of using recycled water on
3 Materials
total mixing water. This amounts to about 8.9 kg/m3 properties of concrete in comparison to control con-
(15 lb/yd3) solids in a typical concrete mixture. A crete mixtures made with tap water; see table 3‑16.
4 Hydration
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 3-14. Recycled water and reclaimed aggregate at a ready-mixed concrete plant (PCA)
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
2 Design
Key Points be accommodated.
An admixture’s effectiveness depends on many mix
• Admixtures are materials added to concrete
factors, including cementitious materials properties,
mixtures to modify concrete properties
water content, aggregate properties, concrete materials
such as air content, water requirement,
3 Materials
proportions, mixing time and intensity, and
and setting time. Admixtures should
temperature.
complement, not substitute for, good
Common admixtures are air-entraining, water-
concrete proportioning and practice.
reducing, and set-modifying admixtures.
• Admixtures may have unintended side
4 Hydration
effects. Therefore, run trial batches with job Table 3-17. Common Chemical Admixture Types for Paving
materials and under job conditions. Applications
Class Function
• Generally, for every one percent entrained
air, concrete loses about five percent of its Air-entraining To stabilize microscopic bubbles in
admixture (AEA) concrete, which can provide freeze-
compressive strength.
5 Properties
thaw resistance and improve
resistance to deicer salt scaling.
• Air-entraining admixtures are specified by Water-reducing To reduce the water content
ASTM C 260. Water-reducing and set- admixture (WR) by 5 to 10%, while maintaining slump
characteristics.
modifying admixtures are specified by
ASTM C 494 / AASHTO M 194. Mid-range water To reduce the water content by 6 to
reducer (MRWR) 12%, while maintaining slump and
6 Mix
avoiding retardation.
• For information about possible
High-range water To reduce the water content by 12 to
incompatibilities of various chemical reducer (HRWR) 30%, while maintaining slump.
admixtures, see the section on Potential
7 Preparation
Retarder To decrease the rate of hydration of
Materials Incompatibilities in chapter 4, cement.
page 97.
Accelerator To increase the rate of hydration of
cement.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Table 3-18. Admixture Types Defined by ASTM C 494 /
mixing to modify fresh or hardened concrete proper- AASHTO M 194
ties such as air content, workability, or setting time.
Table 3-17 lists common admixtures used in concrete Class Name
for pavements. Table 3-18 lists admixtures specified
Type A Water reducing
under ASTM C 494 / AASHTO M 194.
Type B Retarding
Adding chemical admixtures may help concrete
Type C Accelerating
designers achieve desired concrete properties more
Type D Water reducing and retarding
efficiently or economically than adjusting other
Type E Water reducing and accelerating
ingredients or mix proportions. Admixtures are also
Type F Water reducing, high range
used to maintain specific properties during concret-
Type G Water reducing, high range, and
10 Troubleshooting
Chemical Admixtures
Air-Entraining Admixtures
2 Design
cement paste (figure 3-15). Proper air entrainment Figure 3-15. Entrained air bubbles in concrete (PCA)
will do the following:
• Dramatically improve the durability of concrete
exposed to moisture during cycles of freezing
and thawing.
• Improve concrete’s resistance to surface scaling
6 Mix
pores. Any remaining water can move through these may cause the hardened cement paste to crack,
pores. If the temperature drops below freezing, water initiating early pavement deterioration.
in capillary pores turns to ice and expands. As the
2 Design
Air-entraining admixtures stabilize millions of tiny Generally, for every one percent entrained air,
air bubbles in the concrete mixture (created by the concrete loses about five percent of its compressive
concrete mixing action) by causing a soap-like coat- strength, everything else being equal (Whiting and
ing to form around the air bubbles. Molecules of Nagi 1998). However, this loss of strength can gener-
3 Materials
air-entraining agent are attracted to water at one end ally be mitigated by adjusting the water-cementitious
and to air at the other end, reducing surface tension materials ratio of the mixture. With non-vinsol water-
at the air-water interface; the ends that protrude into reducing admixtures, air voids may coalesce around
water are attracted to cement particles (figure 3-17). It
is critical that sufficient mixing time be allowed for the Table 3-19. Effects of Materials and Practices on Air
air bubbles to be generated and stabilized. Entrainment
4 Hydration
The air-void system will be affected by the type/
amount of agent, mixing time, placement methods,
carbon impurities (see discussion of loss on ignition,
or LOI, on page 33) from SCMs or aggregates, and
other reactive materials in the mix, including water-
5 Properties
reducing admixtures. For example, mixtures with
high-range water-reducing admixtures show a shift
towards larger void sizes (Whiting and Nagi 1998).
Table 3-19 lists trends of the effects of concrete
ingredients and production on air entrainment. The
extent of the changes will depend on specific materi-
6 Mix
als, practices, and equipment. This table may suggest
ways to correct high or low air contents.
If you do not have prior experience with the spe-
7 Preparation
cific job materials and job equipment, develop a trial
mix to determine the proper dosage and minimum
mixing time.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Chemical Admixtures
aggregates, leading to reduced concrete strength Water-reducing admixtures also indirectly influ-
2 Design
(Cross et al. 2000) (see Air-Void System Incompatibil- ence concrete strength. For concretes of equal cement
ities, page 100). This result tends to occur in concrete content, air content, and slump, the 28-day strength
with higher air contents that have had water added of a water-reduced concrete can be 10 percent greater
after initial mixing, and may also be affected by the than concrete without such an admixture. Water-
3 Materials
generally a combination of natural, petroleum-based, water reduction and slump are shown in table 3-17.
and/or polycarboxylate chemical compounds (see the High-range water reducers (HRWRs) (Types F and
sidebar below). Type F and G water reducers are not G, also called superplasticizers) can be used to reduce
normally used in pavements because of their high cost necessary water content by 12 to 30 percent. In
and because it is difficult to control the slump range older products, however, the rate of slump loss is not
5 Properties
required for slipform paving with their use. reduced and in most cases is increased. Newer genera-
tion HRWRs do not exhibit as rapid a rate of slump
Function of Water Reducers
loss. Rapid slump loss results in reduced workability
You will remember that more water than is needed
and less time to place concrete. High temperatures can
for cement hydration must be added to concrete
also aggravate slump loss. Some modern Type F water-
mixtures to make them workable. Too much water,
reducing admixtures may entrain air, meaning that
6 Mix
ment. Water reducers are therefore added to mixtures Water reducers operate predominantly by applying
to reduce the amount of water needed to maintain surface charges on cement particles, which breaks up
adequate workability in plastic concrete. agglomerations of particles. As the cement particles
First-generation water-reducing admixtures were They often only provide about 20 minutes of effectiveness
primarily derived from natural organic materials such as before the concrete exhibits significant slump loss. These
sugars and lignins (extracted from wood pulp). These products can be re-dosed after this time to maintain
products had a limited effectiveness and may have been workability, if required.
somewhat variable in performance, depending on the Third-generation water-reducing admixtures are
source material. These water reducers would often retard polycarboxylates, which are copolymers synthesized
the mixture, particularly when overdosed. They are still from carefully selected monomers. These products are
used as Type A, B, and D products. currently used in mid- or high-range water-reducing
Second-generation (early high-range) water-reducing admixtures (Type F and G). These admixtures can be
admixtures were derived from petroleum feedstocks: fine-tuned for a given application, including a range of
10 Troubleshooting
sulfonated naphthalene or melamine condensates effectiveness and setting times. They may also increase
2 Design
break up and move apart, trapped water is made
available for hydration (figure 3-18). Some newer under ASTM C 494 / AASHTO M 194, although
polycarboxylate-based water reducers also use a steric retardation is associated with Types D and G as well
repulsion effect. These have polymers with long side (table 3-18).
chains that attach to the surface of cement grains Accelerators are designated as Type C admixtures
3 Materials
to keep the grains apart physically. Ramachandran under ASTM C 494 / AASHTO M 194. Type E admix-
(1995) contains more detail on admixture mechanisms. tures also have accelerating properties.
4 Hydration
in some cases. Types D, E, and G water-reducing weather paving, when high concrete temperatures
admixtures can significantly affect setting behavior. often cause an increased rate of stiffening that makes
Overdoses of water reducers, particularly normal- placing and finishing difficult. Retarders chemically
range products, may severely retard or prevent setting. control cement hydration, consequently reducing the
maximum temperature. Retarders may also be used
Set-Modifying Admixtures to delay setting under difficult or unusual placement
5 Properties
Admixtures may be used to control (i.e., retard conditions.
or accelerate) the rate of setting and strength gain of Accelerating admixtures are used to increase the
concretes. These effects can be particularly important rate of strength development of concrete at an early
for hot- and cold-weather concreting operations. They age, including in cold weather. However, excess accel-
can also be useful for fast-track construction and to eration may result in cracking before finishing and/or
6 Mix
control production cycles, permit longer haul times, saw cutting can be completed.
or compensate for slower strength gain of concretes Set-Modifying Agent Mechanisms
made with some supplementary cementitious The mechanisms by which accelerators and retard-
7 Preparation
materials. ers work are complex. However, some retarders
Chemical admixtures containing calcium chloride appear to form a coating around cement grains that
(CaCl2) should not be used in reinforced pavements prevents or slows hydration. Eventually, the coating is
because of the risk of corrosion of steel. breached and the hydration resumes.
Some accelerating admixtures, such as calcium
chloride, appear to preferentially accelerate hydration
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
of the silicate phases (alite [C3S] and belite [C2S]),
a) b)
while others appear to accelerate other phases. For
more information, see Ramachandran (1995) and
Thomas and Wilson (2002).
Side Effects of Set-Modifying Admixtures
The effects of set-modifying admixtures on other
properties of concrete, like shrinkage, may not be pre-
dictable. Therefore, acceptance tests of set modifiers
should be made with job materials under anticipated
job conditions to detect possible side effects:
10 Troubleshooting
is dispersion. (a) Charged cement particles cling together, include the following:
trapping water. (b) Water reducers separate cement grains, • Many retarders also act as water reducers; they
releasing the water and making it available for hydration. are frequently called water-reducing retarders.
Chemical Admixtures
• Set-retarding admixtures may increase air con- protect the concrete from freezing prior to achieving
2 Design
• In general, use of retarders may be accompa- not completely dissolve. Undissolved lumps in the
nied by some reduction in strength at early ages mix can cause popouts and dark spots in hardened
(one to three days), but later strengths may be concrete. An overdose can result in placement prob-
higher. lems and can cause rapid stiffening, a large increase in
• With retarders, the bleeding rate and bleeding drying shrinkage, corrosion of reinforcement, and loss
capacity of concrete are increased. of strength at later ages.
4 Hydration
Set-Accelerating Admixtures’ Side Effects. Accelera- corrosion inhibitors. More information can be found in
tors like calcium chloride are not antifreeze agents. Thomas and Wilson (2002); Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and
Precautions should be taken during cold weather to Panarese (2002); and Ramachandran (1995).
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Key Points
(7 in.) thick. Dowel sizes of 25 mm (1 in.) and less
in heavy-traffic pavements have been shown to cause
• Dowel bars are placed across transverse
high bearing stresses on the concrete surrounding the
joints to provide vertical support and to
dowel bar, resulting in damage in the concrete around
transfer loads across joints.
3 Materials
the place the dowel emerges from the side of the slab,
• Tiebars are placed across longitudinal joints known as dowel socketing.
(centerlines or where slabs meet) to prevent Typical dowel lengths are 455 mm (18 in.),
the slabs from separating and to transfer although some 380-mm (15-in.) bars are used. This
loads across the joints. length is primarily related to the required embedment
4 Hydration
length on each side of the joint. Most States specify
• Slab reinforcement may be used in concrete 455-mm long (18-in. long) dowel bars with 150 mm
pavements to improve the ability of concrete (6 in.) of embedment on each side of the joint. This
to carry tensile stresses and to hold tightly leaves 150 mm (6 in.) in the center of the bar as a
together any random transverse cracks that tolerance for the sawing of the joint and the formation
develop in the slab. of the subsequent crack.
5 Properties
• Epoxy-coated tiebars should conform A 305-mm (12-in.) spacing between bars is stan-
to ASTM A 775 / AASHTO M 284, and dard, although a 380-mm (15-in.) spacing can be
epoxy-coated dowel bars should conform to used for lighter-traffic facilities. Dowels are typically
AASHTO M 254. placed across the entire length of the joint, primar-
ily for constructability purposes. However, only
three or four dowels are needed in each wheel path
6 Mix
Dowel bars, tiebars, and reinforcement may be used
in concrete pavements to help the concrete carry ten- to sufficiently transfer load from one slab to the next
sile stresses (i.e., stresses that pull the concrete apart) (ACPA 1991); this is common practice when dowels
and/or to transfer loads across joints. Collectively, are retrofitted in pavements originally constructed
7 Preparation
these materials are often called “steel,” although they without dowels.
may be made of other materials. Shapes other than round bars have been tested
(Additional information can be found under Dowel and installed in limited trials. The most promising is
Bars and Tiebars in chapter 8, page 218.) the elliptical dowel, which allows for smaller effective
diameter bars with the same bearing capacity as round
Dowel Bars (Smooth Bars) bars. This reduces the weight and cost of the dowel
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Dowel bars (smooth bars), or simply dowels, are assembly because of the reduced amount of steel used.
placed in concrete across transverse joints to provide Elliptical dowels have been shown to have similar
vertical support and to transfer loads across joints. performance to round dowels (Porter 2002).
Dowel bars are typically used on heavy truck routes. Other mechanical load transfer systems include flat
Dowel bars reduce the potential for faulting, pump- (plate) dowels and square dowels, both of which are
ing, and corner breaks in jointed concrete pavements not typically used in roadway or highway pavements.
(Smith et al. 1990; ACPA 1991).
Dowels are smooth and round or oval. Because Tiebars (Deformed Bars)
they are smooth, they do not restrict the horizontal Tiebars (deformed bars), or rebar, are placed across
movement of the slab at the joint related to seasonal longitudinal joints (centerlines or where slabs meet).
10 Troubleshooting
expansion and contraction of the slab. Tiebars prevent faulting and lateral movement of
the slabs and assist with load transfer between slabs.
Because tiebars are deformed, they bond to the transverse cracks that develop in the slab. Generally,
2 Design
concrete and do not allow movement (unlike smooth cracking in jointed concrete pavements is controlled
dowel bars, which by design allow such movement.) by limiting the spacing between joints. When the con-
Tiebars thus minimize longitudinal joint opening crete slab is reinforced, joint spacing can be increased.
between slabs and so maintain aggregate interlock. Current practice does not generally include any
Tiebar size, spacing, and length vary with the thick- distributed reinforcement in concrete slabs, with
3 Materials
ness of the pavement, tiebar material, and amount of the exception of continuously reinforced concrete
pavement tied together (table 3-20). Tiebar sizes and pavements (see Basic Concrete Pavement Types in
embedment lengths should reflect the actual forces chapter 2, page 9). However, some agencies reinforce
acting in the pavement, not only the working strength odd-shaped panels to hold expected cracks tight
of the steel. Specifiers should choose standard manu- (ACPA 2003a) and use jointless, continuously rein-
4 Hydration
tiebars are longer than 800 mm (32 in.). No more during the batching and mixing process. Fibers, which
than three lanes should be tied together. are available in a variety of lengths, shapes, sizes, and
While corrosion of tiebars is not a common thicknesses, are equally distributed throughout the
problem, some protection should be provided if concrete, are much shorter than bars, and take up a
deicing salts are going to be used on the pavement. much smaller cross-sectional area of the pavement.
ASTM D 3963 / AASHTO M 284 provide guidelines
6 Mix
~ )
Tiebar spacing, mm (~in.
Slab
thickness Tiebar size x Distance to nearest free edge or to nearest joint where movement can occur
~
mm (~in.) ~
length, mm (~in.) ~
3.0 m (~10ft) ~ ft)
3.7 m (~12 ~ ft)
4.3 m (~14 ~ ft)
7.3 m (~24
130 (5) 13M x 600 (24) 760 (30) 760 (30) 760 (30) 700 (28)
150 (6) 13M x 600 (24) 760 (30) 760 (30) 760 (30) 580 (23)
180 (7) 13M x 600 (24) 760 (30) 760 (30) 760 (30) 500 (20)
200 (8) 13M x 600 (24) 760 (30) 760 (30) 760 (30) 430 (17)
230 (9) 16M x 760 (30) 900 (35) 900 (35) 900 (35) 600 (24)
10 Troubleshooting
250 (10) 16M x 760 (30) 900 (35) 900 (35) 900 (35) 560 (22)
280 (11) 16M x 760 (30) 900 (35) 900 (35) 860 (34) 500 (20)
310 (12) 16M x 760 (30) 900 (35) 900 (35) 780 (31) 460 (18)
Source: Adapted from ACI 325.12R
2 Design
typical yield strength is 420 MPa (60 ksi); 280 MPa Stainless-clad steel dowel bars have a 1.8- to
(40 ksi) is allowable. Tiebars can be Grade 420 (60) or 2.3‑mm thick (0.070- to 0.090-in. thick) stainless
280 (40); yield strength determines required length. steel cladding that is metallurgically bonded to a
Steel fibers are generally 12.7 to 63.5 mm (0.5 to carbon steel core. They are quite expensive compared
3 Materials
2.5 in.) long and 0.45 to 1.0 mm (0.017 to 0.04 in.) to epoxy-coated bars, but they cost less than solid
in diameter. The usual amount of steel fibers ranges stainless steel while offering its long service life.
from 0.25 to 2 percent by volume, or 20 to 157 kg/m3
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
(33 to 265 lb/yd3). Steel fibers are generally used at
Considerable research has been conducted in the
high rates for improved hardened properties. The ben-
use of fiber-reinforced polymer dowel bars. They offer
efits of steel fibers include up to 150 percent increase
4 Hydration
promise but are still quite expensive.
in flexural strength, reduced potential for cracking
during concrete shrinkage, and increased fatigue Synthetic Fibers
strength (Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2002). Synthetic reinforcing fibers are manufactured from
materials like acrylic, aramid, carbon, nylon, poly-
Epoxy-Coated Bars ester, polyethylene, or polypropylene. Their use has
5 Properties
Corrosion resistance is key for embedded steel, been increasing steadily, generally at low dosage rates
particularly in harsh climates where deicing chemicals to reduce plastic shrinkage. Their primary use in
are used on pavements. The most common method pavements is in ultrathin whitetopping, where 50 to
of resisting or delaying corrosion is coating steel 100 mm (2 to 4 in.) of concrete is bonded to asphalt
bars with epoxy 0.2 to 0.3 mm (0.008 to 0.012 in.) (see Concrete Overlays in chapter 2, page 23).
thick. Epoxy-coated tiebars should conform to The most common synthetic fibers in concrete
6 Mix
ASTM A 775 / AASHTO M 284, and epoxy-coated pavements are made of fibrillated polypropylene.
dowel bars should conform to AASHTO M 254. They are normally used at a rate of at least 0.1 per-
Epoxy-coated steel is still susceptible to corro- cent by volume. Ultrathin whitetopping typically
7 Preparation
sion, particularly when incorrect handling in the field uses 1.8 kg/m3 (3 lb/yd3) of such fibers. The benefits
results in nicks or scratches in the epoxy coating. of these fibers include reduced plastic shrinkage and
Epoxy-coated dowels should be coated with a subsidence cracking, and increased toughness or post-
bond-breaking material to prevent them from lock- crack integrity. In fresh concrete, polypropylene fibers
ing up the joint. This material is typically applied by also reduce settlement of aggregate from the pave-
the manufacturer. If the dowels are left exposed to the ment surface, resulting in a less permeable and more
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
elements for an extended time (e.g., at a project site durable, skid-resistant pavement (ACPA 2003b).
or over the winter), the bond breaker must be reap-
plied on at least one end of each bar. Materials applied Other Materials
in the field are typically form-release oil or white- Stainless steel tubes and pipe filled with concrete
pigmented curing compound. Do not use grease, as have also been used experimentally (ASCE 2004), but
it will form a void space around the bar, preventing their long-term performance has not yet been demon-
the concrete from consolidating adequately and fully strated. Low-carbon microcomposite steels have been
encasing the dowel. shown to be more corrosion-resistant than epoxy-
coated steel in some tests, and quite cost effective.
Stainless Steel Bars Zinc-coated dowel bars are also showing promise as
Some agencies have experimented with stainless longer-term performance is becoming more desirable.
10 Troubleshooting
steel (304 and 316) reinforcing bars for long-life These proprietary steels are less resistant to corrosion
concrete pavements. Solid stainless steel is very than stainless steel, but are also less costly. Plastic
expensive, but it has a much longer service life. Stain- coating, approximately 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) thick, is
less steel dowels should conform to ASTM A 955. used by some agencies on dowel bars.
Curing Compounds
compromised at the surface. It is important not to
2 Design
Key Points let this happen, because the concrete surface carries
the traffic and is exposed to aggressive environments.
• Curing compounds must be applied
Proper curing will reduce surface permeability and
thoroughly to concrete surfaces after
increase surface resistance to wear and weather.
texturing to reduce moisture loss from the
3 Materials
and ASTM C 1315. After they are applied to the concrete surface, the
water or solvent evaporates and the wax or resin
forms a membrane on the concrete surface. Liquid
membrane-forming compounds need to conform to
Curing compound is applied to the surface and the requirements of ASTM C 309 / AASHTO M 148
exposed edges of concrete soon after the concrete has and ASTM C 1315, as applicable. ASTM C 156 /
6 Mix
been placed and textured. (Some people consider AASHTO T 155 specify a method for determining the
the proper time for applying curing compound to be efficiency of curing compounds, waterproof paper, and
approximately at initial set, when bleeding is complete plastic sheeting.
7 Preparation
[Poole 2005].) The purpose is to seal the surface— Pigmented curing compounds are recommended
that is, to prevent or slow water evaporation from the because they make it easy to verify proper applica-
surface—so that hydration can continue for preferably tion. When placing concrete on sunny days and in
seven or more days (figure 3-19). hot weather, the curing compound should contain a
Cement hydration is a slow chemical reaction (see white pigment to reflect the sun’s heat. Translucent
all of chapter 4). If the concrete surface is allowed compounds may contain a fugitive dye that makes it
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
to dry prematurely, the reaction stops and desirable easier to check visually for complete coverage of the
properties of the concrete, such as durability, will be concrete surface when the compound is applied. The
dye fades soon after application.
Not to be confused with curing compounds,
evaporation-retarding materials are applied immedi-
ately after concrete is placed and before it is finished.
These materials can be worked into the surface during
finishing without damaging the concrete. They form a
thin, continuous film that retards loss of bleed water,
reducing the risk of plastic shrinkage cracking before
10 Troubleshooting
________________________________________________
Figure 3-19. Curing compounds keep concrete partially applied as soon as possible. They should not be used
saturated near the surface during the curing period. (PCA) as a finishing aid.
2 Design
Testing, 24th Edition, and AASHTO Provisional Standards,
AASHTO T 303, Accelerated Detection of Potentially
2004 Edition, HM-24-M. https://www.transportation.org/
publications/bookstore.nsf.
Deleterious Expansion of Mortar Bars Due to
Alkali-Silica Reaction
AASHTO M 6, Fine Aggregates for Portland Cement
Concrete ASTM standards may be found in Annual Book of ASTM
3 Materials
Standards, ASTM International. www.astm.org.
AASHTO M 31, Standard Specification for Deformed
and Plain Carbon Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforce- ASTM A 615/A615M-04b, Standard Specification for
ment Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
AASHTO M 80, Coarse Aggregates for Portland
Cement Concrete ASTM A 775, Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel
Reinforcing Bars
4 Hydration
AASHTO M 85, Portland Cement
ASTM A 955, Specification for Deformed and Plain
AASHTO M 148, Liquid Membrane-Forming Com-
Stainless Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
pounds for Curing Concrete
ASTM C 33/AASHTO M6, Specification for Concrete
AASHTO M 154, Air-Entraining Admixtures for
Aggregates
Concrete
ASTM C 39/AASHTO T 22, Standard Test Method for
5 Properties
AASHTO M 194, Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
AASHTO M 240, Blended Hydraulic Cement Specimens
AASHTO M 254, Specification for Corrosion Resistant ASTM C 109/AASHTO T 106 Compressive Strength
Coated Dowel Bars of Hydraulic Cement Mortar (Using 50-mm or 2-
AASHTO M 284, Standard Specification for Epoxy- in. Cube Specimens)
Coated Reinforcing Bars: Materials and Coating
6 Mix
ASTM C125-03 Standard Terminology Relating to
Requirements Concrete and Concrete Aggregates
AASHTO M 295, Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined ASTM C 131, Test Method for Resistance to Degrada-
Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in tion of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion
7 Preparation
Concrete and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
AASHTO M 302, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace ASTM C136-04/AASHTO T27 Standard Test Method
Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
AASHTO M 321, High-Reactivity Pozzolans for Use in ASTM C 150/AASHTO M 85, Specification for Port-
Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, Mortar, and Grout land Cement
AASHTO T 22, Compressive Strength of Cylindrical ASTM C 156/AASHTO T 155, Test Method for Water
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Concrete Specimens Retention by Concrete Curing Materials,
AASHTO T 26, Quality of Water to Be Used in ASTM C 191/AASHTO T 131 Test Method for Time of
Concrete Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
AASHTO T 27, Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse ASTM C 233/AASHTO T 157, Test Method for Air-
Aggregates Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
AASHTO T 106, Compressive Strength of Hydraulic ASTM C 260/AASHTO M 154, Specification for Air-
Cement Mortar (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
Specimens)
ASTM C 294-04 Standard Descriptive Nomenclature
AASHTO T 131, Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement for Constituents of Concrete Aggregates
by Vicat Needle
ASTM C 295, Standard Guide for Petrographic
10 Troubleshooting
AASHTO T 155, Water Retention by Concrete Curing Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
Materials
References
ASTM C 403/AASHTO T 197, Test Method for Time Abrams, D. A. 1924. Design of Concrete Mixtures.
of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Bulletin 1. 6th printing. Chicago, IL: Structural
2 Design
ASTM C 595/AASHTO M 240, Specification for Addis, B. and G. Owens, Eds. 2001. Fulton’s Concrete
Blended Cement Technology. 8th Ed. Midrand, South Africa: Cement
and Concrete Institute.
ASTM C 618/AASHTO M 295, Specification for Coal
Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Addis, B. and G. Goldstein, Eds. 1994. Commentary
4 Hydration
fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/fatoc.htm.
Chemicals
ACI. 2002. Guide for Design of Jointed Concrete Pave-
ASTM C 989/AASHTO M 302, Specification for ments for Streets and Local Roads. ACI 325.12R-02.
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag for Use in Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
Concrete and Mortars
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 232.
ASTM C1138-97 Standard Test Method for Abrasion 2003. Use of Fly Ash in Concrete. 232.2R. Farming-
6 Mix
Resistance of Concrete (Underwater Method) ton Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
ASTM C 1157, Performance Specification for Hydrau- American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 233.
lic Cements 1995. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag as a
7 Preparation
ASTM C 1240/AASHTO M 307, Specification for Use Cementitious Constituent in Concrete. ACI 233R-95.
of Silica Fume for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, Mortar, and Grout American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 318.
ASTM C 1260/AASHTO T 303. Test Method for 2002. Building Code Requirements for Structural
Potential Alkali Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Concrete. 318R. Farmington Hills, MI: American
Method) Concrete Institute.
ASTM C 1293, Test Method for Determination of American Coal Ash Association (ACAA). 2003. Fly
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Length Change of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Ash Facts for Engineers. FWHA-IF-03-019. Wash-
Reaction ington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration.
ASTM C 1315, Specification for Liquid Membrane- http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/fatoc.htm.
Forming Compounds Having Special Properties for American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA).
Curing and Sealing Concrete 1991. Design and Construction of Joints for
ASTM C 1567, Standard Test Method for Determining Concrete Highways. Concrete Paving Technology
the Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Combina- TB010.01P. Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pave-
tions of Cementitious Materials and Aggregate ment Association.
(Accelerated Mortar-Bar Method) ———. 2003a. Airfield Joints, Jointing Arrangements
ASTM C1602/C1602M-04. Standard Specification for and Steel. Concrete Paving Technology TB017P.
Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pavement Association.
10 Troubleshooting
ASTM C 1603-04. Standard Test Method for Measure- Research & Technology Update 4.10. Skokie, IL:
ment of Solids in Water American Concrete Pavement Association.
Barger, G. S., M.R. Lukkarila, D.L Martin, S.B. Lane, E. Lobo, C. and G.M. Mullings. 2003. Recycled Water in
R. Hansen, M.W. Ross, and J.L. Thompson. 1997. Ready Mixed Concrete Operations. Concrete In
2 Design
Evaluation of a Blended Cement and a Mineral Focus. Spring 2003: 17–26.
Admixture Containing Calcined Clay Natural Liu, T.C. and J.E. McDonald. 1981. Abrasion-Erosion
Pozzolan for High-Performance Concrete. Proceedings Resistance of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete. Cement,
of the Sixth International Purdue Conference on Concrete, and Aggregates 3.2.
Concrete Pavement Design and Materials for High
McCaig, M. 2002. Demonstration Eases Sand Con-
3 Materials
Performance. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University.
cerns. Aggregates Manager. September 2002.
Barksdale, R.D. 1991. The Aggregate Handbook. http://www.aggman.com/0902_pages/
Washington, D.C.: National Stone Association. 0902marketing.html.
Bhatty, M.S.Y. 1985. Mechanism of Pozzolanic Reac- Mulligan, S. 2002. Recycled Concrete Materials Report.
tions and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Expansion. Columbus, OH: Ohio Department Of Transporta-
Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates (CCAGDP) 7.2:
4 Hydration
tion, Office Of Materials Management. http://www.
69–77. dot.state.oh.us/testlab/In-House-Research/consolida
Bhatty, M.S.Y. and N.R. Greening. 1978. Interaction of ted%20results%20of%20RCM%20tests.PDF.
Alkalies with Hydrating and Hydrated Calcium National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Silicates. Proceedings of the Fourth International (NCHRP). 2004. Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical
Conference on the Effects of Alkalis in Cement and Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavements. NCHRP
5 Properties
Concrete. Publication No. CE-MAT-1-78. West Project 1-37a. Washington, DC: Transportation
Lafayette, IN: Purdue University, School of Civil Research Board.
Engineering. 87–111.
Ozol, M.A. 1994. Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reaction.
Detwiler, R.J., J.I. Bhatty, J.I., and S. Bhattacharja. Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and
1996. Supplementary Cementing Materials for Use in Concrete Making Materials. STP 169c. Eds. Paul
Blended Cements. RD112. Skokie, IL: Portland Klieger and Joseph F. Lamond. West Con-
Cement Association.
6 Mix
shohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and
Farny, J. A., and S.H. Kosmatka. 1997. Diagnosis and Material. 341–364.
Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete. Poole, T.S. 2005. Guide for Curing of Portland Cement
IS413. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. Concrete Pavements, Volume I. FHWA-RD-02-099.
7 Preparation
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2005. Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration.
Recycled Concrete Aggregate. http://www.fhwa.dot. Porter, M.L. and R.J. Guinn. 2002. Assessment of Dowel
gov/pavement/recycling/rca.cfm. Bar Research. Iowa DOT Project HR-1080. Ames,
Folliard, K.J., M.D.A. Thomas, and K.E. Kurtis. 2003. IA: Center for Transportation Research and Educa-
Guidelines for the Use of Lithium to Mitigate or Prevent tion, Iowa State University.
Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR). FHWA-RD-03-047. Portland Cement Association (PCA). 2000. Survey of
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Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration. Mineral Admixtures and Blended Cements in Ready
http://www.tfhrc.gov/pavement/pccp/pubs/03047/ Mixed Concrete. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement
index.htm. Association. http://www.portcement.org/astmc01/
Helmuth, R.A. 1987. Fly Ash in Cement and Concrete. Reference18.pdf.
SP040. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. Portland Cement Association (PCA). 1995. Emerging
Johansen, V.C., P.C. Taylor, and P.D. Tennis. 2005. Technologies Symposium on Cements for the 21st Century.
Effect of Cement Characteristics on Concrete Properties. SP206. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
EB 226. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. Quiroga, P. and D. Fowler. 2004. Chemical Admix-
Kandhal, P.S. and F. Parker, Jr. 1998. Aggregate Tests tures and Supplementary Cementing Materials in
Related to Asphalt Concrete Performance in Pavements. Concrete with High Microfines. Proceedings of the
NCHRP Project D4-19. Washington, D.C.: Trans- Twelfth Annual Symposium. Austin, TX: International
10 Troubleshooting
Kosmatka, S.H., B. Kerkhoff, and W.C. Panarese. Ramachandran, V.S. 1995. Concrete Admixtures Hand-
2002. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. book: Properties Science, and Technology. Park Ridge,
EB001.14. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. NJ: Noyes Publishers.
References
Shilstone, J.M., Sr. 1990. Concrete Mixture Optimiza- Thomas M.D.A. and M.L. Wilson. 2002. Admixtures
tion. Concrete International 12.6: 33–39. for Use in Concrete. CD-ROM CD039. Skokie, IL:
2 Design
Smith, K.D., D.G. Peshkin, M.I. Darter, A.L. Mueller, Portland Cement Association.
S.H. Carpenter. 1990. Vol. IV, Appendix A, Project Whiting, D. and W. Dziedzic. 1992. Effects of
Summary Reports and Summary Tables. Conventional and High-Range Water Reducers on
Performance of Jointed Pavements. FHWA-RD-89-139. Concrete Properties. RD107. Skokie, IL: Portland
Washington D.C.: Federal Highway Administration. Cement Association.
3 Materials
Stark, D. 1996. The Use of Recycled-Concrete Aggregate Whiting, D. and M.A. Nagi. 1998. Manual on the
from Concrete Exhibiting Alkali-Silica Reactivity. Control of Air Content in Concrete. EB116. National
RD114. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. Ready Mixed Concrete Association and Portland
Stark, D. 1989. Durability of Concrete in Sulfate-Rich Soils. Cement Association.
RD097. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. Wigum, B. J., P. Holmgeirsdottir, S.W. Danielsen,
4 Hydration
2 Design
Transformation of Concrete
from Plastic to Solid
3 Materials
Stages of Hydration: Overview 70
4 Hydration
Hydration Compounds 84
5 Properties
At the concrete plant, the ingredients discussed in of the chemical processes involved in hydration,
chapter 3—cementitious materials, water, aggregates, focusing on the compounds in cement and the
and chemical admixtures—are mixed together. During compounds created during hydration.
the next few hours, the mixture changes from a plastic • There is some repetition of information throughout
6 Mix
mixture to a solid concrete slab. Central to this trans- the chapter, as the text moves from a basic discus-
formation is a complex process called hydration—an sion to a more technical and detailed discussion.
irreversible series of chemical reactions between water • The general information about hydration is based
and cement. Hydration is a mystery to many people on a nominal concrete pavement mixture with a
7 Preparation
involved in designing and constructing concrete low water-cementitious materials (w/cm) ratio.
pavements. The goal of chapter 4 is to demystify this Many factors, like actual w/cm ratio, cement
process, focusing on the practical implications for fineness, aggregate gradation, consolidation,
designers and construction personnel. curing, and environment, all strongly influence
Why should readers care about hydration? The the performance of a pavement. These factors
chemical reactions taking place during the first few are discussed in more detail in other chapters,
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
hours influence how the concrete mixture behaves especially chapters 3, 6, and 8.
when it is being placed and finished. Later reactions • The time/heat curve used throughout this chapter
govern how strong and durable the hardened concrete represents a small, insulated concrete sample. It
becomes. With a general understanding of these reac- illustrates only changes in heat generally associ-
tions, readers can help prevent or correct problems and ated with cement hydration. It does not represent
ensure that the concrete performs as it was designed. an actual time/heat curve of a full-depth concrete
Notes to help you use chapter 4: slab, which would likely reflect heat contributed
• Chapter 4 takes two, overlapping approaches from external sources like sunlight, and slower
to describing hydration. The first approach cooling due to insulation plus the thermal mass of
focuses on five stages of hydration. (The Stages a full-depth slab.
10 Troubleshooting
of Hydration chart on pages 4-8 through 4-15 • Chapter 4 uses cement chemists’ shorthand nota-
come into contact. The cement particles partially during dormancy; a significant, steady rise in heat
dissolve, and the various dissolved components start during hardening; a peak and then continuous drop
to react at various rates. During the reactions, heat is in heat during cooling; and, finally, relatively little heat
generated and new compounds are produced. The generated during densification.
new compounds cause the cement paste to harden, The basic explanation of the five stages on
3 Materials
bond to the aggregate in the concrete mixture, and pages 4‑3 through 4-6 describes how concrete gener-
become strong and dense. ally reacts when the system is balanced and
Portland cement is manufactured by mixing performing as designed.
limestone, clay, and shale together at a very high
temperature, then grinding the resulting clinker Clinker particle
Gypsum
4 Hydration
Cement
Water
Aggregate
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Cooling
Final set
Densification
Hardening
Heat
Dormancy
Time
Mixing Dormancy
2 Design
In general, during hydration the reactions between Aluminate reactions are generally controlled for
silicates and water produce the primary com- about two to four hours, the dormant period.
pounds that make concrete strong and durable. But During this time, the concrete is plastic and does
silicates dissolve very slowly and do not have an not generate heat (figure 4-5). The dormant stage
3 Materials
immediate effect. gives the construction crew time to transport,
Aluminates and gypsum, on the other hand, dis- place, and finish the concrete while it is workable.
solve and react within minutes of being mixed During dormancy, it looks as though nothing is
with water, with immediate effect. Together with happening in the mixture. However, the cement is
water, the dissolved aluminate begins develop- continuing to dissolve, and the water is becoming
ing new compounds, generating significant heat. saturated with dissolved calcium and OH
4 Hydration
Unchecked, these reactions would cause irrevers- (hydroxyl) ions (figure 4-6).
ible, flash set or stiffening of the concrete.
Fortunately, the fast-dissolving gypsum reacts with
the dissolved aluminate and water to create a gel-
like substance that coats the cement compounds
(figure 4‑4). The coating slows the aluminate
5 Properties
reactions almost as soon as they start, reducing
the amount of heat generated and the potential for
flash set (figure 4-3).
6 Mix
Heat
Heat
7 Preparation
Mixing
Dormancy
Time Time
Figure 4-3. A very brief heat spike occurs during mixing. Figure 4-5. The concrete does not generate heat during the
dormancy stage.
Gel-like substance
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Ions
10 Troubleshooting
Figure 4-4. A gel-like substance coats cement compounds, Figure 4-6. During dormancy, the water becomes saturated
controlling the reactions and heat. with dissolved ions.
Hardening Cooling
2 Design
When the water becomes supersaturated with Due to changes in temperature and moisture
dissolved calcium ions, new compounds begin content, the concrete shrinks. Friction between
forming, heat is generated, and the mixture begins the shrinking concrete and the base layer under
stiffening. This is the beginning of the hardening the pavement causes stress that will eventually
stage (figure 4-7). cause the concrete to separate or crack. To relieve
3 Materials
Initial set occurs soon after the mixture begins the stress and prevent concrete from cracking
stiffening. After initial set, construction workers randomly, workers must saw joints. (Joints simply
should not work, vibrate, or finish the concrete control the crack locations.)
(any segregation of materials during this stage will There is only a brief period of time, perhaps two to
be permanent). Workers should apply curing com- four hours, to saw joints successfully. This period
pound as soon as possible after finishing to control is called the sawing window. The sawing window
4 Hydration
evaporation from the concrete surface. begins when the concrete can be sawed without
During the hardening stage, new compounds excessive raveling, and ends before the concrete
(products of hydration) continue growing and heat begins to crack randomly.
continues to be generated. Some of the compounds Approximately four to six hours after initial set,
are finger-like, fibrous growths; others are more hydration slows and the amount of heat generated
crystalline (figure 4-8). These compounds inter- begins to drop (figure 4-9).
5 Properties
weave and mesh together around the aggregates, This slowdown is caused by the buildup of hydra-
causing the concrete to become stiffer and even- tion products, which have begun to interfere with
tually become a solid. At final set, the concrete contact between the remaining water and cement
has become strong enough to walk on. Still, the in the concrete (figure 4-10).
concrete cannot carry traffic.
6 Mix
Cooling
Hardening
Heat
Heat
7 Preparation
Time Time
Figure 4-7. Significant heat is generated during the Figure 4-9. Heat energy peaks and then drops during
hardening stage. cooling.
Products of hydration
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Figure 4-8. Hydration products grow. Figure 4-10. Hydration products grow during cooling.
Densification Summary
2 Design
As you can see, hydration is the underlying and
During the final stage of hydration, the reactions
unifying process that must be understood and man-
continue slowly, generating little heat (figure 4-11).
aged or mitigated throughout a concrete pavement
Continued growth and meshing of hydration prod-
project, from mix design and materials selection to
ucts results in a strong, solid mass (figure 4‑12).
Long after the concrete is strong enough to carry construction.
3 Materials
traffic, this process will continue—as long as The previous overview covers only the most basic
cement and water are present in the concrete— information regarding the stages of cement hydration.
increasing the slab’s strength and reducing its A somewhat more detailed description is given in
permeability.
the next section, which includes Stages of Hydration
Construction crews can do two final things to help charts beginning on page 76 (and reproduced in the
4 Hydration
ensure long-term pavement performance:
enclosed poster).
After sawing joints, insulate the pavement if air You can find more information about several
temperatures are expected to drop rapidly and
related topics throughout this manual:
significantly. (If the pavement surface cools too
quickly, the slab may crack.) • Effects of SCMs on concrete mixtures, see
Supplementary Cementitious Materials in
Keep traffic and construction equipment off the
5 Properties
pavement as long as possible (preferably, at least chapter 3, page 31.
72 hours) to protect the curing compound. Curing • Effects of fine cements on concrete mixtures,
compound reduces moisture loss from the concrete see Cement Fineness Affects Hydration and
and thus enables continued hydration, increasing Concrete Properties, page 87.
concrete strength and reducing its permeability.
• Effects of admixtures on concrete mixtures, see
Chemical Admixtures in chapter 3, page 55.
6 Mix
• Possible problems with early or late stiffening
Densification during hydration, see Potential Materials
Incompatibilities later in this chapter,
7 Preparation
Heat
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
beginning on page 203.
• Maximizing the water-cementitious materials
ratio for optimum hydration, see Step 2: Water-
Cementitious Materials Ratio in chapter 6,
page 179.
• Cement hydration and concrete strength,
see Strength and Strength Gain in chapter 5,
page 116; and Strength in chapter 6, page 187.
• Cement hydration and concrete cracking, see
Concrete Strength Gain, Tensile Stress, and
10 Troubleshooting
• Optimizing hydration for reduced permeability, Figure 4-13 briefly describes the characteristics
2 Design
see Factors Affecting Permeability in chapter 5, of concrete and the implications for workers at each
page 131; and Adjusting Properties in chapter 6, stage of hydration.
page 185.
3 Materials
Time
Conventional sawing
window
Aggregate
Check for
conventional sawing
5 Properties
Initial set
− − − − − − − − − − − Strength/Stress development − − −>
6 Mix
Lasts about Lasts about 2–4 hours Lasts about 2–4 hours Continues for years
15 minutes
Characteristics High heat is Mixture is plastic, workable, • Hydration generates Stress development will Slab continues to
of concrete generated and not generating significant significant heat. exceed strength become stronger
mixture immediately, heat. development if stress is not and less permeable.
followed by • Mixture sets, begins to relieved.
harden, and gains strength.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
rapid
cooling. • Stress begins developing
in the concrete.
What Ensure Transport, place, and finish • Begin curing as soon as Saw joints to relieve stress • Insulate the slab if the
engineers, adequate the concrete while plastic and possible. and control cracking. air temperature is
supervisors, mixing. workable. • Thoroughly apply curing expected to cool
and workers compound. rapidly and
must do to significantly.
ensure durable • Protect curing
pavement compound as long as
possible.
Figure 4-13. Concrete characteristics, and implications for workers, during stages of hydration
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
83, also included with this manual as a full-sized ◦ Gypsum (dihydrate).
poster) provide more details about hydration and the ◦ Plaster (hemihydrate).
transformation of concrete from a plastic mixture to a ◦ Anhydrite.
solid slab. The charts illustrate and explain the follow- The Stages of Hydration charts on the following
ing: pages focus on alites (C3S), belites (C2S), the alumi-
3 Materials
• Specific chemical reactions occurring between nate C3A, and sulfates (figure 4-14). These are the
cement and water at various stages of hydration. compounds in cement that have the most significant
• How these reactions influence on the formation of concrete.
◦ Are observed in changes in heat.
◦ Result in physical changes in the mixture.
Primary Hydration Products
4 Hydration
The primary products of hydration are
◦ Influence construction practice.
• Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H).
• How supplementary cementitious materials
• Calcium hydroxide (CH).
change the system. –
• Ettringite (C-A-S -H).
• How chemical admixtures change the system. –
• Monosulfate (C-A-S -H).
• How incompatibilities may occur. The charts on the following pages focus on the
5 Properties
• Issues related to cracking. formation of C-S-H and CH. These compounds are
• Issues related to the air-void system. central to concrete strength and durability.
These topics are covered in greater depth later in
Alites Belites Gypsum _
the second half of this chapter, beginning on page 84, (sulfate)(CS)
(C3S) (C2S)
which focuses more on the compounds involved in Aluminate
(C3A)
cement hydration than on the stages.
6 Mix
Primary Compounds in Unhydrated
Cement
7 Preparation
The three ingredients in cement—silicates, alu-
minates, and sulfates—consist of several primary
compounds:
• Silicates.
◦ Alite (C3S).
Ferrite
◦ Belite (C2S).
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
(C4AF)
• Aluminates.
◦ Tricalcium aluminate (C3A).
◦ Ferrite (C4AF). Figure 4-14. Compounds in cement
10 Troubleshooting
Basics
2 Design
Gel-like substance
3 Materials
Ions
4 Hydration
Within minutes of mixing cement For about two to four hours after
and water, the aluminates start to mixing, there is a dormant period,
dissolve and react, with the following during which the following events
results: occur:
–
• Aluminate* reacts with water • The C-A-S-H gel is controlling
and sulfate, forming a gel-like aluminate* reactions. Little heat
5 Properties
–
material (C-A-S-H). This reaction is generated, and little physical
releases heat. change occurs in the concrete. The
– concrete is plastic.
• The C-A-S-H gel builds up
around the grains, limiting water’s • During dormancy, as silicates
access to the grains and thus (alite [C3S] and belite [C2S])
controlling the rate of aluminate slowly dissolve, calcium ions and
6 Mix
Compounds key
Silicates
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Alite (C3S)
Belite (C2S)
Aluminates*
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
Ferrite (C4AF)
–
Sulfates (CS)
Gypsum (dihydrate)
Plaster (hemihydrate)
Anhydrite
Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)
Calcium hydroxide (CH)
–
Ettringite (C-A-S-H)
–
Monosulfate (C-A-S-H)
10 Troubleshooting
76
1 Intro
2 Design
Calcium hydroxide Calcium silicate hydrate
Calcium silicate hydrate (CH) (C-S-H) Calcium hydroxide
(C-S-H) (CH)
3 Materials
4 Hydration
This stage is dominated by alite (C3S) After final set, the rate of alite (C3S) This stage is critical for continued
hydration and the resulting formation reactions begins to slow, and the development of concrete strength
of C-S-H and CH crystals: amount of heat generated peaks and and reduction of concrete
• When the solution becomes super- begins to drop. This occurs because permeability. (When concrete has
saturated with calcium ions (from the buildup of C-S-H and CH low permeability, substances like
dissolving alite [C3S] primarily), interferes with contact between water and dissolved salts cannot
5 Properties
fiber-like C-S-H and crystalline CH remaining water and undissolved readily penetrate it and it is less
start to form. This generates heat. cement grains. susceptible to freeze-thaw damage.)
Meshing of C-S-H with other solids During this stage, several things are The concrete must be kept moist as
causes the mixture to stiffen and set. occurring: long as possible. Here’s why:
• The increasing heat and stiffening of • The concrete is gaining strength, • As long as alite (C3S) remains
the cement paste mark the beginning and there is water in the concrete,
6 Mix
as the amount of C-S-H (and CH)
of hydration acceleration, which increases. However, the concrete is the alite will continue to hydrate.
lasts several hours. Initial set occurs still somewhat porous and should As the volume of hydration
early in this stage. carry only light construction traffic. products grows, concrete porosity
7 Preparation
• Acceleration is characterized by a • Tensile stresses may be building (and permeability) decreases,
rapid rate of hydration, significant faster than tensile strength. At and the concrete gains strength.
heat, continued hardening, and some point, stress will exceed Eventually, the products—
strength development. strength, causing the concrete to particularly C-S-H—will combine
• The rates of reaction are faster for crack. Unless joints are sawed to into a solid mass.
finer cementitious materials and for control crack location, random • Belite (C2S), which reacts more
systems with higher alkali contents. cracking will occur. slowly than alite (C3S), also
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Slower reacting systems will react • Sometime after the temperature produces C-S-H. After several
longer and will generally provide a peaks, sulfate, which has days, in the presence of water,
better microstructure in the long run. continued reacting with aluminate* most of the alite has reacted and
• During acceleration, aluminate* (see stages 1 and 2 on the previous the rate of belite hydration begins
and sulfate continue to react, and page) will be depleted. Any to be noticeable. It is important to
–
needle-like ettringite (C-A-S-H) remaining aluminate* now reacts maintain sufficient moisture long
crystals form. with ettringite to form monosulfate, enough for belite reactions to occur.
• Final set—about when the concrete which may be associated with a • Hydration products will continue
is hard enough to walk on—occurs brief increase in heat. (Monosulfate to develop, permeability will
before heat energy peaks (before alite does not significantly affect continue to decrease, and strength
[C3S] reactions begin to slow). concrete properties.) will continue to increase slowly
10 Troubleshooting
• After final set, tensile stresses start to for days, weeks, even years, as
develop due to temperature and long as cementitious material and
drying effects, the mixture’s increas- water are present. This process is
ing stiffness, and the slab’s friction affected by factors like cement type
with the pavement base. and fineness.
77
Stages of Hydration
1 Intro
SCMs, like fly ash and ground, granulated blast-furnace used in concrete to take advantage of available materials and
(GGBF) slag, are included in more than 65 percent of achieve desired workability, strength gain, and durability.
concrete mixtures in the United States. In general, they See Supplementary Cementitious Materials in chapter 3,
consist of the same basic elements—silicon, aluminum, page 31. See Reactions of Supplementary Cementitious
and calcium—and perform basically the same function Materials later in this chapter, page 94.
3 Materials
If SCMs contain large Like portland cement, Silicates in the SCMs The magnitude of In the long term,
amounts of calcium during dormancy the react with the CH from the heat peak is often silicates in SCMs
(for instance, Class C silicates in SCMs are the cement reactions reduced in systems chemically combine
4 Hydration
fly ash), the calcium slowly dissolving and to form additional containing SCMs due to with CH from cement
may be in the form releasing calcium ions C-S-H, thus reducing slower hydration rate. hydration to form
of aluminate,* which and hydroxyl (OH) ions. porosity of the system This generally results in additional C-S-H.
will increase the risk and increasing strength less shrinkage later and, Strength development
of flash set if there is and durability. These thus, potentially less may be slower initially
insufficient sulfate in reactions are slow and, stress. A second peak but continues longer,
5 Properties
solution, as discussed while they start in this may be observed as the normally leading to
in the Incompatibilities stage, they may only be SCMs hydrate. higher long-term
chart (page 81). noticeable in stage 5. Generally as a result of strength. Permeability
Fly ashes with high They will continue reducing the hydration is often significantly
loss-on-ignition (LOI) for a long time, and rate and heat, SCMs reduced, thus improving
(mass loss when generally lead to higher influence the duration potential durability.
6 Mix
development of the air- • Setting time may the system chemistry prone to frost damage.
void system. be delayed, and and the environment. The extent of, and
Compounds key
That is because working time If SCMs are being mechanisms behind, this
Silicates
high LOI fly Alite (C3S) may be extended. used for the first time perception are still under
ashes contain Belite (C2S) Heat and rate or if sources change, investigation.
unburned Aluminates* of hydration are then close attention
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
often reduced, and is required to prevent Low-calcium fly ash and
carbon that Ferrite (C4AF)
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
may require
may have the same
less water to achieve
78
Stages of Hydration
1 Intro
Effects of Chemical Admixtures
See Chemical Admixtures in chapter 3, page 55.
2 Design
3 Materials
Water reducers.
Water reducers work Retarders. Retarders work by forming a layer around cement grains, which causes the cement to
by dispersing clusters dissolve more slowly. This delays initial set and the start of the acceleration period.
4 Hydration
of cement grains and The amount of heat generated may be slightly later and lower, but heat generation may be
releasing water trapped extended longer.
in the clusters, making
Mixtures containing retarders tend to have a finer, less permeable microstructure, leading to better
more water available
long-term strength and durability.
for workability. Water
reducers may increase Accelerators. Accelerators shorten the dormant period, leading to earlier setting, and often result
5 Properties
initial workability in a higher temperature peak. The mechanism behind the acceleration is not fully understood,
but may not slow although silicate hydration is faster.
slump loss with time. Chloride-based accelerators increase the risk of corrosion of any steel embedded in the concrete.
Polycarboxolate water
reducers may increase air
entrainment.
6 Mix
In general, Type A water
reducers increase the rate
of aluminate* hydration
7 Preparation
(thus, the risk of flash
set) and slow the rate
of alite (C3S) hydration
(slowing strength gain).
High-range (Type F)
water reducers are less
prone to incompatibility.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Air entrainers. Air-
entraining admixtures
work by stabilizing
small air bubbles in the
paste. Several different
chemical forms of air
entrainers are available,
all with differing stability
and differing effects on
bubble size. In general,
the greater the slump,
10 Troubleshooting
Retarders. Set-retarding
admixtures may increase
air content.
79
Stages of Hydration
1 Intro
If using dump trucks Transport, place, After stiffening begins, To prevent random Keep concrete
or agitator trucks, mix finish, and texture the do not work, vibrate, or cracking due to buildup thoroughly covered and
materials and place concrete during the consolidate the concrete. of tensile stresses, saw protected with curing
the mixture into the dormant period, before Segregation of the joints during a brief compound as long as
4 Hydration
transport vehicle. Look initial set, while the ingredients at this point sawing window: possible, at least for
out for stiffening during concrete is cool, plastic, will be permanent. • The sawing window the first 72 hours after
transportation (see and workable. Thoroughly apply begins when concrete mixing.
early stiffening under curing compound to is strong enough not The longer the curing
Use appropriate
Incompatibilities on the to ravel when sawed,
transport methods and the concrete surface compound remains in
next page). and edges as soon as and ends before the place (that is, protected
equipment to prevent
5 Properties
Silicates
it increases the heat peaks; how
concrete, more cement
Alite (C3S) porosity and long after depends on
Belite (C2S) remains unhydrated and
permeability of the specific mixture,
Aluminates* fewer products form.
the surface layer. cement, SCMs, ambient
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) Also, water evaporation
Ferrite (C4AF) (In hot weather, temperatures, etc.
leaves capillary pores
Sulfates (CS)
– bleeding may • For early-age saws, the
behind, reducing
Gypsum (dihydrate) be helpful in window may begin at
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
80
Stages of Hydration
1 Intro
Incompatibilities: Early Stiffening/
Retardation
2 Design
The risk of incompatibilities occurring is higher See Potential Materials Incompatibilities later in this
• When using finer cementitious materials. chapter, page 97. See Chemical Admixtures in chapter 3,
• At low water-cementitious materials ratios. page 55.
• At high temperatures.
3 Materials
If insufficient sulfate is in
If calcium is consumed by poorly controlled
solution for the amount
aluminate reactions earlier in Stage 1, then
of aluminate* (from
supersaturation of calcium ions will be slowed
cement and fly ash),
and alite hydration retarded. This retardation
4 Hydration
uncontrolled aluminate
can potentially continue for several days,
hydration may cause
severely delaying or even preventing setting. It
rapid, permanent stiffen-
is possible to have a mixture that exhibits false
ing or flash set. This is
set, followed by severe retardation.
characterized by a
temperature rise. Alite (C3S) hydration is accelerated by high
5 Properties
Aluminate hydration is temperatures, high alkali contents (from
accelerated by some cementitious materials), and high cement
Type A water-reducing fineness. This accelerates setting, which can
admixtures and high accelerate the start of, and shorten the duration
temperature; more of, the saw-cutting window.
sulfate may be needed to Alite hydration is retarded by some Type A
6 Mix
maintain an adequate water-reducing admixtures and low
shell around the temperatures, slowing setting and thus delaying
aluminate* particles to the beginning of the saw-cutting window.
control flash set.
7 Preparation
Excess sulfate in solution
results in gypsum crystals
being deposited out,
prematurely stiffening
the system, resulting in
(temporary) false set.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
The gypsum eventually
dissolves as the mixture
is mixed, which is why
false set is temporary.
There is no effect on
other hydration processes.
The amount of sulfate
in solution is controlled
by the amount/form of
sulfate in the cement.
Gypsum dissolves slowly
10 Troubleshooting
Materials tend to expand as they get warmer and shrink The volume of aggregate is significantly larger than the
when they get cooler. Cement paste tends to move more volume of paste, and tends to control the amount of thermal
with such volume changes than does aggregate. Cement movement of concrete. If aggregate with a low coefficient of
paste also shrinks as it dries. Objects that are restrained thermal expansion is used, the risk of problems will decrease.
when they move (shrink or expand) will be stressed, See Aggregate Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in chapter 3,
3 Materials
leading to cracking if the stresses exceed the strength. page 47. Concrete with high paste content and high fines
(Restraint comes from any connection with adjacent content, due to improper aggregate gradation, will be at
objects, such as friction with the subgrade.) It is therefore higher risk of cracking. See Early-Age Cracking in chapter 5,
desirable to reduce paste content within a given mix, page 148, and Crack Prediction with HIPERPAV in chapter 8,
while still achieving workability and filling all the voids page 231.
between aggregate particles.
4 Hydration
Because chemical Drying, and consequent shrinkage, any time Drying, and consequent After concrete has set,
reactions are faster at before final set may result in so-called plastic restrained shrinkage, it tends to dry and
higher temperatures, shrinkage cracking. before sufficient strength cool more quickly
5 Properties
Plaster (hemihydrate) with high alkali content, curved slab may result
Anhydrite
aluminate* content, in cracking.
Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)
and fineness may shrink
Calcium hydroxide (CH)
– more than other systems,
Ettringite (C-A-S-H)
– therefore increasing the
Monosulfate (C-A-S-H)
risk of random cracking.
* In the Stages of Hydration chart,
“aluminate” refers generically to Modeling programs like
tricalcium aluminate (C3A). Ferrite (C4AF)
hydration does not contribute significantly HIPERPAV can be used
to concrete properties. to predict the sawing
window more accurately
for a given set of
circumstances, helping
10 Troubleshooting
to reduce random
cracking.
82
Stages of Hydration
1 Intro
Implications of Cement Hydration for
the Air-Void System
2 Design
A good air-void system—that is, a uniform distribution of
small, stable bubbles—in the finished concrete is necessary
for concrete durability. See Air-Entraining Admixtures in
chapter 3, page 56; Frost Resistance in chapter 5, page 132;
and Effects of Chemical Admixtures on page 79.
3 Materials
4 Hydration
The air-void system The stability of the The air-void system has been formed at this stage
develops during air-void system (i.e., and is unlikely to change.
mixing. It is harder to the ability to prevent
5 Properties
entrain air in systems bubbles from breaking
at high temperature, during handling)
with low slump, depends on the
and with very fine chemistry of the air-
supplementary entraining admixture.
cementitious materials Some air entrainers are
6 Mix
that have high loss-on- more sensitive than
ignition (LOI) (mass others to the presence
loss when heated to or dosage of other
1,000°C [1,830°F])
7 Preparation
chemical admixtures
and low alkali contents. or supplementary
Additional air- cementitious materials.
entraining admixture (Methods are being
may be required for developed to test the
such systems. Set- overall sensitivity of a
retarding admixtures paste system.)
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
may increase air
Increased handling
content.
(e.g., transportation,
placing, vibration,
finishing) of unstable
systems may reduce the
air content and affect
the quality of the in-
place air-void system.
Air content of concrete
should be tested at the
delivery point and after
10 Troubleshooting
mix.
83
1 Intro
in cement and concrete. First, the specific compounds (2,500°F), then grinding the resulting clinker with
in portland cement are described. Then, the role of gypsum. The final product consists of silicates, alumi-
each of these compounds in hydration is outlined, nates, and sulfates. Other elements and compounds in
followed by the results of hydration: new compounds cement are in smaller proportions, but can contribute
3 Materials
produced, the pore system, various stresses on the to, or interfere with, the complex chemical reactions
system, and the development of concrete strength and that occur during cement hydration. The primary
low permeability. The effects of using supplementary compounds in portland cement are listed in table 4-1
cementitious materials (SCMs) in the mixture are and shown in figure 4-15.
discussed and, finally, potential incompatibilities that Chemical analyses of cementitious materials by
can arise through various combinations of SCMs and x-ray fluorescence report the elements as oxides. (This
4 Hydration
admixtures in the mix are described. is for convenience only, as these elements are not all
likely to be present as pure oxides.) The same con-
vention is followed in the remaining sections of this
chapter. An example of a mill certificate is shown in
figure 4-16. A mill certificate includes specified limits,
5 Properties
table 4‑1.
• Silicates compose about 75 percent of
cement. Alite (C3S) contributes to concrete’s
initial set and early strength; belite
(C2S) contributes to strength gain after
approximately one week. Clinker particle
Gypsum
Calcium silicates particles
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
hydration rates.
Figure 4-15. Composition of portland cement
2 Design
Silica normally composes about 20 percent of
cement by mass, while calcium oxide normally unless controlled by the presence of sulfate. (Uncon-
contributes 60 to 65 percent. These combine to form trolled hydration of tricalcium aluminate can lead to
the silicates in clinker: alite (C3S) and belite (C2S). flash set.) (See Aluminate and Sulfate reactions later
Portland cements currently contain approximately in this chapter, page 88.) Ferrite reactions do not
3 Materials
55 percent alite and 20 percent belite (Johansen et al. contribute significantly to the properties of concrete
2005). except for the gray color.
During cement hydration, alite contributes to the
setting and early strength development of concrete, Gypsum
normally beginning a few hours after mixing. Belite is When clinker is being ground to a powder, gypsum
–
4 Hydration
the primary compound that contributes to concrete’s (CS H2) is added at about a five percent dosage. The
later strength development. Its effects become notice- primary purpose for including gypsum in portland
able about a week after mixing. cement is to provide sulfate, which controls the
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) reactions during hydra-
Aluminates tion. The sulfate dosage is carefully optimized because
Alumina is included in the mixture in a cement the strength of a cement is influenced by the amount
5 Properties
kiln because it helps reduce the burning temperatures of sulfate; incompatibility (including uncontrolled
required to make cement. Alumina combines with stiffening and setting) can occur if the amounts of sul-
calcium and iron oxide to form two calcium aluminate fate and tricalcium aluminate are out of balance (see
compounds in clinker: tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and Potential Materials Incompatibilities in this chapter,
tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) or ferrite. Typical page 97).
6 Mix
portland cements contain approximately 10 percent Gypsum is one of three forms of calcium sulfate
tricalcium aluminate and 10 percent ferrite. normally present in portland cement. The three forms
7 Preparation
Table 4-1. Major Compounds in Portland Cement
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• Can cause early stiffening
and flash set
• Prone to sulfate attack
Silicates Alite Tricalcium C3S • Hydrates and hardens rapidly 50–70% Clinker
silicate • Largely responsible for initial
set and early strength
Belite Dicalcium C2S • Hydrates and hardens slowly 15–30%
silicate • Contributes to strength
increase after one week
• Contributes to low concrete
permeability
10 Troubleshooting
Gypsum
sulfate C3A
are determined by the amount of water tied to the side sulfates will react with the hydration products
2 Design
sulfate compounds, as shown in table 4 2. (See Form of tricalcium aluminate (C3A), forming expansive
of Sulfate later in this chapter, page 98.) compounds that damage the concrete. This is known
Note: Do not confuse the sulfate in portland as sulfate attack and is why limits on tricalcium alumi-
cement with sulfates that may enter concrete from nate content are imposed on sulfate-resistant cement
3 Materials
ground water after the concrete has set. These out- (see Hydraulic Cement in chapter 3, page 30).
4 Hydration
• Increased heat of hydration.
pulverized in a grinding mill to reduce its size from 25- to
• Reduced workability.
50-mm (1- to 2-in.) particles to a powder. The fineness of
the cement is controlled by the manufacturer to achieve • Reduced bleeding.
some performance characteristics. Approximately • Possible reduced air entrainment.
95 percent of cement particles are smaller than • Increased risk of incompatibility.
5 Properties
45 micrometers, with the average particle around
15 micrometers. Fineness is usually measured by the Blaine air-
permeability test (ASTM C 204 / AASHTO T 153), which
With increasing fineness, cement exhibits the following indirectly measures the surface area of cement particles
characteristics: per unit mass. The surface area of finer cements is
• Increasing rate of hydration initially, leading to higher than that of coarser materials. Typical Type 1
increased early strengths. Longer-term strength cements are in the range of 300 to 400 m2/kg. Type 3
6 Mix
development is not as marked with finer cements. cements are generally finer than Type 1 cements.
7 Preparation
Table 4-2. Forms of Calcium Sulfate
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
dihydrate
Key Points
2 Design
(C2S) contributes to long-term strength gain • Hydration will continue for a long time, as long
and low permeability. as water and unhydrated cement grains are
available. While hydration continues, concrete
• Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) is the strength increases and permeability decreases.
primary product of silicate reactions that Curing—primarily, protecting the concrete from
contributes to concrete’s strength and
6 Mix
Hydration is a series of nonreversible chemical The rest of this section on hydration provides
reactions between hydraulic cement, such as portland general, simplified descriptions of the following:
cement, and water. During hydration, the cement- • The primary chemical reactions of aluminates,
water paste sets and hardens. Hydration begins as sulfates, and silicates.
soon as cement comes in contact with water. The • The products of those reactions.
cement particles partially dissolve, and the various • The development of strength and stresses
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
components start to react at various rates, generating within concrete during hydration.
heat (a process that may raise temperature) and result- • The importance of the development of paste
ing in various reaction products. density during hydration.
The heat generated by hydration does not reach • The implications of various stages of hydra-
zero for a long time, indicating that reactions continue tion on construction practices to ensure strong,
slowly. The reactions can continue for years, as long durable concrete pavements.
as the concrete contains water and unreacted cement,
resulting in continued development of strength and Aluminate and Sulfate Reactions
other desirable characteristics like low permeability. The aluminate and sulfate reactions dominate the
The hydration process is complex and is the subject first 15 minutes of hydration. When mixed in water,
10 Troubleshooting
of extensive research. However, a basic understanding tricalcium aluminate (C3A) immediately dissolves
of the primary reactions and hydration products can and reacts with water and calcium hydroxide to form
help everyone involved in concrete pavement projects calcium aluminate hydrate crystals. This reaction
prevent or correct problems. generates a large amount of heat and, if uncontrolled
2 Design
by sulfate, will cause fast, permanent hardening. This
effect—known as flash set—is very undesirable.
Sulfate, however, controls the tricalcium aluminate
(C3A) reaction. Combined with sulfate in solution
–
(CS ), tricalcium aluminate forms complex compounds
3 Materials
that eventually crystallize out as needle-like ettringite
–
(C-A-S -H) (figure 4-17).
During the first few minutes, the initial hydration
product (a gel-like material, which can also be roughly
–
annotated as C-A-S -H) surrounds the tricalcium
4 Hydration
aluminate, limiting water’s access to the tricalcium
aluminate and thereby slowing reactions (figure 4-18). ________________________________________________
–
The period of time during which reactions are Figure 4-17. Reactions of C3A and CS, in solution, are re-
slowed, little heat is generated, and little physical sponsible for an early heat spike during cement hydration.
change in the concrete is observed is known as the
dormant period. The dormant period lasts two to four Gel-like substance
5 Properties
hours. This is important in a concrete paving project
because it provides time to transport, place, and finish
the concrete mixture while it is cool and plastic.
The importance of the dormant period makes it
critical for sufficient sulfate to be included in the port-
land cement (see Potential Materials Incompatibilities
6 Mix
later in this chapter, page 97).
After the dormant period, other chemical reactions
dominate cement hydration. However, the tricalcium
7 Preparation
–
aluminate (C3A) and sulfate (CS ) continue to react
–
and form ettringite (C-A-S -H), which contributes
somewhat to concrete’s early strength development.
–
The tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and sulfate (CS ) –
reactions continue until all the sulfate is consumed, Figure 4-18. Gel-like C-A-S-H limits water’s access to
cement particles.
generally within 24 hours. Then, any remaining trical-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
cium aluminate will react with the ettringite to form
monosulfate (figure 4-19). This reaction continues as
long as calcium aluminate, ettringite, and water are
available. It has little effect on the physical characteris-
tics of concrete.
________________________________________________
loosely known as calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and Figure 4-19. After sulfate is consumed, remaining C3A
calcium hydroxide (CH), or lime. reacts with ettringite.
Alite Reactions
2 Design
calcium hydroxide is readily soluble in water and may Calcium silicate hydrate (CH)
(C-S-H)
be attacked if the concrete is exposed to soft water
or acid. However, calcium hydroxide is necessary for
maintaining a high pH and for stabilizing the calcium
silicate hydrate (C-S-H).
Initially, the alite reactions are rapid. After a few
hours, however, the hydration products (C-S-H and
CH) accumulate to a point at which they interfere
with contact between the undissolved cement particles
and water, slowing the reactions and thus reducing
10 Troubleshooting
final set occurs. Final set is roughly associated with Figure 4-22. Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium
the time when the concrete has become hard enough hydroxide (CH) begin to form.
to walk on or to demold and test a cylinder. (Final set Calcium silicate hydrate
2 Design
is defined by ASTM paste and mortar pressure tests as (C-S-H) Calcium hydroxide
a point when the paste has acquired a certain degree (CH)
of hardness; however, the values selected are some-
what arbitrary and do not necessarily relate directly to
3 Materials
a physical phenomenon in the concrete.)
Alite reactions will continue slowly as long as unhy-
drated cement and water are present and accessible.
Belite Reactions
The other silicate compound, belite (C2S), mimics
4 Hydration
the reactions of alite (C3S) but at a slower pace. When
mixed with water, belite dissolves and releases cal-
cium ions very slowly. Only after several days do Figure 4-23. Hydration products accumulate and mesh.
belite reactions (producing calcium silicate hydrate
[C-S-H] and calcium hydroxide [CH] crystals) start
5 Properties
contributing to strength, but the reactions continue
for a long time (figure 4-24).
Belite reactions are critical to the long-term devel-
opment of strength and reduction of permeability.
As long as alites and belites remain and there is
water in the concrete, the silicates will continue to
6 Mix
hydrate. As the volume of hydration products grows,
the concrete porosity (and permeability) decreases and
the concrete gains strength. Eventually, the hydration
7 Preparation
products will combine into a solid mass (figure 4-25).
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
changing volumes of cement compounds and hydra-
tion products (figure 4-26).
• Temperature (higher temperatures accelerate The space occupied by unreacted water is the capillary
2 Design
Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) • Calcium silicate hydrate is a product of silicate reactions—both alite (C3S) and
belite (C2S)—with water.
5 Properties
• Calcium silicate hydrate is the primary desirable hydration product. It bonds with
other calcium silicate hydrate and with aggregate, and is a major contributor to
concrete strength and low permeability.
• Calcium silicate hydrate growths gradually spread and mesh with growths from
other cement particles or adhere to aggregates. This buildup of solid compounds
causes the paste to stiffen, harden, and develop strength and reduces
permeability.
6 Mix
Ettringite (C-A-S-H) • Ettringite, in the form of needlelike crystals, is the primary product of reactions
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
between tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and sulfate (CS2) in solution. These reactions
continue until the sulfate is depleted, generally within 24 hours. (See monosulfate,
below.)
• Ettringite gel is especially important for its role in creating a dormant period early
in cement hydration. It does this by limiting access of water to the particles and
slowing their hydration.
• Ettringite contributes somewhat to concrete’s early strength but plays only a
minor role in hardened concrete’s strength.
Monosulfate • When all the sulfate (CS2) has been depleted, the remaining aluminate (C3A)
(C-A-S-H) reacts with the ettringite (C-A-S-H) to form monosulfate crystals.
• Monosulfate has little effect on concrete’s physical characteristics.
Calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH) Unless sulfate (CS2) is present in solution, the reaction of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
10 Troubleshooting
with water will quickly result in undesirable calcium aluminate hydrate. This will
cause irreversible setting, or flash set. See the discussion under Potential Materials
Concrete Strength Gain, Tensile after final set; for early-age saws, the period may begin
2 Design
Stress, and the Sawing Window at or slightly before final set), but before it has begun
During cement hydration, as the hydration prod- to crack randomly. That period is the sawing window.
ucts calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium
hydroxide (CH) accumulate, the concrete develops its Hydration and Concrete Permeability
3 Materials
strength. Compressive strength is the ability to resist One of the characteristics of durable concrete is
forces that push the concrete together (compression); low permeability. Salts and other harmful substances
tensile strength is the ability to resist forces that pull it cannot easily penetrate such concrete, and it is less
apart (tension). susceptible to freeze-thaw damage.
Concrete develops significant compressive strength, To ensure that new concrete pavements develop low
4 Hydration
which makes it an ideal material for pavements that permeability, it is important to provide the right condi-
support heavy loads. Concrete’s tensile strength, how- tions for hydration to continue sufficiently. Providing
ever, is only about one-tenth its compressive strength. the right conditions includes retaining mix water (i.e.,
With changing internal moisture and temperature, losing as little as possible to evaporation) and protect-
concrete experiences volume changes, but the pave- ing the concrete from extreme temperatures, especially
ment base (among other things) restrains the concrete keeping the concrete warm during cool weather.
5 Properties
movement. This restrained movement sets up tensile Reduce moisture loss from the concrete by thor-
stresses, or tension, in the concrete. oughly applying curing compound (or wet coverings)
Sometime after final set, the growing tensile stresses after finishing (or at the time of initial set, depend-
will likely exceed concrete’s tensile strength, causing ing on the rate of bleeding), and then protecting the
the concrete to crack. Sawing joints relieves tensile curing compound from traffic for as long as possible.
6 Mix
stresses and prevents random cracking by reducing In hot weather, evaporation retarders may also be
the panel sizes, thus reducing the amount of restraint. applied between initial placing and finishing to further
Joints must be cut during the critical period when the reduce moisture loss. In cold weather, protect the con-
concrete has hardened enough not to ravel along the crete from extreme temperature changes by covering it
7 Preparation
saw cut (for conventional saws, this is generally soon with insulating blankets.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4-26. Estimates of the relative volumes of cement compounds and products of hydration with increasing hydration
(adapted from Tennis and Jennings 2000).
Note: These estimates are for a 0.50 water-cementitious materials ratio; decreasing the ratio will decrease the capillary porosity.
to calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), with ects) silica fume. Class C fly ash also has pozzolanic
a positive effect on later-age strength gain characteristics.
and low permeability. Pozzolanic materials require a source of calcium
hydroxide (CH) to hydrate. When pozzolans are
• The use of SCMs to complement portland included in concrete mixtures, they help convert cal-
5 Properties
cements has become increasingly common cium hydroxide (CH) (a product of silicate reactions)
in concrete mixtures for pavements. to calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) (figure 4-28).
Thus, pozzolans can have a positive effect on strength
• It is important to test mixtures containing gain and concrete permeability.
SCMs to ensure they are achieving the Pozzolanic reactions are somewhat slower than
desired results, verify the correct dosage, cement hydration, so setting times may be retarded
6 Mix
and detect any unintended effects. and strength development is often slower. However,
slower hydration can reduce the risk of cracking in
some cases. In addition, pozzolanic reactions continue
7 Preparation
It is also important to remember that SCMs may Figure 4-27. Ternary diagram illustrating the basic chemical
react differently with different cements. composition of various SCMs compared to portland cement
2 Design
Cements for Concrete Pavements: A Durable Tradition
Durability is a hallmark of concrete pavements. In fact, Supplementary Cementitious Materials
some concrete pavements constructed in the early In the history of concrete pavements, supplementary
1900s are still in service today. cementitious materials (SCMs) are relative newcomers.
3 Materials
Over the years, cements for concrete have been Primarily byproducts of manufacturing processes, SCMs
continuously changed and improved to meet the various are generally plentiful and economical. When used
needs of the construction and pavement industries. properly, SCMs are useful complements to portland
In addition, the construction industry has made use of cement in concrete for paving applications.
supplementary cementitious materials that enhance the
Pozzolanic reactions are beneficial because (among
4 Hydration
performance of the concrete.
other reasons) they consume calcium hydroxide (CH)
Changes in Portland Cement (a hydration product of cement) to produce additional
In response to the construction industry’s desire to calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). Calcium hydroxide
shorten construction times by accelerating concrete (CH) contributes relatively little to concrete strength,
strength gain, cement manufacturers have made while calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) is the primary
5 Properties
appropriate changes in portland cement chemistry. contributor to concrete strength and impermeability.
Over several decades, cement manufacturers increased Pozzolanic reactions also generally slow hydration
cements’ alite (C3S) content and reduced cements’ belite initially and reduce the early heat of hydration.
(C2S) content. In the early 1900s the proportions were Pozzolanic reactions continue for a longer time, however,
about the same. Today, the amount of alite is about three adding significantly to long-term strength gain and
times the amount of belite in Type I cement. impermeability.
6 Mix
As shown in table 4-4, alite reactions begin sooner
For example, a pavement built in Iowa in 2003 with a
than belite reactions and are primarily responsible for
ternary mix of cement; ground, granulated blast-furnace
concrete’s early strength gain. Belite reactions, which
slag; and Class C fly ash developed chloride penetration
7 Preparation
are somewhat slower, are primarily responsible for
numbers less than 1,000 coulombs in less than a year. (A
concrete’s long-term strength gain and for continuing
range of 1,000 to 2,000 coulombs is generally considered
reduction in concrete permeability.
low permeability.)
Today’s cements are also generally finer than they were
in the early 1900s. Smaller particles have greater surface Good Practices
area exposed to water and, therefore, hydrate and gain Regardless of the cementitious system used, a
strength more quickly. Finer particles also result in sufficiently low water-cementitious materials ratio is
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
greater heat of hydration. In warm or hot weather, such critical to achieving the strength and durability needed
fine systems may need to be retarded to achieve the for concrete pavements.
required finished product.
In addition, solid curing practices—including thoroughly
Today’s higher early-strength cements deliver the covering the concrete surface with curing compound
performance required for most building and commercial (or wet coverings) and protecting the compound from
uses. They also help the concrete paving industry meet equipment and traffic as long as possible—are more
motorists’ demands to open new pavements to traffic important than ever because SCMs are often sensitive
more quickly. Concrete pavement strengths after 7 and to poor curing. Good curing practices help ensure
14 days are much greater than they were years ago; the continuation of cement hydration reactions that
after 28 days, gains in concrete strength and reductions add to concrete’s long-term strength and reduce its
10 Troubleshooting
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4-28. Effect of pozzolans on cement hydration
Belite (C2S) • Are slower Forms less calcium hydroxide (CH) • Later strength gain
2C S + 4H C-S-H + CH • Continue longer • Later reduction in
2
permeability
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
often say, “We’ve never seen this before.” Incompatibil-
• Some combinations of normally acceptable ity is likely occurring because we are using increasingly
materials may be incompatible. That is, complex combinations of cementitious materials,
they react with each other in ways that chemical admixtures, and other materials while asking
3 Materials
cause unexpected changes in stiffening or more of the concrete. The sections are thinner, placing
setting that ultimately may compromise rates are higher, turnaround times are faster, strengths
the concrete system. are higher, and the construction season is starting earlier
and ending later so that concrete is being placed in
• Incompatibility is normally the result of more extreme weather conditions. It is also becoming
4 Hydration
a complex chemical interaction between common for materials sources to be changed on a given
the cementitious materials and chemical project without running trial mixes or materials tests.
admixtures. There is no single mechanism behind the wide
range of effects that are occurring. Many of the mecha-
• The amount and form of calcium sulfate nisms are complex and interactive and may require
are important for an appropriate balance expert evaluation if they occur in the field.
5 Properties
with tricalcium aluminate (C3A) to prevent Typical results of incompatibility may include one
setting and stiffening problems. or more of the following:
• The concrete stiffens much too quickly, pre-
• Changing the source or dosage of one venting proper consolidation or finishing work.
of the reactive ingredients may stop the
• The concrete sets and gains strength before
problem from recurring.
6 Mix
joints can be cut.
• The concrete does not set in a reasonable time,
• Some incompatibility problems can be
increasing the risk of plastic shrinkage cracking
exacerbated with increasing temperatures.
7 Preparation
and late sawing.
• Testing the mixture at the expected • The concrete cracks randomly despite normal
temperature is strongly recommended. efforts to prevent it.
• The air-void system is adversely affected,
compromising the concrete’s resistance to salt
Some combinations of materials may be prone to scaling and freeze-thaw damage or decreasing
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
problems with setting, stiffening, or other issues. Such concrete strength.
problems can occur even if all materials meet their For example, a mixture contains Class C fly ash,
specifications and perform well when used alone or portland cement, and chemical admixtures, and the
with other materials. This phenomenon is generally combined chemistry of the system causes accelerated
known as incompatibility. stiffening and setting. When one of the materials—fly
Incompatibility is important because small changes ash, cement, or admixture—is changed, the concrete
in the chemistry of materials, or even in tempera- setting behavior is normal. (Actual cases have been
ture, can make an acceptable mixture in one batch of reported where the mixture is satisfactory at 21°C
concrete behave in an unacceptable way in the next [70°F] but cannot be compacted in the paver at 27°C
batch, causing problems in placing, compacting, and [80°F].)
finishing that are often perceived to be unpredictable Following are brief discussions of some of the
10 Troubleshooting
Stiffening and Setting Too Much or Too Little Sulfate. The amount of sulfate
2 Design
Supplementary Cementitious Materials Incompatibili- control normal aluminate reactions, can therefore be
2 Design
ties. In general, supplementary cementitious materials thrown out of balance. Aluminate reactions are then
(SCMs) tend to retard silicate hydration rates, par- uncontrolled and workability is reduced. Adding more
tially due to dilution and partially due to changes admixture with the mixing water to boost workability
in the chemical balances of the system. Hydration is likely exacerbates the problem, possibly leading to an
3 Materials
normally extended, however, leading to strength gain overdose with its attendant problems (such as retarda-
beginning more slowly but continuing longer. tion of the silicate reactions).
An SCM containing additional tricalcium aluminate One solution is to delay adding the water-reduc-
(C3A) (typically high-calcium fly ash) can compromise ing admixture until the early aluminate reactions are
the aluminate-sulfate balance, causing or exacerbat- under control. The length of the delay will have to be
ing the stiffening and setting problems discussed determined for the specific mixture.
4 Hydration
previously. It may therefore be desirable to use factory- In addition, the same water-reducing admixtures
blended cements rather than site-blended cements retard the silicate reactions, delaying setting and slow-
because the manufacturer can optimize the sulfate ing strength gain (figure 4-30).
form and content for the whole cementitious system. It is therefore feasible that a system containing
Water Reducer Incompatibilities. Some water-reducing certain water reducers will exhibit classic early stiffen-
5 Properties
admixtures will interfere with the hydration rates of ing because of uncontrolled aluminate hydration,
cement compounds. Lignin-, sugar-, and triethanol- followed by severe retardation of final set because of
amine (TEA)-based products (normally Type A or B) slowed silicate reactions. This has been observed in
have the combined effect of accelerating aluminate the laboratory and in the field.
reactions and retarding silicate reactions. The use of Cement Fineness. Cement fineness influences reac-
such an admixture may tip a marginally balanced tion rates. The finer the cement, the greater the rates
6 Mix
cementitious system into incompatibility. of reaction and the greater the risk of an unbalanced
Some (Type A) water reducers accelerate aluminate system. Finer cements require a higher sulfate content
reactions. A system that has just enough sulfate to and perhaps a higher plaster-to-gypsum ratio.
7 Preparation
Why There are Various Forms of
Calcium Sulfate in Cement
–
Gypsum (CSH2) is added to clinker while it is
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
being ground to form cement. During grinding, the
temperature is carefully controlled so that some
–
gypsum dehydrates to plaster (CSH½) (but not too
much). Trace amounts of sulfate in the form of
–
anhydrite (CS) may also be present in the clinker.
target a 50/50 balance of plaster and gypsum and will Figure 4-30. Plot of heat generated by cement hydration of
optimize the total sulfate content of their products. cement pastes containing varying amounts of lignosulfo-
nate-based water-reducing admixture (CTLGroup)
Temperature. The solubility and reactivity of all of tance tests) should be run as materials are delivered
2 Design
the compounds are strongly influenced by tempera- to the site to ensure that site materials are similar to
ture, with higher temperatures generally increasing prequalified materials. Preferably, materials-accep-
solubility (except calcium) and accelerating reaction tance tests should be run the day before batching
rates. Increasing temperature, on the other hand, is planned, although at the height of construction,
3 Materials
decreases the solubility of calcium sulfate, thus results may be needed within a few hours.
reducing the amount of sulfate in solution available What to Test. A suggested test protocol is summa-
to control the accelerated aluminate reactions and rized in table 4-5 (Taylor 2005).
thereby potentially making the system unbalanced. In many cases. there is no single pass/fail limit
A change of as little as 6°C (10°F) can tip a mixture because what is acceptable in one system or environ-
from being workable to exhibiting early stiffening. In ment is not acceptable in another. It is recommended
4 Hydration
warmer weather, more sulfate (plaster) is needed to that test results be tracked over time, and a significant
control rapid tricalcium aluminate (C3A) reactions. change in a test result will indicate potential prob-
Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio. The severity of lems. It is recommended that as many of these tests
these effects is also related to the ratio of water to as practical be conducted at the prequalification stage
cementitious materials. Lower water contents effec- so that a point of reference is available for comparison
5 Properties
tively mean that the cement grains are closer together; with tests conducted during construction. A test result
therefore, the early hydration products have to fill less that is out of the ordinary may be a problem with the
space before stiffening results, so early stiffening may testing or with the material. Such data should there-
occur. The same mixture at a higher water-cementi- fore be reviewed with an understanding of limitations
tious materials ratio, with greater particle spacing, and potential errors in testing. Interpreting the results
may not exhibit the same problems. can be complex and may need expert input.
6 Mix
air voids forming around aggregate particles, known failure (i.e., is the cementitious system stable?), cost
as clustering (figure 4-31). This results in reduced of testing, and cost of failure. Many problems will
strength and increased permeability. be avoided by regularly monitoring slump loss, unit
Research has indicated (Kozikowski 2005) that weight, set time, and admixture dosages. Significant
this is most likely to occur with the use of non-vinsol changes in any of these parameters will indicate the
air-entraining admixtures and when water is added to
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
before construction begins to prequalify materials Figure 4-31. A typical example of air voids clustered around
planned for the project. Field tests (materials accep- an aggregate particle
2 Design
at hand. The method described in ASTM C 359 /
Central Laboratory (Prequalification) Tests. Factors to AASHTO T 185 is being used in some laboratories
monitor generally include minislump, temperature to indicate potential problems in the early aluminate
rise, shear stress, rate of stiffening, and early cracking. reactions (see Penetration Resistance (False Set) in
3 Materials
Minislump chapter 9, page 255). Interpretation of the results
The minislump cone test monitors the area of small must be undertaken with care and understanding.
slump cone samples made using paste at selected time ASTM is developing a practice for this application.
intervals. The test is effective at identifying systems Ring Rest
prone to early hydration problems (Kantro 1981). The ring test is a measure of when a fully restrained
The reproducibility between labs is reportedly low. sample of concrete cracks. Earlier cracking may be
4 Hydration
Isothermal Calorimetry considered an indicator of higher risk of cracking in
The energy required to maintain a hydrating paste the field.
mixture is monitored in an isothermal calorimeter. Field Laboratory (Monitoring) Tests. Factors to moni-
Changes in the timing or magnitude of the tempera- tor generally include the manufacturer’s mill test x-ray
ture rise, or the shape of the heat-energy-versus-time data, semi-adiabatic temperature, concrete slump loss
5 Properties
plot, will flag potential problems in the silicate reac- and setting time, uniformity of the air-void system,
tions (Wadso 2004). ASTM is developing a practice and air-void clustering.
for this application. X-Ray Data from Manufacturer’s Mill Test Report or
Shear Stress Increase Mill Certificate (ASTM C 114, ASTM C 1365)
Measurement of the shear stress increase with time This test monitors the chemistry of the cement and
in a parallel plate rheometer using paste is showing fly ash. Changes in total calcium, tricalcium aluminate
6 Mix
promise as a method to monitor silicate hydration (C3A), sulfate (SO3), alite (C3S) or belite (C2S) may
processes. indicate potential problems.
Rate of Stiffening Semi-Adiabatic Temperature Measurement
7 Preparation
The ultrasonic P-wave test allows measurement This test monitors the temperature of paste, mortar,
of the rate of stiffening of a mixture in the lab and or concrete mixtures in sealed containers (Dewar
the field. flasks or insulated cups). Changes in the timing or
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Table 4-5. Recommended Tests and Their Applications
magnitude of the temperature rise, or the shape of the • Delay admixture addition.
2 Design
heat-versus-time plot, will flag potential problems in • Change the type of chemical admixture.
the silicate reactions (figure 4-32) (see Heat Signature • Change the source of cement.
[Adiabatic Calorimetry Test] in chapter 9, page 259). • Increase mixing time.
Concrete Seek expert advice to establish what the root cause
3 Materials
For this test, make concrete batches and moni- of the problem is so that the correct remedial action
tor slump loss with time as well as setting time can be taken.
(ASTM C 143).
Foam Index (Dodson 1990), Foam Drainage (Cross
2000), and Air-Void Analyzer (AASHTO 2003) Tests
These tests provide guidance on the uniformity and
4 Hydration
Potential Solutions to
Incompatibilities
6 Mix
• Reduce the concrete temperature by cooling the Figure 4-32. A set of field calorimetry data with three differ-
ent cements and one high-range water-reducing admixture
materials and/or working at night. (HRWRA), including one set showing clear retardation and
• Seek a fly ash with lower calcium content. low heat output that was consistent with delayed setting
• Reduce fly ash dosage. and slow strength gain (Gary Knight, Holcim)
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Standards, ASTM International. www.astm.org.
ASTM C 114-04a/AASHTO T 105, Standard Test Cross, W., E. Duke, J. Kellar, and D. Johnston. 2000.
Methods for Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement Investigation of Low Compressive Strengths of Concrete
ASTM C 138, Standard Test Method for Density (Unit Paving, Precast and Structural Concrete. SD98-03-F.
Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of South Dakota Department of Transportation.
3 Materials
Concrete Dodson, V. 1990. Chapter 6: Air-Entraining Admix-
ASTM C 143, Standard Test Method for Slump of tures. Concrete Admixtures. New York, NY: Van
Hydraulic-Cement Concrete Nostrand Reinhold. 129–158.
ASTM C 150/AASHTO M 85, Specification for Johansen, V.C., P.C. Taylor, and P.D. Tennis. 2005.
Portland Cement Effect of Cement Characteristics on Concrete Properties.
EB 226. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
4 Hydration
ASTM C 191/AASHTO T 131, Test Method for Time
of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle Kantro, D.L. 1981. Influence of Water-Reducing
Admixtures on the Properties of Cement
ASTM C 231, Standard Test Method for Air Content Paste – A Miniature Slump Test. PCA R & D
of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method Bulletin RD079.01T. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement
ASTM C 359, Standard Test Method for Early Stiffen- Association.
5 Properties
ing of Hydraulic Cement (Mortar Method) Kozikowski, R.L., D.B. Vollmer, P.C. Taylor, and S.H.
ASTM C 403/AASHTO T 197, Test Method for Time Gebler. 2005. Factors Affecting the Origin of Air-Void
of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Clustering. PCA R&D Serial No. 2789. Skokie, IL:
Resistance Portland Cement Association.
ASTM C 457, Standard Test Method for Microscopical Taylor P.C., V.C. Johansen, L.A. Graf, R.L. Kozikowski,
Determination of Parameters of the Air-Void System J.Z. Zemajtis, and C.F. Ferraris. 2006. Tests or
6 Mix
in Hardened Concrete Standards to Identify Compatible Combinations of
ASTM C 1365, Standard Test Method for Determina- Individually Acceptable Concrete Materials.
tion of the Proportion of Phases in Portland Cement Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
In review.
7 Preparation
and Portland-Cement Clinker Using X-Ray Powder
Diffraction Analysis Tennis, P.D, and H.M. Jennings. 2000. A model of two
AAASHTO, Technical Information Group on Air Void types of C-S-H in the microstructure of portland
Analyzer. 2003. Fresh Concrete Air Void Analyzer: cement pastes. Cement Concrete Res 30.6: 855–863.
A Technical Background Paper. Wadso, L. 2004. Unthermostated Multichannnal Heat
http://www.aashtotig.org/focus_technologies/ava/ Conduction Calorimeter. Cement, Concrete, and
related_documents/tech_paper.stm. Aggregates 26.2: 1–7.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Critical Properties of Concrete
Uniformity of Mixture 106
3 Materials
Workability 108
Segregation of Concrete Materials 111
Bleeding 112
Setting 114
Strength and Strength Gain 116
4 Hydration
Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio 123
Shrinkage 125
Temperature Effects 127
Permeability 131
Frost Resistance 132
5 Properties
Sulfate Resistance 139
Alkali-Silica Reaction 141
Abrasion Resistance 146
Early-Age Cracking 148
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks 158
6 Mix
Map Cracking (Crazing; Pattern Cracking) 160
Random Transverse Cracks (Drying Shrinkage Cracking) 161
Random Longitudinal Cracks 163
7 Preparation
Corner Breaks 164
This chapter discusses critical properties of concrete At times, requirements for different properties in
that are needed to be able to mix, transport, place, a specific mix may be mutually exclusive, meaning
finish, and maintain high-quality pavement. Some that compromises may need to be made. For example,
properties, like workability and materials segrega- high concrete strengths are often achieved by increas-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
tion, are manifested only in the fresh or plastic stage ing cement content, which in turn increases shrinkage
of concrete, before it has hardened. Others, like frost that can cause cracking. It is increasingly important
resistance, are most important in the hardened con- for the designer, ready mix provider, contractor, and
crete. Still others, like strength gain, begin early in the owner to understand how their decisions affect the
hydration process, remain critical during the first few other parties and to communicate among themselves
days, and play a role in concrete for many months or about their decisions. This is the basis of the need for
even years. In general, the contractor is concerned a pavement to be treated as an integrated system, not
about the fresh properties (how easy it is to get the con- just a series of independent activities and materials.
crete in place), and the owner is concerned about the For each concrete property, this chapter discusses
long-term hardened properties (how long it will last). the property’s significance, factors that affect it, and
Note that “durability” is not discussed as a property. tests used to measure it. (Chapter 6 discusses how the
10 Troubleshooting
Instead, the various properties that contribute to dura- required properties can be achieved in the final con-
bility—permeability, frost resistance, sulfate resistance, crete system. Chapter 9 discusses quality assurance
alkali-silica reactivity, abrasion resistance, and early-age and quality control testing and describes methods for
cracking—are covered. a suite of specific tests.)
Uniformity of Mixture
importance for concrete and its materials to be
2 Design
• Materials and the environment at the batch Different aspects of concrete production—
plant are constantly changing. Despite including the variability of raw materials (specifically,
these changes, it is important that the the aggregates and cement), batching operations, and
mixture properties be uniform from batch mixing operations—can affect the uniformity of the
4 Hydration
air content, slump, compressive strength, and coarse The need for representative samples is critical
2 Design
aggregate content are used as indicators of concrete for assessing concrete uniformity. Samples should
uniformity (Scanlon 1994). ASTM C 94 / AASHTO be obtained in accordance with ASTM C 172 /
M 157 set out the requirements for monitoring and AASHTO T 141.
accepting the uniformity of concrete.
3 Materials
Table 5-1. Requirements for Uniformity of Concrete (ASTM C 94 2004)
4 Hydration
locations in the concrete batch
Unit weight of fresh concrete, calculated 1.0 ASTM C 138
to an air-free basis, lb/ft3
Air content, volume % of concrete 1.0 ASTM C 138,
ASTM C 173, or
ASTM C 231
5 Properties
Slump ASTM C 143
If average slump is 4 in. (10 cm) or less, in 1.0
If average slump is 4 to 6 in. (10 to 15 cm), in 1.5
Coarse aggregate content, portion by weight of 6.0 Washout test (see ACI 1992)
each sample retained on # 4 sieve, %
6 Mix
sample, based on average strength of all comparative
test specimens, %
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Workability
2 Design
Key Points
• Workability is an indication of the ease • Changes in workability indicate that the raw
with which concrete can be placed and materials, proportions, or the environment
compacted. are changing.
3 Materials
• Good workability benefits not only fresh • Water should not be added to concrete at
concrete but hardened concrete as well, the paver unless this can be done without
especially in its final density. exceeding the water-cementitious materials
ratio of the mix design.
4 Hydration
it can be mixed, placed, compacted, and finished mix. However, water should not be added to concrete
(ACI 2000). at the paver unless this can be done without exceeding
the water-cementitious materials ratio of the approved
Significance of Workability mix design. (For a discussion of the water-cementitious
Workability is an important property of fresh materials ratio, see step 2 under the Absolute Volume
Method in chapter 6, page 179.) Adding excess water
concrete because it affects the quality of several aspects
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
voids in the concrete, which can otherwise signifi- placement and consolidation of concrete is governed
cantly reduce concrete strength (Neville 1996). Also, by the type of mixing equipment, size and type of
poor workability can make finishing difficult, causing placing equipment, method of consolidation, and type
tearing of the surface that can lead to cracking. of concrete (Scanlon 1994).
Factors Affecting Workability by the aggregate, and reacts with cement during the
2 Design
In general, workability can be controlled through initial chemical reactions (Wong et al. 2000). Increases
the proper proportioning of the mixture materials. in ambient temperatures will accelerate these effects
However, workability depends on several factors, because higher temperatures increase both the evapo-
including the physical and chemical properties of the ration and hydration rates (Mindess and Young 1981).
3 Materials
individual components (Scanlon 1994): Cement. Although less important than other com-
Water Content. The primary factor affecting the ponents’ properties, the characteristics of the cement
workability of a concrete mix is the water content. may also affect workability. For example, the increased
Increasing the water content will increase the flow cement fineness (therefore, the increased specific
and compactability of the mix, but can also reduce surface area) of Type III cements means they will have
a lower workability at a given water-cementitious
4 Hydration
strength while increasing segregation, bleeding, and
permeability (Mindess and Young 1981). materials ratio than a Type I cement (Mindess and
Aggregates. Several factors related to the aggregates Young 1981).
in a mix have a significant effect on workability. The Supplementary Cementitious Materials. Fly ash and
first is the amount of aggregate; increases in the aggre- ground granulated blast furnace (GGBF) slag have
gate-cement ratio result in a decrease in workability generally been found to improve concrete workability
5 Properties
for a fixed water-cementitious materials ratio (Mindess because of the fine spherical nature of fly ash and the
and Young 1981). glassy surface of GGBF slag particles. In hot weather,
Aggregate grading is critical. A deficiency of fine some fly ashes may cause early stiffening and loss of
aggregate can lead to a harsh mix that is difficult to workability of the mixture (see Stiffening and Setting
work, while an excess of very fine material will make in chapter 6, page 186.)
Silica fume will markedly increase the water
6 Mix
the mix sticky (Scanlon 1994). A more uniform grad-
ing of aggregate particles may improve workability by requirement and stickiness at dosages above five
filling the voids between larger particles and reducing percent by mass of cement because of the high surface
the amount of locking between particles (see Aggre- area. Less than five percent silica fume may improve
7 Preparation
gate Gradation in chapter 3, page 44). workability because the silica fume particles tend to
Finally, the properties of the aggregate itself, be spherical and assist with separating cement grains.
including particle shape, texture, and porosity, are (Silica fume is not typically used in concrete for pave-
important. More spherical particles generally produce ments; see Supplementary Cementitious Materials in
more workable mixtures than sharp, elongated, angu- chapter 3, page 31.)
lar ones, while more absorptive, dry aggregates may Admixtures. Water-reducing admixtures are used to
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
reduce workability by removing water from the paste. increase workability, although the rate of slump loss
Entrained Air. Entrained air increases the paste may not be reduced, depending on the chemistry of
volume while acting as a lubricant to improve the the admixture (Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and Panarese
workability of concrete (Scanlon 1994). Entrained air 2002). Set-retarding admixtures reduce the early rate
is particularly effective in improving the workability of hardening and permit concrete to be handled and
of lean (low cement content) mixtures that otherwise vibrated for a longer period of time (Scanlon 1994).
might be harsh and difficult to work and of mixtures
with angular and poorly graded aggregates (Kosmatka, Workability Testing
Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2002). However, exces- Several characteristics of fresh concrete are related to
sive amounts of entrained air can make a mixture workability. Some of these characteristics include the
10 Troubleshooting
sticky and difficult to finish and may reduce concrete following (Mindess and Young 1981; Scanlon 1994):
Workability
properties. And there is no single test that directly amount of work. The test involves dropping fresh
measures workability in terms of the fundamen- concrete through multiple heights and measuring the
tal properties of fresh concrete (Neville 1996). In degree to which it compacts (Wong et al. 2000).
addition, comparisons cannot be made among the dif- The degree of compaction, called the compacting
ferent tests because each measures a different aspect of factor, is expressed in terms of the ratio of the density
concrete behavior. The study of rheology (loosely, flow
4 Hydration
The slump test (ASTM C 143 / AASHTO T 119) at a controlled frequency and amplitude until the
measures the consistency of the mix, that is, the abil- lower surface of the disk is completely covered with
ity of fresh concrete to flow. During flow, two events grout (Mindess and Young 1981). The time in seconds
take place; one starts the movement and the other for the disk to become covered is the Vebe time, and
continues the movement. The slump test is an indica- can commonly range from 5 to 30 seconds.
tor of the former. Although there is no ASTM standard for this test,
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
less, the slump test is very useful as a quality control on the concrete surface and the depth of penetration
is measured. This test can be conducted very quickly
2 Design
Key Points
Segregation is primarily prevented by using a
• Segregation of coarse aggregate from the well-graded aggregate system. A gap-graded aggregate
mortar results in concrete with lower system is more likely to segregate.
strength and poor durability. Segregation tends to decrease with increasing
3 Materials
amounts of fine materials, including cement and
• The primary way to prevent segregation is supplementary cementitious materials, in the system.
to use well-graded aggregate. At the other extreme, poor mixture proportioning
with excessive paste can also lead to segregation.
• If coarse aggregates advance in front of or
Segregation Testing
4 Hydration
behind the fine particles and mortar when
the concrete is being placed, the mixture Many specifications require that segregation be pre-
is segregating. vented, although there is no standard test to measure
it. However, segregation is readily visible and can be
recognized easily when the concrete is being dis-
charged from a chute or a pump. If the coarse particles
5 Properties
Simple Definition advance in front of or behind the fine particles and
Segregation is the tendency for coarse aggregate
mortar, the mixture is segregating. The batch plant
to separate from the mortar in a concrete mixture,
should then be contacted to adjust the mix proportions.
particularly when the mixture is being transported or
compacted.
6 Mix
Significance of Segregation
Segregation results in part of the batch having too
little coarse aggregate and the remainder having too
7 Preparation
much. The former is likely to shrink more and crack
and have poor resistance to abrasion, while the latter
may be too harsh for full consolidation and finishing.
The result is that effectively a number of different con-
crete mixtures are being placed (figure 5-1).
Segregation is especially harmful in placing con-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
crete for pavement, as it results in problems such as
strength loss, edge slump, spalling, blistering, and
scaling. Figure 5-1. Segregated concrete (Hanson, Iowa DOT)
10 Troubleshooting
Bleeding
In fact, some bleeding is actually helpful in control-
2 Design
Key Points
ling the development of plastic shrinkage cracking. If
the rate of moisture evaporation at the surface exceeds
• Bleeding is the appearance of water at the
the bleeding rate (Kosmatka 1994; Poole 2005), the
surface of newly placed, plastic concrete
surface will dry and crack. A lack of bleed water can
due to settlement of the heavier particles.
3 Materials
reducing admixtures.
Simple Definition
Bleeding is the appearance of a layer of water at the
top or the surface of freshly placed concrete after it
has been consolidated and struck off, but before it has
set (Mindess and Young 1981). Bleeding may also be
referred to as water gain, weeping, or sweating.
Significance of Bleeding
Bleeding is caused by the settlement of solid particles
10 Troubleshooting
However, excessive bleeding reduces concrete Increasing cement content also reduces bleeding (Kos-
2 Design
strength and durability near the surface. The rising matka 1994). Cement with a high alkali content or a
water can carry with it a considerable amount of fine high calcium aluminate (C3A) content will exhibit less
cement particles, forming a layer of weak and nondu- bleeding (Neville 1996).
rable material, called laitance, at the surface (Neville Supplementary Cementitious Materials. Concrete
3 Materials
1996). containing fly ash generally exhibits a lower bleeding
Excessive bleeding also may delay the finishing rate, but due to retarded setting the total bleed volume
process, which in general should not proceed until may be similar or greater than portland cement-only
the bleed water has evaporated from the surface concrete. Ground, granulated blast-furnace slags have
(Kosmatka 1994). If the surface is finished with bleed little effect on bleeding rates (Wainwright and Rey
4 Hydration
water present, a thin and weak layer is created on the 2000). Silica fume has been found to greatly reduce,
surface that is susceptible to scaling and delamina- or often stop, bleeding, largely because of the extreme
tion. In some cases, if the fresh concrete surface is fineness of the particles (Neville 1996).
prematurely sealed by troweling while the underlying Aggregate. Ordinary variations in aggregate grading
concrete is still releasing bleed water, blisters (small have little effect on the bleeding of concrete, provided
hollow bumps beneath the concrete surface) can form. that there is no appreciable change in the minus-75-
5 Properties
Bleed water can also accumulate within the con- μm material. However, concrete containing aggregates
crete mix itself, under large aggregate particles or with a high amount of silt, clay, or other material pass-
reinforcing bars (Mindess and Young 1981). The ing the 75-μm (#200) sieve can significantly reduce
former results in reduced concrete strength (due bleeding (Kosmatka 1994), although there may be
to decreased aggregate-paste bond). The latter may other adverse effects on the concrete, like increased
reduce the paste-steel bond, possibly promoting the water requirement and shrinkage.
6 Mix
corrosion of steel because the steel is not in contact Chemical Admixtures. Air-entraining agents have
with the corrosion-resistive paste (Kosmatka 1994). been shown to significantly reduce bleeding in con-
crete, largely because the air bubbles appear to keep
7 Preparation
Factors Affecting Bleeding the solid particles in suspension (Neville 1996). Water
The initial bleeding process generally begins after reducers also reduce the amount of bleeding because
agitation of the concrete mix ends, and bleeding con- they release trapped water in a mixture.
tinues until the cement paste has stiffened sufficiently
to resist the settlement of the solid particles (Neville Testing for Assessing Bleeding
1996). The duration of bleeding depends on the When required, ASTM C 232 / AASHTO T 158
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
thickness of the concrete section as well as the setting include two test methods for assessing bleeding. The
properties of the cementitious materials, with thin- first test method involves hand consolidating a sample
ner sections or faster setting concretes exhibiting less of concrete by rodding in a container of standard
bleeding (Kosmatka 1994). dimensions and then covering the sample and leav-
A number of different concrete mix constituents ing it undisturbed. The bleed water is drawn off the
can affect the development of bleeding: surface every 10 minutes during the first 40 minutes,
Water Content and Water-Cementitious Materials and every 30 minutes thereafter, until the bleeding
(W/CM) Ratio. Any increase in the amount of water or stops. The total bleeding and the rate of bleeding may
in the w/cm ratio results in more water available for then be determined.
bleeding (Kosmatka 1994). The second test method in ASTM C 232 uses a
10 Troubleshooting
Cement. As the fineness of cement increases, the sample of fresh concrete consolidated by vibration
amount of bleeding decreases, possibly because finer and, after covering the sample, intermittently vibrat-
particles hydrate earlier and also because their rate of ing it for a period of one hour to determine the total
sedimentation (settlement) is lower (Neville 1996). volume of bleed water.
Setting
Key Points Typically, initial set occurs between two and four
2 Design
• Setting is accelerated when the concrete Incompatibilities in chapter 4, page 97). False set is
temperature increases. temporary and can be worked through with continued
mixing, but flash set means that the mixture will have
• Set-accelerating and retarding chemical to be discarded.
admixtures in the mixture can control set
5 Properties
time.
Factors Affecting Setting
• Setting affects the time available for A number of factors affect concrete setting time:
placing and finishing, as well as the Temperature/Weather. Increasing temperature
sawing window when joints can be sawed. reduces set time. Decreasing temperature increases
set time. Hydration will stop when the temperature
6 Mix
• Testing specifications: ASTM C 191 is close to 0°C (32°F). Exposure to sunlight and
/ AASHTO T 131, ASTM C 266 / windy conditions also influence setting, especially at
AASHTO T 154 (rare), ASTM C 451 / the surface, largely due to the effects of heating and
7 Preparation
variation between batches may indicate issues with improving the homogeneity and dispersion of the
construction scheduling or materials compatibility. reactants and, thus, also accelerates setting.
Supplementary Cementitious Materials. Class F fly ash Concrete setting is determined using ASTM C 403 /
2 Design
and ground, granulated blast-furnace slag will gener- AASHTO T 197. Mortar is separated from the concrete
ally retard the setting time of concrete. Class C fly ash through a 4.75 mm (#4) sieve, and the penetration
may accelerate or retard setting, depending on the resistance is recorded as a function of time. The initial
chemistry of the fly ash and the other components in and final setting times are defined as the time the
3 Materials
the system. mortar achieves a penetration resistance of 3.4 MPa
(500 lb/in2) and 27.6 MPa (4,000 lb/in2), respectively
Testing for Setting Time (figure 5-3).
Setting time is both a characteristic of cement
(tested as a standard paste) and of concrete (tested as
a mortar extracted from the concrete).
4 Hydration
Cement specifications typically place limits on
setting time using the Vicat apparatus (ASTM C 191 /
AASHTO T 131). This test is run on paste made to a
standard consistency and measures the time at which
different indicators penetrate the surface. An optional
5 Properties
test using the Gillmore needle (ASTM C 266 /
AASHTO T 154) is rarely used.
Cements are tested for early stiffening (flash set/
false set) using ASTM C 451 / AASHTO T 186 (paste
method) and ASTM C 359 / AASHTO T 185 (mortar
_______________________________________________
method), which use the penetration techniques of the
6 Mix
Figure 5-3. Penetration resistance of mortar sieved from
Vicat apparatus. The test records the depth of penetra- concrete as a function of time, per ASTM C 403. Initial and
tion after remixing at fixed intervals. final setting times are defined as shown. (Dodson 1994)
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Key Points
development will also influence the risk of cracking
(see Early-Age Cracking in this chapter, page 148.)
• Concrete strength is often used to measure
Some people rely on strength measurements as
concrete quality, although this can be a false
indicators for other concrete properties, such as
assumption.
3 Materials
ratio.
standards, not correlated to strength measurements.
• Strength gain is accelerated at higher For instance, high early strength achieved by chemi-
temperatures and decelerated at lower cal admixtures or heating will often result in a poorer
temperatures. microstructure, higher permeability, and loss of poten-
tial durability.
5 Properties
resist stresses or forces at a given age. ture) of the concrete are used in pavement design to
determine required slab thickness. Slab failures after
Significance of Strength and the first few weeks are often due to a loss of support
Strength Gain under the slab, which results in excessive stresses.
Strength is the most commonly measured property Another key strength parameter of concrete for
of concrete and is often used as the basis for assess- pavements is fatigue, or the concrete’s ability to carry
ing concrete quality. This is partly because strength repeated loading and unloading. Under fatigue, a
measurements give a direct indication of concrete’s small crack develops in the concrete that then grows
ability to resist loads and partly because strength with every cycle.
tests are relatively easy to conduct. The age at which
Factors Affecting Strength and
10 Troubleshooting
strength gain) in order to put construction traffic on Fundamentally, strength is a function of the volume
the pavement, while the owner may be interested of voids in the concrete. Voids provide a shortcut
2 Design
These voids may be large, such as air voids due to
poor consolidation, or small, such as capillary voids
left after excess water has evaporated from the paste.
The primary factors that influence strength in
3 Materials
well-compacted concrete, therefore, are the water-
cementitious materials ratio (a direct influence on
capillary volume) and the extent to which hydration
has progressed. These and other factors are discussed
below (table 5-2):
Water-Cementitious Materials (W/CM) Ratio. Strength
4 Hydration
increases as the w/cm ratio decreases because the cap-
illary porosity decreases. This observation holds for
the entire range of curing conditions, ages, and types
of cements considered. Remember, however, that
although there is a direct relationship between w/cm
5 Properties
ratio and strength, concretes with the same w/cm ratio
but different ingredients are expected to have different
strengths.
Degree of Hydration. Hydration begins as soon as
_______________________________________________
cement comes in contact with water and continues as Figure 5-4. Loads on a pavement induce flexural stresses in
long as favorable moisture and temperature the concrete slab. (ACPA 1994)
6 Mix
Table 5-2. Factors Affecting Compressive and Flexural Strength
7 Preparation
Areas Factor Pavement impact Testing impact
Construction Change in w/cm ratio Higher w/cm=lower strength Higher w/cm=
lower strength
Poor consolidation Low strength Lower strength
if cores are tested
Excessive vibration Segregation may result in lower strength Lower strength
if cores are tested
Improper curing Lower strength Lower strength
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
if cores are tested
Reduced air content Higher strength Higher strength
if cores are tested
Increased air content Lower strength Lower strength
if cores are tested
Specimen casting Poor consolidation Low strength and high permeability Lower strength
Poor handling Low strength and high permeability Lower strength
Specimen curing Specimen freezes Higher strength than indicated Lower strength
10 Troubleshooting
or dries out
Specimen breaking Rapid rate Lower strength than indicated Higher strength
conditions exist and space for hydration products rounded surfaces. Large aggregates generally provide
2 Design
is available (although hydration slows significantly improved aggregate interlock at the joints and cracks,
after a few days). As hydration continues, concrete increasing flexural strength.
becomes harder and stronger. Hydration proceeds at Handling and Placing. Improper mixing, handling,
a much slower rate when the concrete temperature and placing will affect concrete strength and strength
3 Materials
is low and accelerates when the temperature rises. gain. The later addition of water can markedly reduce
Hydration (and thus strength gain) stops when there strength (see Water-Cementitious Materials (w/cm)
is insufficient water in the system. Ratio, on the previous page). Concrete must be thor-
Cement. Concrete strength is influenced by the com- oughly compacted in order to reduce the void content
position and fineness, and perhaps by the amount, of the mixture.
of the cement. The silicate alite (C3S) hydrates more
4 Hydration
rapidly than belite (C2S) and contributes to early High Early-Strength Concrete
strength. Belite (C2S) hydrates more slowly but con- The period in which a specified concrete strength
tinues hydrating longer, thus increasing later strengths is achieved may range from a few hours to several
(see Portland Cement Hydration in chapter 4, page days. High early-strength concrete, used in fast-track
88). Finer cements hydrate faster than coarser concrete, achieves its specified strength at an earlier
5 Properties
cements and tend to have a limited later strength age than normal concrete. (It is notable that concrete
development because of a poorer quality microstruc- considered normal today performs the same as high
ture (figure 5-5). early-strength concrete of only a few years ago.)
Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs). SCMs High early-strength can be obtained by using one
contribute to the strength gain of concrete. However, or more of the following:
the amount or rate of this contribution will depend • Type III or HE high-early-strength cement.
6 Mix
on the chemistry, fineness, and amount of the SCM. • High cement content (400 to 500 kg/m3 or 675
Generally, with Class F fly ash and ground, granulated to 850 lb/yd3).
blast-furnace slag, early strengths are lower than those
7 Preparation
• Low water-cementitious materials ratio (0.35 to Testing the tensile strength of concrete is difficult; it
2 Design
0.45 by mass). is normally determined indirectly by using a bending
• Higher freshly mixed concrete temperature. test on a beam (ASTM C 78) or by using a split tensile
• Higher curing temperature. test (ASTM C 496), in which a line load is applied on
• Accelerating admixtures. opposite sides of a cylinder.
3 Materials
• Insulation to retain heat of hydration. Fatigue is normally tested by cyclically loading a
• Hydraulic non-portland cements that have concrete beam with a maximum load somewhat less
rapid strength gain. than the concrete’s ultimate capacity. The number of
High early-strength concrete can be used for several cycles before the beam fails then indicates the speci-
applications, including cold-weather construction, men’s fatigue.
rapid repair of pavements to reduce traffic downtime,
4 Hydration
Mix Design Testing: Flexural Strength
fast-track paving, and several others. In fast-track
The primary parameter used in assessing pavement
paving, using high early-strength mixtures allows traf-
strength is flexural strength, or modulus of rupture
fic to open within a few hours after concrete is placed.
(MOR), because that is the critical mode of loading.
See Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and Panarese (2002) for an
Flexural strength is determined in accordance with
example of a fast-track concrete mixture used for a
5 Properties
ASTM C 78 / AASHTO T 97 (third-point loading)
bonded concrete highway overlay.
(figure 5-6a). Some agencies use the center-point
When designing early-strength mixtures, strength
flexural strength test (ASTM C 293 / AASHTO T 177)
development is not the only criteria that should be
(figure 5-6b), particularly to assess whether the pave-
evaluated; durability, early stiffening, autogenous
ment can be opened to traffic.
shrinkage, drying shrinkage, temperature rise, and
For AASHTO thickness design, it is important that
other properties should also be evaluated for compat-
6 Mix
the third-point loading, 28-day flexural strength be
ibility with the project. For more information on high
used in the AASHTO equation. If strength values are
early-strength concrete, consult ACPA (1994).
measured using some other test method, the results
7 Preparation
must be converted to the third-point loading, 28-day
Strength Testing: Mix Design Stage strength. (See www.pavement.com/PavTech/Tech/
Concrete strength is not an absolute property.
FATQ/fatq-strengthtests.html for strength correlations
Results obtained from any given concrete mixture will
and conversions. Published conversion factors are
depend on specimen geometry and size, preparation,
necessarily generic, and it is advisable to develop the
and loading method (Carrasquillo 1994). Specifica-
relationships for a specific mix if they are to be used
tions therefore need to set out the test methods as well
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
in a contract.)
as the value to be achieved at a given age. Variability is
Specimens for flexural strength testing are large
inherent in the test methods and materials. Therefore,
and somewhat difficult to handle. Measurements of
trial mixes should yield strengths somewhat higher
flexural strength are more sensitive than measure-
than the minimum specified (see Sequence of Devel-
ments of compressive strength to variations in test
opment in chapter 6, page 172; Quality Control in
specimens and procedures, especially the moisture
chapter 9, page 242; and ACI 214 [2002]).
condition during testing. For these reasons, a relation-
Strength is generally expressed in megapascals
ship should be developed between flexural strength
(MPa) or pounds per square inch (lb/in2) at a speci-
and compressive strength by laboratory testing for a
fied age. Seven-day strengths are often estimated to be
given mix.
about 75 percent of the 28-day strength, and 56-day
10 Troubleshooting
and 90-day strengths are about 10 to 15 percent Mix Design Testing: Compressive Strength
greater, respectively, than 28-day strengths. The compressive strength of concrete cylinders or
Compressive strength is normally measured by cores (ASTM C 39 / AASHTO T 22) can be used as an
loading a cylinder of concrete at its ends (ASTM C 39). alternative to flexural strength testing if so specified.
Strength Tests
The splitting tensile test involves compressing a
cylinder or core on its side (ASTM C 496) until a
crack forms down the middle, causing failure of the
specimen (figure 5-7). The loading induces tensile
4 Hydration
AASHTO T 24. one-third of the beam is stressed uniformly, and thus the
Samples prepared and cured in the field are likely beam fails at its weakest point in the middle one-third of
to show a different (often lower) strength than sam- the beam. (b) By forcing the beam to fail at the center, the
ples prepared and cured in the laboratory because center-point loading flexural test results are somewhat
7 Preparation
describes the use of unbonded neoprene caps that are it is used on a project, maturity tests can be used to
2 Design
not adhered or bonded to the ends of the specimen. predict later-age strengths. In this regard, concrete
Testing of specimens should be performed in accor- specimens can be cured at elevated temperatures and,
dance with the following specifications: using an assumed or empirically determined maturity
• ASTM C 39 / AASHTO T 22 for compressive constant, the measured strength development can be
3 Materials
strength. correlated back to the strength development if the
• ASTM C 78 / AASHTO T 97 for flexural concrete were cured at standard conditions.
strength using third-point loading. The basis of maturity testing is that each concrete
• ASTM C 293 / AASHTO T 177 for flexural mix has a unique strength-time relationship. There-
strength using center-point loading. fore, a mix will have the same strength at a given
4 Hydration
• ASTM C 496 / AASHTO T 198 for splitting maturity no matter what conditions (time or tem-
tensile strength. perature) occur before measurement. Maturity testing
The moisture content of the specimen has a con- entails developing a maturity curve that correlates the
siderable effect on the resulting strength. Beams for development of particular concrete properties for a
flexural tests are especially vulnerable to moisture specific concrete mix to both time and temperature.
gradient effects. A saturated specimen will show lower After the maturity curve is developed, development
5 Properties
compressive strength and higher flexural strength than of the concrete property can be estimated from a
those for companion specimens tested dry. This is measured time-temperature record of the concrete.
important to consider when cores taken from hard- The maturity function is a mathematical expression to
ened concrete in service are compared to molded account for the combined effects of time and tempera-
specimens tested as taken from the moist-curing room ture on the strength development of concrete. The
or water storage tank. key feature of a maturity function is the representa-
6 Mix
tion of the way temperature affects the rate of strength
Maturity Testing development.
In recent years, maturity methods have been ASTM C 918 uses the maturity method of monitor-
7 Preparation
used extensively to predict the in-place strength and ing the temperature of cylinders cured in accordance
strength gain of concrete. The basis for this method with standard methods outlined in ASTM C 31 /
is simple: The strength and modulus of elasticity (see AASHTO T 23. Cylinders are tested at early ages
Modulus of Elasticity in this chapter, page 123) of a beyond 24 hours, and the concrete temperature his-
concrete specimen are directly related to the quantity tory is used to compute the maturity index at the time
of heat developed from the hydrating cement. of test. Using historical data, a prediction equation is
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
The practical benefit of this method is that field developed to project the strength at later ages based
evaluations of in-place strength can be predicted from on the maturity index and early-age strength tests. See
simple measurements of the concrete temperature over Carino (1994) for more information.
time. Maturity testing can be effective when making ASTM C 1074 provides procedures for using the
decisions about opening pavements to traffic. measured in-place maturity index to estimate in-place
The theoretical benefit is the ability to accurately strength (figure 5-8) (see chapter 9, page 261). This
predict both the strength and modulus of elasticity practice describes two maturity functions. The first,
of concrete over a wide range of conditions based and most popular for use with concrete pavements, is
simply on the temperature development in the mod- the Nurse-Saul function. The other (preferred) matu-
eled pavement. rity equation is the Arrhenius function. This function
10 Troubleshooting
Maturity testing is most useful in estimating the in- presents maturity in terms of the equivalent age of
place properties of concrete. However, it is also useful curing at standard laboratory conditions. Although the
in developing concrete mixes. When insufficient time equivalent-age maturity function presents results in a
is available to adequately test a concrete mix before more understandable format (the equivalent age), the
complexity of its equation is likely why this method is Maturity can also be calculated from temperature
2 Design
less popular than the time-temperature factor method. sensors (like thermocouples, thermometers, or therm-
Equivalent age is expected to provide more accurate istors) embedded in the concrete. The time interval
results when large temperature changes occur in the should be selected to adequately resolve temperature
field. However, the time-temperature method is easier changes in the concrete. Some States require twice
3 Materials
to apply and has been successfully used for estimating daily readings, although more frequent intervals
the in-place strength of paving concrete. Each of these would improve accuracy.
functions requires preliminary testing to relate to the
strength of concrete. Each method has a constant that
can be assumed or, for accuracy, determined for the
specific mix (ASTM C 1074). In the time-temperature
4 Hydration
2 Design
can be estimated as 5,000 times the square root of
Key Points
strength (57,000 times the square root of strength in
lb/in2). Several formulas have been suggested for high-
• Concrete’s modulus of elasticity generally
strength concrete (Farny and Panarese 1993). Like
correlates with the strength of the concrete
other strength relationships, the relationship of modu-
and the type and amount of the aggregate.
3 Materials
lus of elasticity to compressive strength is specific to
mix ingredients and should be verified in a laboratory
• Modulus of elasticity is used in structural
(Wood 1992).
design of concrete pavement and for
Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the deflection that is
modeling the risk of cracking in concrete
perpendicular to the direction of the load. A common
pavement.
4 Hydration
value used for concrete is 0.20 to 0.21, but the value
• Poisson’s ratio is normally about 0.2 in may vary from 0.15 to 0.25 depending on the aggre-
hardened concrete. gate, moisture content, concrete age, and compressive
strength. Poisson’s ratio is generally of little concern to
• Similar to the prediction of concrete the designer; however, it does play a role in predicting
strength, maturity methods can be used to early-age concrete pavement behavior and is required
5 Properties
predict the modulus of elasticity. in some numerical models for concrete performance.
It is a design input in the Guide for Mechanistic-
• Testing specifications: ASTM C 469 Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavements
(dynamic modulus: ASTM C 215) (M‑E PDG ) (NCHRP 2004).
6 Mix
Simple Definition Modulus of elasticity increases with an increase in
The modulus of elasticity (E), or stiffness, of compressive strength and is influenced by the same
concrete is a measure of how much the material will factors that influence strength.
7 Preparation
deflect under load and indicates risk of cracking. It is primarily affected by the modulus of elasticity
Poisson’s ratio is a measure of deflection that is per- of the aggregate and by the volumetric proportions of
pendicular to the load. the aggregate in concrete (Baalbaki et al. 1991). If an
Significance
The modulus of elasticity (E) parameter is used in
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
the structural design of the pavement and for model-
ing the risk of cracking. Strictly defined, the modulus
of elasticity is the ratio of stress to corresponding
strain for loads up to about 40 percent of the ulti-
mate strength (figure 5-9). (Dynamic modulus is the
response of concrete to dynamic rather than static
loading. The dynamic modulus of concrete is normally
about 10 percent higher than the static modulus.)
Normal-density concrete has a modulus of elastic-
ity of 14,000 to 41,000 MPa (2,000,000 to 6,000,000
10 Troubleshooting
_______________________________________________
with compressive strengths between 20 and 35 MPa Figure 5-9. Generalized stress-strain curve for concrete
(3,000 and 5,000 lb/in2), the modulus of elasticity (PCA)
aggregate has the ability to produce a high modulus, strength. In order to determine the 40 percent load, it
2 Design
then the highest modulus in concrete can be obtained is first necessary to determine the concrete compres-
by using as much of this aggregate as practical while sive strength on companion specimens. This requires a
still meeting workability and cohesiveness requirements. machine with adequate capacity to break the cylinders.
Dynamic modulus can be determined by using
Testing for Modulus of Elasticity and
3 Materials
2 Design
Key Points system, largely due to evaporation.
◦ Plastic shrinkage occurs before the concrete
• Concrete shrinkage occurs due to a number sets and is primarily due to loss of moisture
of mechanisms starting soon after mixing from the surface of fresh concrete. It can
and continuing for a long time.
3 Materials
result in plastic cracking in the surface.
◦ Drying shrinkage occurs after the concrete
• Shrinkage primarily increases with
has set. If the shrinkage is restrained, drying
increasing water (paste) content in the
shrinkage cracking will occur (see Early-Age
concrete.
Cracking in this chapter, page 148.)
4 Hydration
In addition, concrete shrinks somewhat as it settles
• Testing specifications: ASTM C 157 /
and contracts as it cools (see Temperature Effects in
AASHTO T 160.
this chapter, page 127). All of these shrinkage effects
are additive; therefore, reducing any one of them will
reduce the risk of cracking (figure 5-10).
The most important controllable factor affect-
5 Properties
ing drying shrinkage is the amount of water per unit
Simple Definitions of Shrinkage volume of concrete (figure 5-11). Total shrinkage can
Shrinkage is a decrease in length or volume of the be minimized by keeping the water (or paste) content
concrete due to moisture loss. of concrete as low as possible. The higher the cement
content of a mixture, the greater the magnitude of
Significance likely drying shrinkage. The paste content can be mini-
6 Mix
Starting soon after mixing and continuing for a long mized by keeping the total coarse aggregate content of
time, concrete shrinks due to several mechanisms. the concrete as high as possible while achieving work-
Because concrete shrinkage is generally restrained ability and minimizing segregation.
7 Preparation
in some way, concrete almost always cracks. Uncon- Drying shrinkage may also be reduced by avoiding
trolled cracks that form at early ages are likely to aggregates that contain excessive amounts of clay in
grow due to mechanical and environmental stresses their fines. Quartz, granite, feldspar, limestone, and
that would otherwise be of no concern. Therefore, dolomite aggregates generally produce concretes with
minimizing uncontrolled early shrinkage cracking can low drying shrinkages (ACI Committee 2001).
prolong the service life of the concrete.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Factors Affecting Shrinkage
Soon after concrete is placed, it shrinks due to
chemical changes and loss of moisture:
• Autogenous shrinkage is the amount of chemical
shrinkage that can be measured in a sample.
(Chemical shrinkage occurs because the volume
of the hydration products of cement occupies less
space than the original materials.) Autogenous
shrinkage is normally insignificant in concrete
10 Troubleshooting
Shrinkage
Weather—air temperature, wind, relative humid- temperature until 64 weeks. (Since most projects
2 Design
ity, and sunlight—influences concrete hydration and cannot wait 64 weeks, an alternative set of initial read-
shrinkage. These factors may draw moisture from ing, drying age, and final reading age are sometimes
exposed concrete surfaces with resultant slowing of specified.)
hydration and increased warping (see Curling and
3 Materials
to take an initial length measurement at 24 hours. The Figure 5-11. Relationship between total water content and
drying shrinkage. Several mixtures with various proportions
specimens are then stored in lime-saturated water for
are represented within the shaded area of the curves.
27 days, when another length measurement is taken. Drying shrinkage increases with increasing water
7 Preparation
2 Design
Key Points maintain workability, decreased setting time, increased
danger of plastic shrinkage cracking, reduction in the
• Concrete hydration generates heat.
effectiveness of the air-void system, increased risk of
incompatibility (see Potential Materials Incompat-
• The risk of cracking is increased with
3 Materials
ibilities in chapter 4, page 97), and lower ultimate
increasing placement temperature.
strength. During the winter, the primary danger is
that low temperatures may slow hydration, and thus
• Concrete expands with increasing
strength gain, and in extreme cases may permanently
temperature and contracts (shrinks) with
damage the concrete if it freezes early in its life
decreasing temperature. The amount of
(Mindess et al. 2003).
4 Hydration
this expansion and contraction is governed
primarily by the aggregate type (see Other thermal effects that may be of interest
Aggregates in chapter 3, page 39.) include solar reflectance, specific heat, and thermal
diffusivity. These properties affect the amount of solar
• Concrete hydration rate is accelerated with energy absorbed by concrete, the corresponding tem-
increasing temperature and with increasing perature change of the concrete, and the rapidity with
5 Properties
cement fineness. This can accelerate setting which the concrete dissipates this temperature to its
time and reduce the sawing window. surroundings.
Effects on Hydration
• Supplementary cementitious materials
The rate of hydration of concrete is significantly
typically have lower heat of hydration.
accelerated with increasing temperatures and slowed
6 Mix
at lower temperatures, affecting placement and consol-
• In cold-weather concreting, the challenge
idation due to early stiffening, as well as the timing of
is to maintain the concrete temperature to
saw cutting. The early strength of a concrete mixture
prevent freezing while gaining strength.
7 Preparation
will be higher with an elevated temperature, but the
strength may be lower at later ages than the same mix
• Testing specifications: ASTM C 186,
kept at a lower temperature. All chemical reactions are
ASTM C 1064 / AASHTO T 309,
faster at higher temperatures; therefore, setting times
AASHTO TP 60.
will be reduced as the temperature of the concrete
rises. With increasing temperature, the potential for
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
an imbalance in the cementitious paste system will be
Simple Definition exacerbated, possibly leading to problems with unex-
The hydration of cement and water in concrete
pected stiffening of the mixture before the mixture
generates heat (see the time-heat curve in figure 4‑13,
can be consolidated. It has been observed that water
page 74). Monitoring the temperature is a useful
may be added to such a mix to restore workability,
means of estimating the degree of hydration of the
but with the effect of reducing strength and durability.
system. In turn, the temperature of the concrete will
Water should not be added to the mix in excess of the
influence the rate of hydration (strength development)
specified maximum water-cement ratio.
and the risk of cracking.
Effects on Cracking
Significance of Thermal Properties Concrete expands as temperature rises and
10 Troubleshooting
An optimal temperature for freshly placed con- contracts as temperature falls. These movements
crete is in the range of 10 to 15°C (50 to 60°F), and it can contribute significantly to the risk of cracking
should not exceed 30 to 33°C (85 to 90°F) (Mindess in concrete, particularly within the first 24 hours.
et al. 2003). Problems associated with high concrete If the concrete sets when it is hot, then it will
Temperature Effects
contract a significant amount when it cools later, thus temperature of the concrete may be higher, as the heat
2 Design
Cracking in this chapter, page 148). shrinkage and the possibility of resultant cracking.
When blended with cement, Class F fly ash has a heat
Factors Affecting Thermal Properties of hydration that is typically 50 percent of cement.
Primary factors that affect a concrete pavement’s Class C fly ash generally has a heat of hydration in
thermal properties are the following: the range of 70 to 90 percent of that of cement. The
Heat of Hydration of Cementitious Materials. Type III heat of hydration of both silica fume and metakaolin
4 Hydration
cements, which are typically used in applications are approximately 125 percent of cement. The heat of
where early strength is a goal, generate more heat and hydration in concrete is affected by the amount and
at a faster rate than Type I cements. Table 5-3 shows grade of ground, granulated blast furnace (GGBF)
the typical ranges of chemical compounds in cement, slag. The heat of hydration of grade 100 GGBF slag is
and the heat evolution associated with these com- typically 80 percent.
5 Properties
pounds. This table is useful in predicting the relative Initial Temperature. As mentioned previously, mul-
heat generation of similar cements. tiple strategies can be employed during construction
Cement fineness affects the rate of heat genera- to reduce the initial temperature heat. A common
tion. Finer cements (smaller particle sizes) hydrate practice is to conduct paving only at night and/or to
faster and generate heat at a faster rate. The total heat use pre-cooled materials in the batch. Pre-cooling
evolution is not affected by the fineness, but the peak can be achieved by shading and wetting the aggre-
6 Mix
7 Preparation
Table 5-3. Chemical Composition and Heat Evolution of Typical Portland Cements
Cement type C3S (%) C2S (%) C3A (%) C4AF (%) Blaine fineness, m2/kg
Heat evolution**, a b c d
kJ/kg
(kilojoules/kg) 3 d 243 50 887 289
7 d 222 42 1556 494
13 yr 510 247 1356 427
10 Troubleshooting
gates and using chilled water or ice in the mixture. An average value for the CTE of concrete is about
2 Design
A white‑pigmented curing compound should always 10 × 10-6/°C (5.5 × 10-6/°F), although values ranging
be applied immediately after final finishing while from 6 to 13 × 10-6/°C (3.2 to 7.0 × 10-6/°F) have
the surface is still damp to alleviate evaporation and been observed. In practical terms, this amounts to a
reduce heat buildup from solar radiation (Kosmatka et length change of around 5 mm for 10 m of concrete
3 Materials
al. 2003). (2/3 in, for 100 ft of concrete) subjected to a rise or fall
Environmental Factors. The rate of heat loss to the of 50°C (90°F). Temperature changes may be caused by
environment is influenced by the thickness of the environmental conditions or by the heat of hydration.
concrete, the temperature of the environment, and the
degree of insulation provided by the materials sur- Testing for Thermal Properties
If specific information is needed about the actual
4 Hydration
rounding the concrete. Thinner concrete sections will
not get as hot as thicker sections. heat of hydration of the cementitious materials, the
In cold-weather concreting, the challenge is to heat of hydration should be measured. Testing should
maintain the concrete temperature to prevent freez- be conducted using the proportions that will be used
ing while the concrete gains strength. Strategies that in the concrete mix, rather than using the individual
may be employed include heating one or more of the components.
5 Properties
materials, warming the jobsite environment, and/or The heat of hydration can be measured in
covering the slab with insulation to hold in the heat accordance with ASTM C 186 or in a conduction
produced as the cement hydrates. calorimeter. Heat evolution of the concrete can also be
measured directly by a calibrated calorimeter. Several
Thermal Expansion/Contraction. Thermal expansion
such instruments are commercially available. They
and contraction of concrete (that is, expansion and
consist of a calibrated insulated container that mea-
6 Mix
contraction related to temperature change) vary
sures the heat flow out of a cylinder of fresh concrete.
with factors such as aggregate type, cement content,
The adiabatic (without loss or gain of heat from the
water-cementitious materials ratio, temperature
surroundings) temperature rise of the concrete can be
7 Preparation
range, concrete age, and relative humidity. Of these,
measured directly by Army Corps Method CRD-C 38
aggregate type has the greatest influence, as aggre-
(figure 5-12). It should be noted that the actual tem-
gates account for about 60 to 75 percent of concrete
perature rise of a concrete pavement is only a fraction
by volume.
of that of the adiabatic temperature rise because the
A material’s coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
is a measure of how much it changes in length (or
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
volume) for a given change in temperature. Typically,
an increase in temperature will result in lengthening
(expansion) and a decrease will result in shortening
(contraction). Because aggregates make up a majority
of a concrete’s volume, the CTE of the aggregate par-
ticles will dominate the CTE for a concrete. Table 3-12
in chapter 3, page 48, shows some typical values of
the linear CTE of several aggregates, as well as those
for concrete and other concrete ingredients. Typically,
limestone aggregates have lower coefficients than sili-
ceous aggregates, and concretes made with them have
10 Troubleshooting
calculations for pavements and are used in durability Figure 5-12. A typical field semi-adiabatic temperature
modeling of concretes. monitoring system for mortar (W.R. Grace & Company)
Temperature Effects
large surface-to-volume ratio of a pavement allows Coefficient of thermal expansion can be mea-
2 Design
heat to escape almost as rapidly as it is generated. sured using the method described in AASHTO TP 60
Pavement temperatures and the associated risk (figure 5-13) (see Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in
of cracking can be estimated with finite element chapter 9, page 269). The test involves measuring the
software or by the Schmidt method (a finite dif- length change of a specimen observed due to a change
3 Materials
ference method) described in ACI 207. FHWA’s in temperature of 40°C (72°F) controlled using a
HIPERPAV software (www.hiperpav.com) is a helpful water bath.
analysis tool to determine early-age properties and
the potential for cracking. Pavement temperatures
measured with embedded sensors (ASTM C 1064 / Concrete Durability is Affected by
AASHTO T 309‑99) and environmental conditions Many Concrete Properties
4 Hydration
• Low permeability.
• Frost resistance.
• Sulfate resistance.
• Low alkali-silica sensitivity.
• Abrasion resistance.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
2 Design
Key Points alkali-reactive aggregates.
• Sulfates that attack the aluminate compounds.
• Concrete durability is improved by
• Carbon dioxide that reduces the alkalinity (pH).
improving concrete’s ability to prevent
• Oxygen and moisture that contribute to the
fluids from penetrating, that is, by reducing
3 Materials
corrosion of steel bars or reinforcement.
concrete permeability.
• Chlorides that promote corrosion of steel bars.
4 Hydration
interface between the paste and aggregate.
zone between the paste and the aggregate. If there
are a large number of pores and they are connected
• Therefore, permeability can be reduced by
(percolated), then the concrete will be permeable.
reducing the water-cementitious materials
Reducing the porosity and the likelihood that pores
ratio, increasing the degree of hydration,
will be connected is key to achieving low permeability
using supplementary cementitious materials,
5 Properties
(Detwiler 2005). The following activities will help:
and using good curing practices.
• Reducing the water-cementitious materials ratio
• Strength is not necessarily a good measure of as low as is consistent with other requirements
potential permeability. of the concrete, including cracking.
• Using appropriate supplementary cementitious
materials for the environment.
6 Mix
• Testing specifications include
ASTM C 1202 / AASHTO T 277, • Ensuring adequate consolidation and curing.
AASHTO TP 64, ASTM C 1543 and 1556, • Minimizing cracking.
and ASTM C 1585.
7 Preparation
Testing
Some specifications use compressive strength as
Simple Definition an indicator of low permeability. This approach is not
Permeability is the ease with which fluids can pene- always valid, which is why tests are being developed
trate concrete. (Permeability is different from porosity, to directly assess concrete permeability.
which is a measure of the number of [possibly discon- The so-called “rapid chloride” test (ASTM C
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
nected] voids in concrete.) 1202 / AASHTO T 277) is most commonly used (see
Chloride Ion Penetration in chapter 9, page 268).
Significance However, the test does not measure permeability
Almost all durability-related distresses in pave- directly but measures conductivity, which may or may
ments can be slowed or stopped by reducing the not be related to permeability. The data can be used
concrete’s permeability. This is because most durabil- for comparison purposes between concrete mixtures.
ity-related distress mechanisms involve the transport AASHTO TP 64 is an alternative method to
of harmful substances into the concrete: assess the rate of chloride penetration into concrete.
• Water that expands on freezing, leaches cal- ASTM C 1543 and 1556 are two new ponding tests
cium hydroxide, and/or carries dissolved ions useful in determining the chloride resistance of
10 Troubleshooting
that attack the concrete. concrete. Another new method, ASTM C 1585, deter-
• Salts that crystallize on wetting and drying or mines the capillary absorption of concrete and offers
exert osmotic pressure during freezing and a useful tool for assessing the relative performance of
thawing, causing surface damage. different concrete systems.
Frost Resistance
• Freeze-thaw damage is due to the expansion
2 Design
(figure 5-14).
• Concrete frost resistance can be improved • Deicing salts can aggravate freeze-thaw damage
through several good practices: and cause cracking, scaling, and disintegration.
• When aggregates with a critical pore size are
◦ Maintaining a proper air-void system to saturated, they expand and fracture when the
provide space for freezing and expanding water freezes, causing D-cracking and/or popouts.
4 Hydration
placement, and curing practices. Mitchell 1994; Janssen and Snyder 1994; Cordon
1966), and the concrete will crack, increasing con-
◦ Protecting concrete so that it gains
crete permeability.
sufficient strength and dries before it
For resistance to freezing and thawing damage,
is exposed to freezing temperatures or
water-saturated concretes must have a proper air-void
deicing salts.
6 Mix
Simple Definition
Frost resistance is a concrete’s ability to resist
damage during winter weather conditions.
Significance
10 Troubleshooting
rience several kinds of damage: freeze-thaw damage, Figure 5-14. Air-entrained concrete (bottom bar) is highly
salt scaling, D-cracking, or popouts. resistant to damage from repeated freeze-thaw cycles. (PCA)
D-Cracking
2 Design
Salt Scaling
Scaling (figure 5-15) is a physical deterioration D-cracking is damage that occurs in concrete due
mechanism aggravated by the use of deicing salts to expansive freezing of water in some aggregate par-
and freezing and thawing. Salts that are used to melt ticles (see Aggregate Durability in chapter 3, page 47).
snow and ice go into solution and penetrate concrete’s The damage normally starts near joints to form a char-
3 Materials
pore structure, aggravating hydraulic pressures when acteristic D-shaped crack (see chapter 3, figure 3‑11,
the solution freezes. In addition, as the water freezes page 48).
to ice, the salts are concentrated at the freezing site. This problem can be reduced either by selecting
Unfrozen water migrates toward the site due to osmo- aggregates that are less susceptible to freeze-thaw
sis (the tendency for imbalances in salt concentrations deterioration or, where marginal aggregates must be
4 Hydration
to seek balance). These osmotic pressures also cause used, by reducing the maximum aggregate size. Also,
cracking, scaling, and disintegration. providing drainage for carrying water away from the
In addition to hydraulic and osmotic pressures, base may prevent saturation of the pavement.
which are the primary cause of deicer scaling, salts
Popouts
may also crystallize upon drying, creating expansive
A popout is a conical fragment that breaks out of
pressures.
5 Properties
the surface of concrete, leaving a shallow, typically
Research has shown that relatively low concentra- conical, depression (see chapter 3, figure 3-12, page
tions of sodium chloride (two to four percent) cause 48). Generally, a fractured aggregate particle will be
greater damage than greater concentrations of sodium found at the bottom of the hole. Unless numerous,
chloride (Klieger 1957). popouts are considered a cosmetic detraction and do
The best way to control deicer scaling is to ensure not generally affect the service life of the concrete.
6 Mix
that the concrete has a proper air-void system, Aggregates containing appreciable amounts of
sound aggregates, and a strength of at least 28 MPa shale or other shaly rocks, soft and porous materi-
(4,000 lb/in2), and has been allowed to dry before it is als (clay lumps for example), and certain types of
exposed to deicing salt.
7 Preparation
chert have low resistance to weathering and should
be avoided (see Aggregate Durability in chapter 3,
page 47). Weak, porous particles in the aggregate can
be reduced by various methods of aggregate beneficia-
tion such as jigging, heavy-media separation, or belt
picking.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Factors Affecting Frost Resistance
Many factors influence the resistance of concrete
to frost-related damage, each of which is discussed
briefly below. The most important means of prevent-
ing damage in critically saturated concrete is to ensure
that it has an adequate air-void system and adequate
strength to resist the stresses. Some high-strength
mixtures may not need as much (or any) air to be frost
resistant, but the addition of air will provide addi-
tional protection for relatively little cost.
10 Troubleshooting
Air-Void System
Frost Resistance
closely spaced air bubbles in the paste (see Function since an increase in air content can result in a decrease
2 Design
of Air Entrainment in Concrete in chapter 3, page 56). in strength. Optimally, the air content of the mortar
The air voids provide space for freezing, expand- should be about nine percent.
ing water in the pores to move into, thus relieving The amount of air, as well as the size and spacing
the pressure (Mielenz et al. 1958). A proper air-void of the voids, are influenced by the following factors
3 Materials
system contains small air bubbles uniformly dispersed (Whiting and Nagi 1998):
throughout the cement paste (figure 5-16). Type and Dosage of Air Entrainer. Newer, non-vinsol
Powers (1949) introduced the concept of a spac- admixtures produce smaller air bubbles than older
ing factor, which indicates the distance water must products. Air-entraining admixtures are also avail-
travel to reach an air void. It is generally accepted able formulated specifically for low slump mixtures
that a spacing factor of 0.20 mm (0.008 in.) or less like those used for paving. Increasing the dosage will
4 Hydration
will be adequate to protect concrete (Mielenz et al. increase the total air content of a mixture.
1958; ACI 201.2R 2001; ACI 318 2002). Increasing Grading and Amount of Aggregate. Air is most
the total air content will reduce the spacing factor, easily entrained in concrete that contains increas-
which is why many specifications place a limit on the ing amounts of sand in the 150 to 600 μm (#100 to
minimum amount of air in a mixture. For a given air #30 sieve) range. Increasing the total aggregate in the
5 Properties
content, small, closely spaced air voids provide better concrete means that there is less paste that has to be
protection than larger, more distant voids (Klieger protected with entrained air.
1994). For equal protection, larger bubbles would Chemical Composition of the Cementitious Materials.
require a larger volume of air. This is undesirable, More alkalis in the cement will result in more entrained
air. High loss-on-ignition (LOI) fly ash (that is, loss of
mass when heated to 1,000°C [1,830°F]) will require
6 Mix
_______________________________________________
Figure 5-16. Air voids provide a place for expanding water and mixing time and speed. The later the air-entrain-
to move into as it freezes. (CTLGroup) ing admixture is added to the mixture, the less
entrained air there will be. Depending on the type of 10 percent silica fume) in concrete to minimize
2 Design
mixture, the nominal suggested mix time is approxi- deicer scaling. Higher dosages of SCMs can be used if
mately 60 seconds (Cable and McDaniel 1998). adequate durability is demonstrated by testing and/or
Some mixtures lose air during transport from the field performance.
plant to the site and during placement. Therefore, it
Finishing
3 Materials
is recommended that air be checked before and after
In general, concrete surfaces should be finished
placement to ensure that the target air content is met.
after the disappearance of the bleed water (Kosmatka
Temperature of the Concrete; Construction Practices.
1994). Working bleed water into concrete weakens
These include transport, delivery, and retempering;
the top surface and can cause a crust to form with
and placement, consolidation, and finishing. Higher
water accumulation underneath, which could easily
temperatures require more air-entraining admixture to
4 Hydration
scale off. Over-finishing should be avoided because it
achieve the same air content. Late addition of water to
may cause loss of air at the surface.
a mix will cause the air content to increase and pos-
sibly exacerbate air-void clustering. Handling of the Curing
concrete after initial mixing will tend to reduce the air Good curing practices ensure that hydration
content. reactions progress and that cracking is minimized,
5 Properties
enabling the desired properties and performance
Strength
(ACI 308R). Liquid-membrane curing compounds are
According to ACI 201.2R, dry, air-entrained
widely and successfully used on pavements, pro-
concrete needs a compressive strength of 3.5 MPa
vided that the proper curing material is applied in the
(500 lb/in2) to withstand the effects of freezing. For
right amount as the water sheen disappears. In cold
repeated cycles of freezing and thawing under satu-
weather, insulating blankets, multiple layers of burlap
6 Mix
rated conditions, a minimum strength of 28 MPa
or straw can be used to maintain the favorable tem-
(4,000 lb/in2) is recommended.
perature for hydration and to minimize temperature
Aggregates differentials.
7 Preparation
Aggregates should be selected that are resistant to
freeze-thaw damage. This can be determined from Testing
records of the performance of the aggregate in the past
D-Cracking
or by testing, as discussed below. If damage-prone
The performance of aggregates under exposure to
aggregate has to be used, the smallest possible size
freezing and thawing can be evaluated in two ways:
should be used, and preferably it should be diluted
past performance in the field and laboratory freeze-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
with sound materials.
thaw tests of concrete specimens. If aggregates from
Cementitious Materials the same source have previously given satisfactory ser-
A moderate amount of cementitious material is vice when used in concrete under similar conditions,
needed to achieve the strengths discussed above. A they generally may be considered acceptable.
minimum of 335 kg/m3 (564 lb/yd3) is recommended Aggregates not having a service record can be tested
(Kosmatka et al. 2002) unless testing and field expe- in freezing and thawing tests, such as ASTM C 666 /
rience indicate otherwise. Scaling resistance may be AASHTO T 161. In these tests, air-entrained concrete
reduced with increasing amounts of supplementary specimens made with the aggregate in question are
cementitious materials (SCMs); however, concrete alternately frozen and thawed in water (procedure A)
containing SCMs can be expected to exhibit good or frozen in air and thawed in water (procedure B).
10 Troubleshooting
scaling resistance if the concrete is properly designed, Deterioration is measured by (1) the reduction in the
placed, and cured. ACI 318 limits the amount of dynamic modulus of elasticity, (2) linear expansion,
pozzolans or ground, granulated blast-furnace slag and (3) weight loss of the specimens. An expansion
(maximum 25 percent fly ash, 50 percent slag, and failure criterion of 0.035 percent in 350 freeze-thaw
Frost Resistance
cycles or less is used by a number of State depart- or lightweight aggregate is the volumetric method
2 Design
ments of transportation to help indicate whether (Rollameter), ASTM C 173 / AASHTO T 196. The
an aggregate is susceptible to D-cracking. Different volumetric method takes longer to complete and is
aggregate types may require different criteria (Vogler more physically demanding; therefore, it is not widely
and Grove 1989). used for concrete with normal-weight aggregates. The
3 Materials
An additional test that evaluates aggregates for air content of the freshly mixed concrete can also be
potential D-cracking is the rapid pressure release determined by the gravimetric method, ASTM C 138 /
method. An aggregate sample is placed in a pres- AASHTO T 121.
surized chamber. The pressure is rapidly released, These methods determine the total air content.
causing aggregates with questionable pore systems to However, for satisfactory frost resistance, an air-void
fracture (Janssen and Snyder 1994). The amount of system with closely spaced small bubbles is needed.
4 Hydration
fracturing relates to the potential for D-cracking. The average size of the bubbles and their spacing is
Another test for determining the freeze-thaw poten- characterized by the specific surface and the spac-
tial of carbonate aggregates is the Iowa pore index ing factor. These parameters must be determined on
test. The apparatus measures the large or primary hardened concrete (ASTM C 457), although the air-
pores and the secondary or capillary pore system. void analyzer shows promise in determining spacing
5 Properties
Aggregates with large primary pores correlate to good factors for fresh concrete.
durability, while those with large secondary pores The gravimetric method for determining unit
correlate to poor durability. Studies that correlate pore weight (ASTM C 138 / AASHTO T 121) also gives an
index results with durability tests indicate that the indication of air content, provided the specific gravi-
Iowa pore index test can quickly and accurately deter- ties of other ingredients are known. The method is
mine aggregate durability. especially helpful for determining when something
6 Mix
Specifications may require that resistance to has gone wrong with the air system, because signifi-
weathering, or freeze-thaw durability, be demon- cant changes in the unit weight would signal a change
strated by a sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate in the mixture’s air content.
7 Preparation
test, ASTM C 88 / AASHTO T 104. This test consists The air-void analyzer (AVA) (figure 5-17) was
of immersing a sample of the aggregate in a sulfate developed in Europe in the late 1980s. It measures
solution for a number of cycles. Pressure is created the size and spacing of entrained air bubbles in fresh
through salt crystal growth in the aggregate pores concrete. The AVA has the advantage of providing
similar to that produced by freezing water. The sample the air-void parameters of fresh concrete in less than
is then oven dried, and the percentage of weight loss 30 minutes, so that adjustments can be made during
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
is calculated. Unfortunately, this test is sometimes construction (see Air-Void Analyzer in chapter 9,
misleading, due at least in part to the fact that the page 265).
mechanisms of attack are not the same as in freezing With the AVA, a mortar sample containing air voids
is introduced into a liquid of a certain viscosity and
and thawing in concrete.
placed at the bottom of a riser column filled with
Air-Void System water. Immediately after injection, a magnetic stirring
The most common test procedure to determine rod breaks up the mortar sample, releasing air bubbles
the air content is the pressure method, ASTM C 231 / into the analysis liquid. The proper selection of the
AASHTO T 152 (see Air Content [Plastic Concrete, liquid enables the air voids to retain their quantity
Pressure Method] in chapter 9, page 266). Air in and size during the transfer. Air voids rise in the
10 Troubleshooting
the fresh concrete and the aggregates is measured. column to the surface, according to Stokes’ law. The
It is applicable to dense, normal-weight aggregates large bubbles rise faster than the small bubbles. The
with the appropriate aggregate correction factor. air bubbles rising in the liquid are collected under a
Another test method applicable to dense, cellular, bowl attached to a balance. The buoyancy of the bowl
is recorded over time, from which the air content, former being the most widely used (see Air Con-
2 Design
specific surface, and spacing factor of freshly mixed tent [Hardened Concrete] in chapter 9, page 267).
concrete are determined. Some States are using image analysis techniques to
Since the entrapped air voids are not measured, determine air content of lapped sections of hardened
AVA air content is approximately 1.5 to 2 percent concrete samples; see, for example, the Portland
3 Materials
less than the air content as determined by the pres- Cement Association’s CT021. There is, as yet, no stan-
sure meter and by ASTM C 457. The spacing factor dard method for such an approach.
is about the same for AVA and ASTM C 457 (Magura
Rapid Freezing and Thawing
1996). An AVA is sensitive to vibration and uses a
Resistance to freezing and thawing of a concrete is
small sample; therefore, it should be used with care.
normally determined using the procedures (A or B)
The air content of concrete is generally measured
4 Hydration
described in ASTM C 666. Procedure A involves rapid
before it reaches the paver. However, measurement
freezing and thawing of samples of concrete in water.
of the air-void system after placement and vibration
Procedure B requires rapid freezing in air and thawing
would provide more useful information. Some reduc-
in water.
tion in air is expected as it is vibrated; however, this
The fundamental transverse frequency of the sam-
loss does not necessarily imply that freeze-thaw pro-
5 Properties
ples is measured periodically and used to determine
tection is compromised.
the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity, from which
ASTM C 457 has two microscopical procedures for
a durability factor is calculated (ASTM C 666). As
determining the air-void parameters in lapped sec-
damage increases in the sample, the dynamic modulus
tions of hardened concrete samples: the linear traverse
will decrease. For adequate performance, specimens
method and the modified point count method, the
tested to 300 cycles are expected to exhibit a durabil-
6 Mix
ity factor of 60 or more. Length change and mass loss
can also be monitored.
Procedure A is the more severe test. Concretes
7 Preparation
performing well in this test have done well in field
applications. Concretes failing the test may also
have satisfactory field performance, but such perfor-
mance must be proven in the field. Procedure B is
not as severe as procedure A, since the specimens are
allowed to dry during testing.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
In Virginia, ASTM C 666 procedure A is conducted
with specimens immersed in two percent NaCl solu-
tion (Newlon 1978). Prior to exposure, specimens are
moist-cured for 14 days and air-dried for 7 days.
Salt Scaling
Resistance to salt scaling is determined using the
ASTM C 672 test. Specimens are moist-cured for
14 days and air-dried for an additional 14 days. A
dike is placed around the top surface of the speci-
mens, and the surface of the concrete is covered with
10 Troubleshooting
Frost Resistance
and a visual examination is made. The solution is This test is also considered to be severe, with
2 Design
replaced and the test repeated for 50 cycles. Concretes concretes performing satisfactorily in the field despite
with a rating of three or less are considered satisfac- failing ASTM C 672. The Bureau De Normalisation
tory. (A rating of three indicates moderate scaling with du Québec has published an alternative method that
some coarse aggregate showing.) Some States also is reportedly less severe (BNQ NQ 2621-900). This
3 Materials
monitor the mass loss of the samples and require a method sets out slightly different finishing and curing
value of less than 0.3 lb/ft2 after 50 cycles. requirements for the samples.
4 Hydration
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Preventive measures are well accepted, and con-
Key Points
crete can be designed to resist sulfate attack. This is
done primarily by reducing permeability and reduc-
• Sulfates damage concrete by reacting with
ing the amount of reactive elements in the concrete
products of hydrated tricalcium aluminate
system needed for expansive sulfate reactions.
(C3A) in hardened cement paste and
3 Materials
by infiltrating and depositing salts. The
resulting expansive crystals damage the
Factors Affecting Sulfate Attack
Prevention of sulfate attack depends on protecting
cement paste, causing cracking.
the concrete from infiltration by sulfate ions. For the
• Sulfate problems are more severe where best defense against external sulfate attack, consider
4 Hydration
concrete is exposed to wet and dry cycles the following:
than where it is continuously wet. • Design concrete with a low water-cementitious
materials (w/cm) ratio (around 0.4 or lower).
• Concrete can be designed to resist sulfate • Use cements specially formulated for sulfate
attack: environments, such as ASTM C 150 /
AASHTO M 85 Type II or V cements,
5 Properties
◦ Achieve low permeability (see Permeability ASTM C 595 / AASHTO M 240 moderate sul-
in this chapter, page 131). fate-resistant cements, or ASTM C 1157 Types
MS or HS.
◦ Use a mixture with a low water-
cementitious materials ratio, sulfate
resistant cements, and proper proportions
6 Mix
of suitable supplementary cementitious
materials.
7 Preparation
• Testing specifications: ASTM C 452 and
ASTM C 1012.
Simple Definition
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Sulfate resistance is concrete’s ability to resist attack
by, and damage from, sulfates penetrating from out-
side the concrete system.
Significance
Excessive amounts of sulfates in soil or water can,
over a period of years, attack and destroy concrete
pavements and other structures (figure 5-18).
Sulfates damage concrete by reacting with hydrated
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) compounds in the hard-
10 Troubleshooting
Sulfate Resistance
Note that, although the use of sulfate-resistant exceed 0.40 and may need to be lower in more
2 Design
the test method described in the table to assess Sulfate attack is more severe at locations where the
the sulfate content to prevent misleading data. concrete is exposed to wetting and drying cycles than
• Use supplementary cementitious materials at locations where there is continuously wet expo-
(SCMs) with proper proportioning and material sure due to salt deposition. However, if the sulfate
selection. SCMs improve sulfate resistance by exposure is severe enough, even continuously moist
sections can be attacked by sulfates with time.
4 Hydration
5-4. The maximum w/cm ratio should not wetting/drying regime into the testing.
7 Preparation
Sulfate exposure Sulfate (SO4) Sulfate (SO4) Cement type ** Maximum Minimum
in soil, in water w/c ratio, strength f’
% by mass* ppm* by mass MPa (lb/in2)
type required
Moderate*** 0.10 to 0.20 150 to 1,500 II, MS, IP(MS), 0.50 28 (4,000)
IS(MS), P(MS),
I(PM)(MS) ,
I(SM)(MS)
** Cement types II and V are in ASTM C 150 / AASHTO M 85, types MS and HS are in ASTM C 1157, and the remaining
types are in ASTM C 595 / AASHTO M 240. Pozzolans or GGBF slags that have been determined by test or
Significance
2 Design
Key Points
The amount of gel formed in the concrete depends
• The presence of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) on the amount and type of silica in the aggregate and
gel does not always coincide with concrete the alkali hydroxide concentration in the concrete
distress. pore solution. The presence of gel does not always
3 Materials
coincide with distress. The reactivity is potentially
• Damaging expansion and cracking due to harmful only when it produces significant expan-
ASR can be controlled in several ways: sion. For more information, see Farny and Kosmatka
(1997) and Folliard, Thomas, and Kurtis (2003).
◦ Using nonreactive aggregates. Typical indicators of deleterious ASR include a net-
4 Hydration
◦ Blending sufficient nonreactive aggregate work of cracks that are perpendicular to joints, closed
with reactive aggregate. or spalled joints, or relative displacements of adjacent
slabs. Because ASR is slow, deterioration often takes
◦ Using supplementary cementitious
materials in proper proportions.
5 Properties
◦ Using low-alkali cements.
• Testing specifications:
6 Mix
◦ Aggregates and concrete: See table 5-5
on page 144.
7 Preparation
◦ Mitigation measures: ASTM C 1293,
ASTM C 1567, ASTM C 441
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Simple Definition
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a potentially harmful
condition in concrete resulting from a chemical reac-
tion between some aggregate minerals (see Aggregate
Durability and Alkali-Silica Reactivity in chapter 3,
pages 47 and 48, including tables 3-12 and 3-13)
and the high alkaline (pH) pore solutions found in
concrete. Over time, the product of these chemical
10 Troubleshooting
_______________________________________________
reactions, a gelatinous alkali-silicate referred to as ASR
Figure 5-19. Alkali-silica reaction is an expansive reaction
gel, can absorb water and expand, leading to concrete of reactive aggregates, alkali hydroxides, and water that
cracking and reduced service life (figure 5‑19). may cause cracking in concrete. (Emmons 1994)
Alkali-Silica Reaction
several years to develop. Alkali-silica reactions can of fly ash may exacerbate the problem. Low-calcium
2 Design
cause serviceability problems and can exacerbate other (typically Class F) fly ashes are generally better at
deterioration mechanisms, such as those that occur in mitigating ASR than high-calcium (typically Class C)
frost, deicer, or sulfate exposures. fly ashes. Ground, granulated blast-furnace slag and
For most reactive aggregates, the reaction can be natural pozzolans also generally effective in mitigating
3 Materials
mitigated or controlled through proper concrete mate- ASR when used in the proper dosages. Expansion
rials selection or other means. In fact, even though usually decreases as the dosage of the pozzolan or slag
potentially reactive aggregates exist throughout North increases.
America, ASR distress in concrete is no longer a Using portland cement with an alkali content of not
common problem. There are a number of reasons more than 0.60 percent (equivalent sodium oxide) can
for this: often (but not always) control ASR. Its use has been
4 Hydration
• Many aggregates are not reactive. successful with slightly reactive to moderately reac-
• Known reactive aggregates are avoided. tive aggregates. However, low-alkali cements are not
• Some forms of ASR do not produce significant available in all areas and are not effective against all
deleterious expansion. reactive aggregates.
• The appropriate use of certain pozzolans or Lithium compounds may also be useful in reduc-
5 Properties
Factors Affecting Alkali-Silica standardized test method is able to evaluate the abil-
ity of lithium compounds to prevent ASR, although
Reaction
guidance has been provided by Folliard, Thomas, and
7 Preparation
alkali content of the concrete. Where applicable, dif- Comparisons should be made between the existing
ferent amounts of pozzolan or slag should be tested and proposed concretes for mixture proportions,
to determine the optimum dosage. Too low a dosage ingredients, and service environments. This process
will indicate whether special requirements or testing concrete prism testing (Thomas et al. 2005; Thomas
2 Design
of the aggregate is needed. The use of quick methods and Innis 1999; Bérubé, Duchesne, and Chouinard
provides for initial screening. Where uncertainties 1995) and is widely used for this purpose.
arise, lengthier tests can be used to confirm results. If ASTM C 441 uses a reactive crushed glass to make
the aggregate is not reactive by historical identification a “mortar” and has been used to compare the effec-
3 Materials
or testing, no special requirements are needed. tiveness of SCMs or blended cements for preventing
ASTM C 295 (petrographic analysis) and expansion. However, no absolute limiting values
ASTM C 1260 (accelerated mortar-bar test, similar on expansion are provided; mitigation is gauged
to AASHTO T 303) are the quickest indicators of the by expansions of similar mortar bars made with
potential reactivity of an aggregate. ASTM C 1260 low-alkali portland cements. Some aggregates are
4 Hydration
is an extremely severe test, and is intended to be an too reactive to be controlled by low-alkali portland
aggregate screening test. If the quick methods indicate cement; therefore, this test should be used with caution.
potential reactivity, ASTM C 1293 (concrete prism
Concrete Testing
test) can be run over the period of a year (two years
A petrographic examination (ASTM C 856) is the
with SCMs in the concrete) to help resolve uncer-
most positive method for identifying ASR gel in con-
tainties about results from the screening tests. When
5 Properties
crete. A network of internal cracks connecting reacted
reactivity is indicated by either field history or testing,
aggregate particles is a good indication that ASR is
special requirements must be used to control ASR.
responsible for cracking. Prepared sections of concrete
When these methods indicate no potential for reactiv-
are examined under a microscope by an experienced
ity, no special requirements are needed.
petrographer to determine the presence and location
Use of ASTM C 289 (chemical method) is not rec-
of reactive aggregates and gel. Petrography can con-
ommended, as it may fail aggregates with good field
6 Mix
firm the presence of reaction products and verify ASR
performance history. Likewise, use of ASTM C 227 is
as an underlying cause of deterioration. Visual indica-
not considered reliable, as it may pass reactive aggre-
tors of ASR can be found in Stark (1991); however,
gates or measure expansion that may not be due to
7 Preparation
petrographic examination is required for confirma-
ASR.
tion, as distress caused by ASR can look similar to that
Mitigation Measures Testing caused by other deterioration mechanisms.
When reactive aggregates are used, the efficacy of The presence of ASR gel can also be detected by the
mitigation measures such as the use of SCMs, blended uranyl acetate test (AASHTO T 299, also found in the
cements, or low-alkali cements should be evaluated annex to ASTM C 856); however, small amounts of
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
in preventing deleterious expansion due to ASR. radioactive materials are used, which require special
ASTM C 1293 is the recommended procedure. How- handling. A relatively new technique, the Los Alamos
ever, this test, although an accelerated test, requires staining method (Powers 1999; Guthrie and Carey
up to two years to obtain results. 1999), provides confirmation of the presence of ASR
ASTM C 1567 is similar to ASTM C 1260 but gel. Both the Uranyl Acetate Test and the Los Alamos
allows combinations of cementitious materials to be staining test only provide indications of ASR gel’s pres-
tested so that the efficacy of mitigating ASR can be ence and do not provide conclusions as to whether
assessed. This method appears to correlate well with ASR is the cause of concrete deterioration.
10 Troubleshooting
Alkali-Silica Reaction
Table 5-5. Test Methods for Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) and Mitigation Measures
2 Design
Test method Purpose Type of test Type of Measurement Duration Criteria Comments
specimen
ASTM C 227, To test the Mortar bars At least 4 Length First measure- Per ASTM C 33 Test may not
Potential alkali susceptibility stored over mortar bars change ment at 14 days, maximum 0.10%, produce
reactivity of of cement- water at 38ºC standard then 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, expansion at significant
cement- aggregate (100˚F) and dimensions: 9, and 12 months 6 months, or expansion,
3 Materials
aggregate combinations high relative 25 x 25 x 285 mm and every 6 if not available especially for
combinations to expansive humidity (1 x 1 x 11¼ months after for a 6-month carbonate
(mortar bar reactions in.) that as period, maxi- aggregate.
method) involving necessary mum of 0.05% Long test
alkalies at 3 months duration.
Expansions
may not be
from AAR.
4 Hydration
ASTM C 289 To determine, Sample 3 25-gram Drop in 24 hours Point plotted Quick results.
Potential potential reacted samples alkalinity on graph falls Some aggre-
reactivity of reactivity with alkaline of crushed and amount in deleterious gates give low
aggregates siliceous solution at and sieved of silica or potentially expansions
(chemical aggregates 80˚C (176˚F) aggregate solubilized deleterious even though
method) area they have high
silica content.
5 Properties
Not reliable.
ASTM C 295, To outline Visual and Varies with Particle Short Not applicable Usually in-
Petrographic petrographic microscopic knowledge of characteristics, duration— cludes optical
examination of examination examination quarry: cores like shape, visual exam- microscopy;
aggregates for procedures of of prepared 53 to 100 mm in size, texture, ination does may include
concrete aggregates— samples— diameter color, mineral not involve long XRD analysis,
an aid in deter- sieve analysis, (21/8 to 4 in.), composition, test periods differential
6 Mix
nomenclature.
ASTM C 441, To determine Mortar bars— At least 3 Length change First measure- Per ASTM C 989 / Highly
Effectiveness effectiveness using Pyrex mortar bars ment at 14 days, AASHTO M 302, reactive
of pozzolans or of mineral glass as aggre- and 3 mortar then 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, minimum 75% artificial
GGBF slag in admixtures gate— stored bars for control 9, and 12 months reduction in aggregate
preventing in controlling over water at mixture and every 6 mo- expansion or may not
excessive expansion 38˚C (100˚F) and nths after that 0.020% maximum represent real
expansion of from ASR high relative as necessary expansion or per aggregate
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
ASTM C 856, To outline Visual and At least one Is the aggregate Short duration— See measure- Specimens
Petrographic petrographic microscopic 150 mm (6 in.) known to be includes prepar- ment. This exam- can be
examination of examination examination diameter by reactive? Orien- ation of samples ination deter- examined with
hardened procedures of prepared 300 mm (12 in.) tation and geo- and visual and mines if ASR stereo-,
concrete of hardened samples long core metry of cracks. microscopic reactions have microscopes
concrete— Is there any gel examination taken place and polarizing
useful in present? their effects microscopes,
determining upon the con- metal-
condition or crete. Used in lographic
performance conjunction with microscopes,
10 Troubleshooting
Table 5-5. Test Methods for Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) and Mitigation Measures, continued
2 Design
Test method Purpose Type of test Type of Measurement Duration Criteria Comments
specimen
ASTM C 856, To identify Staining of Varies: core Intensity of Immediate Lack of Identifies small
(Annex) / products of freshly exposed with lapped fluorescence results fluorescence amounts of ASR
AASHTO T 299 ASR in concrete surface, core gel whether they
Uranyl acetate hardened surface and with broken cause expansion
3 Materials
treatment concrete viewing under surface or not.
procedure UV light Opal, a natural
aggregate, and
Los Alamos To identify Staining of a Varies: Core Color of stain Immediate Dark pink stain carbonated
staining method* products of freshly-exposed with lapped results corresponds paste can glow—
ASR in concrete surface, core to ASR gel and interpret results
hardened surface with with broken indicates an accordingly.
4 Hydration
concrete two different surface advanced state Tests must be
reagents of degradation supplemented
by petrographic
examination
and physical tests
for determining
concrete
expansion.
5 Properties
ASTM C 1260 / To test for Immersion of At least 3 Length change 16 days If greater than Very fast
AASHTO T 303, potential ASR mortar bars in mortar bars 0.10%, use alternative
Potential alkali of aggregate in alkaline solution supplementary to ASTM C 227.
reactivity of mortar bars at 80˚C (176˚F) test procedures; Useful for slowly
aggregates if greater reacting aggre-
(mortar-bar than 0.20%, gates or ones
method) indicative of that produce
potentially expansion late
6 Mix
deleterious in the reaction.
expansion
ASTM C 1293, To determine Concrete Three prisms Length change First measure- Potentially Long test
Determination of the potential prisms stored per cement- ment at 7 days, deleteriously duration for
7 Preparation
length change of ASR expansion over water at aggregate then 28 and 56 reactive if meaningful
concrete due to of cement- 38˚C (100˚F) combination; days, then, 3, 6, expansion results. Use as
alkali-silica aggregate standard 9, and 12 months equals or a supplement
reaction (con- combinations dimensions: and every 6 mo- exceeds 0.40% to ASTM C 227,
crete prism test) 75 x 75 x 285 mm nths after that at one year ASTM C 295,
(3 x 3 x 11¼ in.). as necessary ASTM C 289,
and ASTM C1260.
Modified To determine Concrete Three prisms Length change 91 days Potentially Fast alternative
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
ASTM C 1293, the potential prisms stored per concrete- deleteriously to ASTM C 227;
Accelerated ASR expansion over water at aggregate reactive if good correlation
concrete prism of cement- 60˚C (140˚F) combination; expansion with ASTM C 227
test aggregate standard exceeds 0.04% for carbonate
combinations dimensions: at 91 days. and sedimentary
75 x 75 x 285 mm rocks.
(3 x 3 x 11¼ in.)
ASTM C 1567, To test the Immersion of At least 3 mortar Length change 16 days If greater Very fast
Potential alkali- potential for mortar bars in bars for each than 0.10%, alternative
silica reactivity of deleterious alkaline solution cementitious indicative to ASTM C 1293.
combination of alkali-silica at 80˚C (176˚F) material and of potential Useful for
cementitious of cementitious aggregate deleterious assessing
materials and materials and combination expansion; use effects of
aggregate aggregate ASTM C 1293 supplementary
10 Troubleshooting
method)
Abrasion Resistance
surfaces can occur unless proper aggregates are
2 Design
Key Points selected. With more wear, loss of texture and loss of
thickness can occur.
• Abrasion resistance is important for
maintaining adequate texture and skid
resistance on the concrete pavement surface.
Factors Affecting Abrasion Resistance
3 Materials
and skid resistance for proper vehicular control. It is cementitious materials ratio has a large effect on the
therefore important for concrete pavements to have a abrasion resistance, since it relates to the compressive
high abrasion resistance. Abrasion resistance is gener- strength. The compressive strength at the surface is
ally related to concrete’s compressive strength and to important and is improved by avoiding segregation,
the type of aggregate in the concrete; harder aggre- eliminating bleeding, and using proper finishing and
gates resist wear better than softer aggregates. curing procedures (ACI 201.2R 2001). Supplementary
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Skid resistance is affected by both the concrete’s cementitious materials do not affect the abrasion resis-
microtexture (provided by the type and hardness of tance, provided that strength levels are maintained.
fine aggregate particles) and the macrotexture (pri- Surface Finishing. Finishing techniques that densify
marily provided by grooves formed on freshly mixed the surface will increase abrasion resistance (Kettle
concrete or cut in the hardened concrete [ACI 325 and Sadegzadeh 1987).
1988]). Wear of pavement surfaces occurs due to the Curing Methods. Increased curing promotes cement
rubbing action from the wheels of vehicular traffic. hydration, thus improving abrasion resistance.
The rubbing action is greatly increased by the presence
of abrasive particles, such as fine aggregates mixed Testing
with deicing chemicals (ACI 201.2R 2001; Liu 1994). The most common test for abrasion resistance
10 Troubleshooting
Wear is usually minimal with concrete pavements of aggregate is the Los Angeles abrasion test (rattler
unless vehicles with studs, chains, or metal wheels method) performed in accordance with ASTM C 131
travel on the pavement or unless poor aggregates and or ASTM C 535 / AASHTO T 96. In this test, a speci-
concrete are used. Even with minimal wear, polished fied quantity of aggregate is placed in a steel drum
2 Design
percentage of material worn away is measured. Speci-
fications often set an upper limit on this weight loss.
However, a comparison of the results of aggregate
abrasion tests with the abrasion resistance of concrete
3 Materials
made with the same aggregate do not show a clear
correlation.
The wear resistance of concrete is determined more
accurately by abrasion tests of the concrete itself. Four
standard tests measure the abrasion resistance of con-
crete under various conditions.
4 Hydration
ASTM C 418 subjects the concrete surface to air-
driven silica sand, and the loss of volume of concrete
is determined.
In ASTM C 779, three procedures simulate different
abrasion conditions:
5 Properties
• Procedure A: sliding and scuffing of revolving
steel disks in conjunction with abrasive grit
(figure 5-20).
• Procedure B: impact and sliding friction of steel
dressing wheels riding in a circular path.
• Procedure C: a rapidly rotating ball-bearing un- Figure 5-20. Test apparatus for measuring abrasion resis-
6 Mix
tance of concrete to ASTM C 779 (PCA)
der load on a wet concrete surface, causing high
contact stresses, impact, and sliding friction.
In all three procedures, the depth of wear of the
7 Preparation
specimen is used as a measure of abrasion.
In ASTM C 944, a rotating cutter abrades the sur-
face of the concrete under load. Loss of mass or depth
of wear is measured. This test is similar to procedure
B of test method ASTM C 779 (figure 5-21); however,
ASTM C 944 can be performed on cores. ASTM C 944
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
is included in the FHWA’s definition of high-perfor-
mance concrete for highway structures (table 5-6).
In ASTM C 1138, concrete is subjected to water-
borne particles, which simulates the condition of
Figure 5-21. Rotating cutter with dressing wheels for the
hydraulic structures. ASTM C 944 abrasion resistance test (Goodspeed 1996)
Specified depth of wear* 1 and 2 mm (0.04 to 0.08 in.) 0.5 to 1 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in.) < 0.5 mm (0.02 in.)
(studded tires allowed)
Early-Age Cracking
Significance
2 Design
Key Points
While cracking is not strictly a property of con-
• Concrete shrinks and expands due to crete, concrete always cracks. A certain amount of
moisture and temperature changes and early-age, full-depth cracking to relieve tensile stresses
will crack when the stress from restrained is inevitable and normally does not pose a problem.
3 Materials
shrinkage exceeds the concrete’s strength. However, the challenge is to control the number and
location of these cracks, generally by constructing
• The number and location of shrinkage joints in the concrete, using good curing practices,
cracks can be controlled by the timely and/or reinforcing the concrete. Ideally, the concrete
construction of joints at optimum spacing will crack along the joints down through the depth of
4 Hydration
nisms, including traffic loading and materials-related • Volume change (drying shrinkage, thermal
distress (see Frost Resistance, Sulfate Resistance, contraction) and restraint.
2 Design
• Base condition and support.
Several Mechanisms Cause Cracking
• Early loadings (including the weight of the
concrete itself). Random cracks often get blamed on a single
These factors are affected by decisions made during mechanism, when in fact they generally result from a
pavement design, mixture design and proportioning, combination of several stresses.
3 Materials
and construction. Cracking rarely occurs as a result
For example, two new pavements using the same
of just one of these factors, but rather is generally
materials and mix design are placed on the same day
a cumulative effect of several factors. In addition,
only a few miles apart. On the day after placement, one
weather conditions can greatly affect the magnitude
pavement experiences random cracking; the other does
and/or impact of each factor.
not. What is the difference?
4 Hydration
Volume Change and Restraint The first pavement was placed early in the morning. Its
Concrete always changes in volume (expands or peak heat of hydration coincided with the hottest part of
shrinks) due to the effects of changing temperature a summer day, resulting in a peak temperature of 49°C
and moisture (see Shrinkage and Temperature Effects (120°F).
in this chapter, pages 125 and 127, respectively).
5 Properties
The second pavement was placed late in the afternoon.
Volume change can occur due to moisture loss
Its peak heat of hydration occurred during the
before or after setting (plastic shrinkage and drying
cooler night, resulting in a peak temperature of 32°C
shrinkage, respectively), or due to a temperature drop
(90°F). As a result of its higher set temperature and
after the concrete has set (thermal contraction). Ther- peak temperature, the first pavement experienced
mal contraction can be 140 to 350 microstrains (0.17 significantly more stress during the following hours due
to 0.42 in./100 ft) for a 22°C (40°F) temperature
6 Mix
to cooling and thermal contraction.
change, depending on the aggregate type (see Tem-
perature Effects in this chapter, page 127; Aggregate In addition, a spotty summer storm passed through the
Durability and Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in region during the first night. A cold rain fell on the first
7 Preparation
pavement, but not on the second.
chapter 3, page 47).
Drying shrinkage can be significantly greater (400 The rain cooled the first pavement surface quickly,
to 800 microstrains, or 0.48 to 0.96 in./100 ft), but increasing the temperature differential throughout the
will take several months to achieve these levels. slab. Thus, the first pavement experienced more early
In general, an object can shrink or contract freely, curling-induced stress than the second pavement
without any stress to the system, as long is it is not experienced.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
restrained. Theoretically, in homogeneous, elastic, Together, the increased contraction-related stress and
unrestrained concrete systems (for example, in space the increased curling-related stress caused the first
where there is no gravity or friction), shrinkage is pavement to crack randomly.
not a problem; the whole slab simply gets smaller
(figure 5-22a). Preventing random cracking, therefore, requires
being aware of all cracking-related variables during
pavement design, mix design, materials selection, and
construction, and then balancing and/or mitigating the
variables’ effects.
Comparing Stresses of Volume Changes
Sometimes, compensating for the effects of one variable
10 Troubleshooting
The magnitude of drying shrinkage stresses (and the may exacerbate the effects of another. It is important to
width of resulting cracks) is likely to be several times balance all cracking-related variables.
larger than thermal contraction stresses.
Early-Age Cracking
If the concrete pavement is restrained, however (for insulated by the soil. The top part of the slab shrinks
2 Design
example, if there is bonding or friction between a slab more quickly than the bottom, causing the slab to curl
and the base), tensile stresses develop in the concrete up at the edges (figure 5-23a).
in proportion to the concrete stiffness and the degree During hot weather conditions (typically, during
of restraint (figure 5-22b). As noted earlier in this the daytime), the top of the slab may be warmer than
the bottom, resulting in curling in the opposite direc-
3 Materials
Both internal and external restraint can cause stress. bottom of the slab may be drier than the top surface.
Internal restraint can arise, for example, if the outer The bottom of the slab therefore shrinks more quickly
concrete shrinks while the core does not. External than the top, causing the slab edges to warp down
restraint can arise not only from friction with the (see figure 5-23c).
grade, but also from abrupt changes in the slab’s cross During warm, dry weather conditions (typically,
5 Properties
section. during the daytime), the top of the slab dries and
shrinks while the bottom remains moist, resulting in
Curling and Warping: A Variation of
warping in the opposite direction (figure 5-23d).
Volume Change
Volume change can also cause curling and/or warp- Curling and warping actions may offset each other
ing. (The term curling is sometimes used, incorrectly, or augment each other. During summer days, for
example, curling may be counteracted by warping
6 Mix
2 Design
Temperature curling Cooler
faster than strength for the first few hours after set-
Cooler weather ting, increasing the risk of cracking if the concrete is
Warmer allowed to experience significant temperature varia-
tions or moisture loss (see Modulus of Elasticity in
3 Materials
this chapter, page 123).
b) Lack of Support
Temperature curling Warmer If the concrete slab is not supported on a con-
Warm,
sunny weather tinuous, uniform base, then very high bending (and
therefore tensile) stresses will be introduced, resulting
4 Hydration
Cooler
5 Properties
Wet weather increasing concrete strength. Design strength must be
balanced with other factors that affect cracking, such as
Dryer
volume changes, curling and warping, loading, weather,
and level of support.
d)
6 Mix
Moisture warping Dryer
Dry weather
Wetter
7 Preparation
e)
Temperature curling
Hot days
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
(curling
Moisture warping counteracts
warping)
f)
Temperature curling
Cool nights
(curling
Moisture warping compounds
_______________________________________________
10 Troubleshooting
warping)
Figure 5-24. Exaggerated illustration of pavement curling.
The edge of the slab at a joint or a free end lifts off the
_______________________________________________ base, creating a cantilevered section of concrete that can
Figure 5-23. Curling and warping of slabs break off under heavy wheel loading. (PCA)
Early-Age Cracking
in cracking. The loss of support may be due to the Controlling Early-Age Cracks
2 Design
base material’s lack of stability and uniformity or the As noted earlier, concrete cracks because stresses
erosion of the material over time (figure 5-25). develop in the concrete more quickly than the con-
crete’s tensile strength develops. The goal is to control
Early Loading
the number and location of cracks as much as possible
Load is distributed through a concrete slab over a
3 Materials
slab are particularly sensitive to loading (i.e., sus- age cracks is controlled by constructing (forming or
ceptible to cracking) before the concrete has gained sawing) contraction joints. The joints create planes of
sufficient strength. weakness where cracks form (figure 5-26) (see Joint
It is therefore recommended that construction Sawing in chapter 8, page 233).
equipment be kept away from the edges of a fresh To control cracking adequately, joints must be
5 Properties
slab until a minimum strength of 3 MPa (450 lb/in2) constructed correctly. In the case of sawed joints, this
is achieved. When construction equipment (e.g., a means that joints must be sawed at the correct time,
sealing truck) is allowed on the slab, protect the slab at the correct spacing, and to the correct depth.
edges with cones or other temporary barricades. Timing: The Sawing Window. Joints are usually con-
structed by saw-cutting the concrete a few hours after
placing. The optimum period of time to saw contrac-
6 Mix
_______________________________________________
Figure 5-25. An eroded base can lead to high tensile Figure 5-26. A saw cut that has cracked through as planned
stresses, resulting in cracking. (PCA)
2 Design
Good practice generally dictates that, if the slab begins Why are Controlled Cracks at Contraction
cracking in front of the saw, sawing should be stopped Joints Preferable to Random Cracks?
at that joint.
The beginning, duration, and end of the sawing Properly constructed contraction joints have many
benefits:
3 Materials
window for any given concrete system are unique to
that system. The sawing window is governed by the • Joints are more aesthetically pleasing than
rate of hydration of the system and the environment random transverse and longitudinal cracks.
to which it is exposed. • Joints can be sealed more efficiently to limit
Higher early-strength concrete will be able to infiltration of harmful materials.
withstand more tensile stress when it first cools
4 Hydration
• Joints prevent the slab from randomly cracking
and undergoes temperature differentials. However, into small, weak pieces.
the sawing window for concrete mixtures that gain • Joints can be constructed with dowel bars and
strength rapidly may begin sooner and be shorter than tiebars to prevent slab deflection at the joints
for normal mixtures. and to allow proper transfer of vehicle loads
The use of lightweight, early-entry saws allows between pavement sections (panels).
5 Properties
joints to be sawed earlier without raveling, within
• Joints help designate lanes.
an hour or two of paving, and may reduce the risk
• Joints generally provide a smoother ride than
of random cracking (see Implications of Cement
random cracks.
Hydration for Construction Practices in the Stages
of Hydration chart in chapter 3, page 80; and Saw
Timing in chapter 8, page 233).
6 Mix
For early-entry saws, the sawing window begins at
final set and ends when the shallower early-entry cut
no longer creates an effective plane of weakness.
7 Preparation
It can be difficult to know when shallow cuts are no
longer effective because the resulting random cracks
are generally not visible until much later. Getting a
good “feel” for the duration of early-entry sawing win-
dows comes with experience.
Joint Spacing. When transverse joints are too far
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
apart, the concrete may still crack randomly at loca-
tions other than the joints.
An optimal joint spacing exists for each specific
project, depending on the slab thickness, base stiff-
ness, and concrete strength. Most state agencies
specify transverse contraction joints in plain (unrein-
forced) pavement at intervals between 4.5 and 6.1 m
(15 and 20 ft).
For concrete pavements placed on granular sub-
base, the American Concrete Pavement Association
10 Troubleshooting
on stabilized materials, a maximum spacing of 21d is Figure 5-27. This joint was cut too late, resulting in random
recommended. transverse cracking. (ACPA)
Early-Age Cracking
Joint Depth. The design depth of saw cuts is the Using Joints to Prevent Uncontrolled Early-Age
2 Design
7-day moist cure at 4°C (40°F) had less shrinkage than con-
joints, by controlling drying shrinkage and thermal crete with an initial 7-day moist cure at 23°C (73°F). Similar
contraction through good practices and a well- results were found with concretes containing 25 percent fly
designed mix, and by providing a uniform, stable base. ash as part of the cementitious material.
Note: Some bleeding of the concrete may help fatigue cracking (see Shrinkage earlier in this chapter,
2 Design
reduce the rate of surface moisture loss, but a mixture page 125). Therefore, controlling moisture is essential.
should not be designed to bleed excessively simply to A critical mechanism for controlling moisture (and
avoid plastic shrinkage cracking. thus plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage, and warping)
is good curing (FHWA 2005).
Preventing Early-Age Cracks with
3 Materials
• Apply curing compound as soon as possible
Moisture Control after finishing.
If the concrete surface dries too rapidly before • Apply curing compound early if no additional
initial set, the surface will experience plastic shrink- finishing is to be conducted.
age cracking. Significant drying shrinkage after the • If the evaporation rate is high, apply an evapo-
concrete hardens may contribute to map cracking and ration retarder to the surface of the concrete
4 Hydration
random transverse or longitudinal cracking if the con- before the final finishing activities.
crete is not strong enough for the stresses. (Evaporation retarders are not curing com-
Even if is the concrete is strong enough, early pounds and should not be used as finishing
drying will exacerbate warping and thus contribute to aids, although they can be reworked into the
5 Properties
Summary of Tips to Reduce Early-Age Concrete Cracking
Random cracking in concrete can be reduced significantly or eliminated by observing the following practices:
1. Prepare the subgrade and base properly to 8. Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture while the
6 Mix
provide stable, uniform support with adequate concrete is still plastic. For example, consider
moisture content. using spray-applied evaporation retarders.
2. Use a mix with a low water-cementitious If the weather is sunny, hot, and/or dry, slow
7 Preparation
materials ratio, optimize the size and amount of evaporation from the surface with wet curing
coarse aggregate, and use low-shrinkage ag- methods, such as fog curing or covering with
gregate to minimize shrinkage that may cause wet burlap.
cracking. 9. Limit tensile stress from external restraint by
3. Consider using a water-reducing admixture to making sure there are no abrupt changes in the
reduce paste content. slab’s cross section.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
4. Use appropriate supplementary cementi- 10. Construct contraction joints at appropriate
tious materials and minimize the amount of intervals, at the appropriate depth, and at the
fine cementitious materials to reduce the set appropriate time to relieve tensile stresses.
temperature and the temperature peak due 11. Construct isolation joints to prevent restraint on
to hydration. This will in turn reduce thermal the concrete from the adjoining elements of a
shrinkage. structure.
5. Consider using a set-retarding admixture to 12. If the ambient temperature is likely to drop sig-
reduce thermal shrinkage. nificantly, slow heat loss and prevent extreme
6. Avoid calcium chloride admixtures, which can differentials in temperature through the slab by
significantly increase drying shrinkage. covering the surface with blankets.
13. Properly place, consolidate, finish, and cure the
10 Troubleshooting
with the hottest time of day. equipment and traffic for a minimum of 72 hours.
Early-Age Cracking
surface of the concrete if applied in accordance by careful preparation of the subgrade and base. In
2 Design
with the manufacture’s recommendations.) particular, the base must be uniform and stable (see
• In hot, dry, and/or windy conditions when Structural Performance in chapter 2, page 12; Sub-
evaporation is high, use wet curing methods, grades and Bases in chapter 7, pages 192 and 196,
such as fog spray to increase the relative hu- respectively).
midity of the air above the surface, or covering
3 Materials
involves controlling the heat of hydration through the One type of test, ASTM C 1581 / AASHTO PP 34,
following activities: uses restraint to determine the effects of concrete
• Use supplementary cementitious materials in the variations on cracking tendency. Concrete is cast
mix that reduce the heat and rate of hydration. around a steel ring (figure 5-29), and strain gages on
• Avoid or limit the use of fine cementitious the ring allow stress measurements to begin as soon
as the samples are cast. This method is useful for (and
6 Mix
materials.
• Consider using a set-retarding admixture in limited to) determining the relative susceptibility of
the mix. different concrete mixtures to early-age cracking due
• Reduce the temperature of fresh concrete by to early drying shrinkage. With this test, drying can be
7 Preparation
using chilled water, ice, or cooled aggregates. started at any required age. This is an advantage over
• Avoid placing concrete during the hottest part the other type of test (ASTM C 157), in which the first
of the day. reading is taken after 24 hours.
Second, use good curing practices:
• Apply curing compound as soon as possible
after finishing.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Uniform Support
Edge and corner breaks due to loss of base support Figure 5-29. A ring shrinkage specimen marked where a
can be prevented by good design and detailing and crack has occurred (CTLGroup)
2 Design
ASTM C 157 uses an unreinforced concrete prism test was described by Springenschmidt (1995). Both
with pins cast in the ends. The samples are kept in are being investigated in the United States.
water for a fixed period (28 days in the standard
method), then allowed to dry for some time (64 weeks
in the standard method). Several state authorities
What about Later-Age Cracks?
(After the Pavement is Opened)
3 Materials
use different time intervals for wet storage (7 days is
typical) and for taking readings (28 or 56 days). The
Several mechanisms can contribute to cracking
change in length of the sample is then recorded as it
problems for years after the pavement is place:
dries.
The sample is unrestrained during drying, but is • Load-associated issues, including loss of support.
• Expansive chemical reactions, such as alkali-
4 Hydration
not a truly “unrestrained” test because the sample is
kept in the mold for 24 hours after casting. This test silica reaction, salt crystallization, and freezing
is useful for comparing the risk of cracking due to and thawing, all of which may cause durability
problems later in a concrete pavement’s life.
the long-term drying shrinkage behavior of different
concrete mixtures. • Long-term drying shrinkage.
ASTM C 1581 and ASTM C 157 measure different For more information about these mechanisms, see
5 Properties
properties of the concrete, and data from both meth- the section on Shrinkage, as well as the discussion of
ods can be useful in assessing the potential risk of properties related to concrete durability (specifically,
cracking in a given mixture. Frost Resistance, Sulfate Resistance, Alkali-Silica
The Japan Concrete Institute has reported an autog- Reactions, and Shrinkage), earlier in this chapter.
enous shrinkage test (Tazawa 1999), and a restrained
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Early-Age Cracking
Before set, while the concrete is plastic. Plastic shrinkage cracks are caused when rapid
evaporation of moisture from the concrete surface
causes the surface to dry while the concrete is still
Description
plastic (before initial set). As the surface dries, it
4 Hydration
• One to three ft apart (figures 5-30 and 5-31). begins to form a crust. Shrinkage of the fast-drying
• Usually short (a few in. to several ft long). surface crust is restrained by the plastic concrete
• Relatively shallow (one to two in. deep). underneath it, resulting in surface cracks.
• Discontinuous. Weather conditions such as the following increase
• Generally perpendicular to wind direction. surface evaporation and thus the formation of plastic
5 Properties
2 Design
Effect Repair
If the concrete is still plastic, plastic shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage cracks are somewhat unsightly,
cracks can be closed by revibrating the concrete
but they generally do not pose a structural problem
(ACI 305R). Tight, hairline cracks do not require
unless they are very deep. However, plastic shrinkage
repair. Deep or very wide cracks should be sealed.
3 Materials
cracks do permit water and chemicals to enter the
concrete, so extensive plastic shrinkage cracking can
result in long-term durability problems.
Prevention
4 Hydration
When evaporation is expected to be high, i.e., 5. Dampen dry, absorptive subgrade.
when conditions are hot, windy, sunny, and/or the 6. Consider applying evaporation-retarding
humidity is low, take appropriate precautions to pre- material before finishing.
vent plastic shrinkage cracking: 7. Finish the concrete surface promptly, then
1. Perhaps most important, protect the new con- apply curing early.
5 Properties
crete surface with adequate curing. Possible 8. Some bleeding of the concrete may help reduce
protective measures include the use of evapo- the rate of surface moisture loss, but do not
ration retarders, liquid membrane-forming design a mixture to bleed excessively simply to
curing compounds, fogging the area over the avoid plastic shrinkage cracking.
newly placed concrete, and wet curing with
6 Mix
wet burlap (see Curing Compounds in chapter
3, page 64; Curing in chapter 8, page 224). Excessive Evaporation Rates
2. If possible, plan to place concrete during con-
When the evaporation rate approaches values
ditions that are less likely to cause shrinkage
7 Preparation
between 0.5 and 1.0 kg/m2/hr (0.1 and 0.2 lb/ft2/hr),
cracking. For example, during the hot
some specifications require action to prevent
summer place concrete in the late afternoon,
plastic shrinkage cracking. The evaporation rate
early evening, or at night when ambient tem-
depends on air temperature, concrete temperature,
peratures are cooler and relative humidity is
relative humidity, and wind velocity. The likely rate
higher. of evaporation can be estimated from a monograph
3. Cool the concrete mixture. published by the Portland Cement Association (2002)
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
4. Reduce aggregate absorption of mix water (see Weather Considerations in chapter 8, specifically
(see Stockpile Management and Batching in figure 8-16 on page 227).
chapter 8, pages 206 and 207, respectively).
10 Troubleshooting
Early-Age Cracking
Time of Occurrence
3 Materials
Description
4 Hydration
Cause Prevention
Map cracking generally occurs on hand pours Take appropriate precautions to prevent map
with significant hand finishing and/or inadequate cracking:
6 Mix
curing. This type of cracking is caused by restrained 1. Use moderate slump mixtures (generally, with
drying shrinkage of the surface layer after set. It is a low water-cementitious materials ratio).
often associated with the following: Higher slump mixtures may be acceptable
7 Preparation
• Overfinishing the new surface or finishing if they do not produce excessive bleeding.
while there is bleed water on the surface. Bleeding can be controlled by using water-re-
• Mixes with high water-cementitious materials ducing admixtures in the mix.
ratios (mixes that are too wet). 2. Do not spray water on the slab to facilitate
• Late or inadequate curing. finishing.
3. Do not finish the surface while bleed water is
• Spraying water on the surface during finishing.
present, and do not sprinkle dry cement on
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• Sprinkling cement on the surface to dry bleed the surface to dry the bleed water.
water. 4. Do not overwork or overfinish the surface.
5. Begin curing as soon as possible. Cover the
surface thoroughly with curing compound.
Effect 6. Use wet curing methods, i.e., fog spraying
and/or wet burlap, and keep the surface moist
Some map cracking cannot be seen unless the
for at least three days.
pavement surface is wet. Visible crazing is somewhat
unsightly but generally does not pose a structural Repair
problem. However, map cracks do permit water and
chemicals to enter the concrete surface, so extensive Map cracks generally do not require repair. To
10 Troubleshooting
map cracking may result in long-term durability improve aesthetics, they may be removed by dia-
problems. mond grinding the surface.
2 Design
Random Transverse Cracks (Drying Shrinkage Cracks)
Time of Occurrence
3 Materials
After concrete has set but before the pavement is
opened to traffic.
Description
4 Hydration
• Perpendicular to centerline (figure 5-33).
• Usually evenly spaced and continuous from
the centerline to the edge of the pavement.
• May fork into a “Y” shape.
5 Properties
• Extend into the full depth of slab.
• May be hairline (and nearly invisible) or open.
• Normally appear within the first 72 hours.
Figure 5-33. Random transverse crack
Cause
Effect
6 Mix
Random transverse cracking occurs after the
concrete sets but before it has gained enough strength In jointed pavements without continuous
to resist tensile stresses. The stresses are generally reinforcement (the majority of concrete pavements),
7 Preparation
caused by restrained, cumulative shrinkage of the random transverse cracks can permit water and
slab and by curling and warping (see Shrinkage and chemicals to enter the concrete, resulting in long-
Temperature Effects in this chapter. pages 125 and term durability problems. “Working” transverse
127, respectively). Stress may be increased by the cracks (that is, cracks in which vertical movement
following factors: or displacement along the cracks is detectable) can
• Early drying. cause structural failure.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• High-shrinkage mixes. Random transverse cracks do not cause problems
• High setting temperature, which increases the in plain (unjointed), continuously reinforced
amount of cooling after set. concrete pavements. The reinforcing material causes
• Dry aggregate, which absorbs moisture and thus cracks to develop within an acceptable spacing and
increases shrinkage. holds the cracks tightly together. These tight cracks
• Gap-graded aggregate, which requires more paste. do not diminish the pavement’s initial structural
• Early loads from construction equipment. performance and do not allow the infiltration of
• Change in weather that increases shrinkage. aggressive fluids and other materials.
10 Troubleshooting
Early-Age Cracking
Cracking) continued
Prevention Control
To prevent random transverse cracking in unrein- A certain amount of full-depth cracking to relieve
3 Materials
forced concrete, use the following good practices: tensile stresses is inevitable in concrete pavements.
1. Minimize drying shrinkage by using a mix with In unreinforced concrete, the number and location
a low paste content. of these random cracks can be controlled with
2. Maximize the size and amount of coarse contraction joints.
aggregate while leaving a workable mix. Construct contraction joints to create planes
4 Hydration
3. Keep aggregate piles moist. of weakness where cracks will form and thus
4. Wet the grade prior to paving. relieve stresses. To completely control these cracks,
5. Minimize the temperature at which concrete sets joints must be cut at the proper time, the proper
to minimize the amount of cooling (and thermal depth, and the proper spacing (see Joint Sawing in
contraction) after final set. Generally, this in- chapter 8, page 233).
5 Properties
7. Protect the concrete surface from sudden tem- Random transverse cracks that are not working
perature changes, from moisture loss, and from (that is, cracks in which there is no detectable
excessive curling and warping through proper vertical movement or displacement along the cracks)
7 Preparation
curing (see Curing Compounds in chapter 3, should be sawed and sealed. However, random
page 64; and Curing in chapter 8, page 224). transverse cracks that are working or near a joint or
8. Keep construction traffic off the pavement as another crack generally require a full-depth repair to
long as possible. prevent structural failure.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Random Longitudinal Cracks
Time of Occurrence
3 Materials
After concrete has set but before the pavement is
opened to traffic.
Description
4 Hydration
• Parallel to centerline (figure 5-34). Figure 5-34. Random longitudinal crack
• Run through the full depth of the slab.
• May be hairline (and nearly invisible) or open. Control
• May appear within the first 24 hours or after
If more than one lane width of unreinforced
5 Properties
several months.
concrete is placed at once, cut or form longitudinal
The causes, effects, control, prevention, and repairs
joints between lanes where cracks will form (see
for random longitudinal cracks are similar to those
Joint Sawing in chapter 8, page 233).
for random transverse cracks. The following addi-
tional information is specific to longitudinal cracks.
Prevention
6 Mix
Cause Use the same good practices for preventing
random transverse cracking, as listed on the previous
Random longitudinal cracking can occur after the page. In addition, take care to do the following:
7 Preparation
concrete sets but before it has gained enough strength 1. Place concrete on a stable, uniform base not
to resist tensile stresses. The stresses are generally prone to frost heaving, settling, or expansion.
caused by restrained, cumulative shrinkage of the slab 2. Prevent early loading by keeping construc-
and by curling and warping (see Shrinkage and tion equipment off the pavement, particularly
Temperature Effects in this chapter, pages 125 and along the free slab edges.
127, respectively). 3. Do not tie too many lanes together with tiebars.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
The stress of restrained thermal contraction and 4. Tie lanes together when the weather is not too
drying shrinkage may be increased by the following hot or too cold (extreme temperatures will
factors: increase contraction).
• Nonuniform base support caused by frost 5. If the slab is 23 cm (9 in.) thick or less, the
heaving, soil setting, or expansive soils. slab width should be no more than 3.5 m
• A slab that is too wide, i.e., longitudinal joints (12 ft) wide without a longitudinal joint. If the
that are too far apart. slab is 25 cm (10 in.) thick or more, the slab
• Restraint from an adjoining tied slab. should typically be no wider than 4 m (14 to
• A joint cut that is too shallow. 15 ft) without a longitudinal joint.
10 Troubleshooting
Early-Age Cracking
Corner Breaks
Time of Occurrence
3 Materials
Description
Cause Effect
Corner cracks occur when a pavement carries Corner cracks usually represent structural failures.
7 Preparation
support where the slab lifts away from the grade. time.
When loads are applied, the pavement will crack in • Keep construction traffic off the new pavement
the areas that have reduced support. as long as possible.
If the base is not uniform, the slab will similarly • Properly cure the concrete as long as possible
lose support where the base is less stable than in the to help prevent or reduce curling and warping.
surrounding areas.
Repair
Repeated loadings may also create voids under
slab corners, and when loads are applied the pave- Corner cracks generally require full-depth repair
ment may crack where the support is weakened. of the slab and perhaps stabilization of the base.
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Testing, 24th Edition, and AASHTO Provisional Standards,
AASHTO T 186, Early Stiffening of Hydraulic Cement
2004 Edition, HM-24-M. https://www.transportation.org/
publications/bookstore.nsf.
(Paste Method)
AASHTO M 85, Standard Specification for Portland AASHTO T 196, Air Content of Freshly Mixed
Cement Concrete by the Volumetric Method
3 Materials
AASHTO M 157, Standard Specification for Ready- AASHTO T 197, Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures
Mixed Concrete by Penetration Resistance
AASHTO M 240, Blended Hydraulic Cement AASHTO T 198, Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylin-
drical Concrete Specimen
AASHTO T 22, Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens AASHTO T 231, Capping Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens
4 Hydration
AASHTO T 23/AASHTO M201, Standard Specifica-
tion for Mixing Rooms, Moist Cabinets, Moist AASHTO T 277, Electrical Indication of Concrete’s
Rooms, and Water Storage Tanks Used in the Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration
Testing of Hydraulic Cements and Concretes AASHTO T 299, Rapid Identification of ASR Products
AASHTO T 24, Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores in Concrete
and Sawed Beams of Concrete AASHTO T 303, Accelerated Detection of Potentially
5 Properties
AASHTO T 96, Resistance to Degradation of Small- Deleterious Expansion of Mortar Bars Due to ASR
Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in AASHTO T 309-99, Temperature of Freshly Mixed
the Los Angeles Machine Portland Cement Concrete
AASHTO T 97, Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using AASHTO TP 60-00, Standard Test Method for the
Simple Beam with Third Point Loading) Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Hydraulic
6 Mix
AASHTO T 104, Soundness of Aggregate by Use of Cement Concrete
Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate AASHTO TP 64, Standard Method of Test for Predict-
AASHTO T 119, Slump of Hydraulic Cement Con- ing Chloride Penetration of Hydraulic Cement
Concrete by the Rapid Migration Procedure
7 Preparation
crete
AASHTO T 121, Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air AASHTO PP 34, Provisional Standard to Assess
Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete Susceptibility to Cracking
AASHTO T 126, Making and Curing Concrete Test ASTM standards may be found in Annual Book of ASTM
Specimens in the Laboratory Standards, ASTM International. www.astm.org.
AASHTO T 131, Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement ASTM C 31/C 31M-03a, Standard Practice for Making
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
by Vicat Needle and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
AASHTO T 141, Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete ASTM C 39, Standard Test Method for Compressive
AASHTO T 152, Air Content of Freshly Mixed Con- Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
crete by the Pressure Method ASTM C 42/C42M-04/AASHTO T24, Standard Test
AASHTO T 154, Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores
Paste by Gillmore Needles and Sawed Beams of Concrete
AASHTO T 158, Bleeding of Concrete ASTM C 78, Standard Test Method for Flexural
Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with
AASHTO T 160, Length Change of Hardened Hydrau- Third Point Loading) ASTM -99a/AASHTO T 104
lic Cement Mortar and Concrete Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates
AASHTO T 161, Resistance of Concrete to Rapid by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
10 Troubleshooting
AASHTO T 177, Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of
Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading) Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
References
ASTM C 94/C94M-04a/AASHTO M 157, Standard ASTM C 295, C295-03, Standard Guide for Petro-
2 Design
ASTM C138/C138M-01a/AASHTO T 121, Standard Freshly Mixed Hydraulic Cement Concrete (With-
Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and drawn 1999)
Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
ASTM C 403M/AASHTO T 197, Test Method for Time
ASTM C 143/C143M-03, Standard Test Method for of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration
Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete Resistance
ASTM C 150/AASHTO M 85, Specification for Port- ASTM C 418-98, Standard Test Method for Abrasion
4 Hydration
ASTM C 873-99, Standard Test Method for Compres- ACI. 1999. Hot Weather Concreting. ACI 305R.
2 Design
sive Strength of Concrete Cylinders Cast in Place in Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
Cylindrical Molds ———. 2000. Cement and Concrete Terminology,
ASTM C 918-97e1, Standard Test Method for Measur- Guide to Durable Concrete. ACI 116R. Farmington
ing Early-Age Compressive Strength and Projecting Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
Later-Age Strength
3 Materials
———. 2002. Evaluation of Strength Test Results of
ASTM C 944-99, Standard Test Method for Abrasion Concrete. ACI 214. Farmington Hills, MI: Ameri-
Resistance of Concrete or Mortar Surfaces by the can Concrete Institute.
Rotating-Cutter Method
———. 2001. Guide to Durable Concrete. ACI 201.2R.
ASTM C 1012, Test Method for Length-Change of
Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
Hydraulic Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate
4 Hydration
Solution ———. 2004. Mass Concrete. 1R-96. Farmington
ASTM C 1064-99, Standard Test Method for Tempera- Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
ture of Freshly Mixed Portland Cement Concrete ———. 2001. Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures.
ASTM C 1074, Standard Practice for Estimating ACI 224R–01. Farmington Hills, MI: American
Concrete Strength by the Maturity Method, 2004. Concrete Institute.
ASTM C 1138-97, Standard Test Method for Abrasion ———. 2001. Guide to Curing Concrete. ACI 308R.
5 Properties
Resistance of Concrete (Underwater Method) Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
ASTM C 1157, Performance Specification for Hydrau- ———. 2002. Building Code Requirements for Struc-
lic Cements tural Concrete and Commentary. ACI 318-02.
ASTM C 1202, Standard Test Method for Electrical Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride ———. 1988. Texturing Concrete Pavements. ACI
Ion Penetration 325.6R. Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete
6 Mix
ASTM C 1231/C1231M-00e1, Standard Practice for Institute. (Re-approved 1997)
Use of Unbonded Caps in Determination of Com- ———. 1992. Manual of Concrete Inspection. SP(2)-92.
pressive Strength of Hardened Concrete Cylinders Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
7 Preparation
ASTM C 1260, Standard Test Method for Potential ACPA. 1994. Fast-Track Concrete Pavements.
Alkali Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method) TB004.02P. Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pave-
ASTM C 1293, Standard Test Method for Determina- ment Association.
tion of Length Change of Concrete Due to
Baalbaki, W., B. Benmokrane, O. Chaallal, and P.C.
Alkali-Silica Reaction
Aítcin. 1991. Influence of Coarse Aggregate on
ASTM C 1543-02, Standard Test Method for Deter- Elastic Properties of High- Performance Concrete.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
mining the Penetration of Chloride Ion into ACI Materials Journal 88.5: 499.
Concrete by Ponding
Bureau de Normalisation du Québec. 2002. “Détermi-
ASTM C 1556-04, Standard Test Method for Deter-
nation de la Résistance à l’écaillage du Béton
mining the Apparent Chloride Diffusion Coefficient
soumis à des Cycles de Gel-Dégel en contact avec
of Cementitious Mixtures by Bulk Diffusion
des Sels Fondants,” BNQ NQ 2621-900, Annexe A,
ASTM C1567-04, Standard Test Method for Determin- pp. 19-22.
ing the Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of
Combinations of Cementitious Materials and Bureau of Reclamation. 1963. Concrete Manual. 7th
Aggregate (Accelerated Mortar-Bar Method) Edition. Denver, CO: US Government Printing
Office.
ASTM C 1581-04, Standard Test Method for Deter-
mining Age at Cracking and Induced Tensile Stress Cable and McDaniel. 1998. Effect of Mix Times on
Characteristics of Mortar and Concrete under PCC Properties. Iowa Department of Transportation
10 Troubleshooting
ASTM C1585-04, Standard Test Method for Measure- Carrasquillo, P.M. 1994. Concrete Strength Testing.
ment of Rate of Absorption of Water by Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and
Hydraulic-Cement Concretes Concrete Making Materials. ASTM STP 169c. Eds.
References
Paul Klieger and Joseph F. Lamond. West Con- the Maturity Method. http://www.erl.dot.state.ia.us/
2 Design
ASTM STP 169c. Eds. Paul Klieger and Joseph F. Klieger, P. 1957. Curing Requirements for Scale
Lamond. West Conshohocken, PA: American Resistance of Concrete. Highway Research Board
Society for Testing and Material. 140–152. Bulletin 150. Washington, D.C.: Transportation
Cordon W.A. 1966. Freezing and Thawing of Concrete- Research Board. 18–31.
Mechanisms and Control. ACI Monograph No. 3. Klieger, P. 1994. Air-Entraining Admixtures. Signifi-
4 Hydration
Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute. cance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete
Detwiler, R.J. and P.C. Taylor. 2005. Specifier’s Guide to Making Materials. ASTM STP 169c. Eds. Paul
Durable Concrete. EB 221. Skokie, IL: Portland Klieger and Joseph F. Lamond. West Con-
Cement Association. shohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and
Dodson, V.H. 1994. Time of Setting. Significance of Material. 484–490.
Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete Making Koehler, E.P. and D.W. Fowler. 2003. Summary of
5 Properties
Materials. ASTM STP 169c. Eds. Paul Klieger and Concrete Workability Test Methods. ICAR Report 105-
Joseph F. Lamond. West Conshohocken, PA: 1. Austin, TX: International Center for Aggregates
American Society for Testing and Material. 77–87 Research (ICAR). http://www.icar.utexas.edu/
Emmons, P.H. 1994. Concrete Repair and Maintenance publications/105/105_1.pdf.
Illustrated. Kingston, MA: Construction Publishers Kosmatka S.H. 1994. Bleeding. Significance of Tests and
and Consultants.. Properties of Concrete and Concrete Making Materials.
6 Mix
Farny, J.A. and S.H. Kosmatka. 1997. Diagnosis and ASTM STP 169c. Eds. Paul Klieger and Joseph F.
Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete. Lamond. West Conshohocken, PA: American
IS413. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. Society for Testing and Material. 88–111.
7 Preparation
Farny J.A. and W.C. Panarese. 1994. High Strength Kosmatka, S.H., B. Kerkhoff, and W.C. Panarese.
Concrete. 1st Ed. EB114. Skokie, IL: Portland 2002. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures.
Cement Association. Engineering Bulletin 001. Skokie, IL: Portland
Cement Association.
Folliard, K. J., M.D.A. Thomas, and K.E. Kurtis. 2003.
Guidelines for the Use of Lithium to Mitigate or Liu, T. 1994. Abrasion Resistance. Significance of Tests
Prevent Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR). FHWA-RD- and Properties of Concrete and Concrete Making
03-047. Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Materials. ASTM STP 169c. Eds. Paul Klieger and
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
method for identifying alkali-silica-reaction gel. 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
Inc.
2 Design
Ed. Ei-ichi Tazawa. London and New York: E & FN
Project 1-37a. Washington, D.C.: Transportation Spon. 1–62.
Research Board.
Tennis, P.D., and J.I. Bhatty. 2006. Characteristics of
Neville, A.M. 1996. Properties of Concrete. New York, portland and blended cements: results of a survey
NY: John Wiley and Sons. of manufacturers. Paper presented at the Cement
Industry Technical Conference.
3 Materials
Newlon, H. Jr. 1978. Modification of ASTM C 666 for
Testing Resistance of Concrete to Freezing and Tennis, P.D. and J.I. Bhatty. 2006 (in press). North
Thawing in a Sodium Chloride Solution. VHTRC American Cement Characteristics: 2004. SN2879.
79-R16. Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Transportation Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
Research Council.
Thomas, M., B. Fournier, K. Folliard, M. Shehata, J.
Newlon, H. and T.M. Mitchell. 1994. Freezing and Ideker, and C. Rogers. 2005. Performance Limits for
4 Hydration
Thawing. Significance of Tests and Properties of Evaluating Supplementary Cementing Materials Using
Concrete and Concrete Making Materials. ASTM STP the Accelerated Mortar Bar Test. SN2892. Skokie, IL:
169c. Eds. Paul Klieger and Joseph F. Lamond. Portland Cement Association.
West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for
Testing and Material. 153–163. Thomas, M.D.A. and F.A. Innis. 1998. Effect of Slag
on Expansion Due to Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in
Poole, T.S. 2005. Guide for Curing of Portland Cement
5 Properties
Concrete. ACI Materials Journal 95.
Concrete Pavements. FHWA-RD-02-099. McLean,
VA: Federal Highway Administration. Verbeck, G. and P. Klieger. 1957. Studies of ‘Salt’
Scaling of Concrete. Highway Research Board Bulletin
PCA. 1982. Building Movements and Joints. EB086. No. 150. Washington, D.C.: Transportation
Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. Research Board. 1–13.
Powers, L.J. 1999. Developments in Alkali-Silica Gel Voigt, G. 2000. Specification Synthesis and Recommen-
Detection. Concrete Technology Today 20.1: 5–7.
6 Mix
dations for Repairing Uncontrolled Cracks that Occur
Powers, T.C. 1949. The air requirements of frost During Concrete Pavement Construction. Skokie, IL:
resistant concrete. Proceedings of the Highway American Concrete Pavement Association. http://
Research Board 29: 184–211. www.pavement.com/techserv/Cracking.pdf.
7 Preparation
Saraf, C.L. and B.F. McCullough. 1985. Controlling Vogler, R.H. and G.H. Grove. 1989. Freeze-thaw
Longitudinal Cracking in Concrete Pavements. testing of coarse aggregate in concrete: Procedures
Transportation Research Record 1043: 8–13. used by Michigan Department of Transportation
Scanlon, J.M. 1994. Factors Influencing Concrete and other agencies. Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates
Workability. Significance of Tests and Properties of 2.1: 57–66.
Concrete and Concrete Making Materials. ASTM STP Wainwright, P.J. and N. Rey. 2000. Influence of
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
169c. Eds. Paul Klieger and Joseph F. Lamond. Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag (GGBS)
West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Additions and Time Delay on the bleeding of
Testing and Material. 49–64. Concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites 22.4:
Springenschmid, R. 1995. Thermal Cracking in 253–257.
Concrete at Early Ages. RILEM Proceedings 25. Whiting, D.A. and M.A. Nagi. 1998. Manual of Control
Stark, D. 1991. Handbook for Identifying Alkali Silica of Air Content in Concrete. EB 116. Skokie, IL:
Reaction in Highway Structures. SHRP C-315. Portland Cement Association.
Washington, D.C.: Strategic Highway Research Wong, G.S., A.M. Alexander, R. Haskins, T.S. Poole, P.
Program, Nation Research Council. http://gulliver. G. Malone, and L. Wakeley. 2000. Portland Cement
trb.org/publications/shrp/SHRP-C-315.pdf. Concrete Rheology and Workability: Final Report.
Taylor, H.F.W. 1997. Cement Chemistry, 2d ed. FHWA-RD-00-025. McLean, VA: Federal Highway
10 Troubleshooting
Tazawa, E. 1999. Japan Concrete Institute Technical Wood, S.L. 1992. Evaluation of the Long-Term Proper-
Committee on Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete. ties of Concrete. Research and Development Bulletin
Committee Report: Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete. RD102. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
2 Design
Development of Concrete
Mixtures
3 Materials
Sequence of Development 172
4 Hydration
Aggregate Grading Optimization 176
5 Properties
The parameters for almost all concrete proper- The following are factors to be considered in con-
ties for a specific concrete mixture are determined or crete mix design:
specified during mix design. The terms “mix design” • Workability.
and “mix proportioning” are often incorrectly used • Placement conditions.
interchangeably. • Strength.
6 Mix
• Mix design is the process of determining required • Durability.
and specifiable properties of a concrete mixture, • Economy.
i.e., concrete properties required for the intended This chapter covers how the desired properties of
7 Preparation
use, geometry, and exposure conditions. concrete, discussed in chapter 5, can be achieved by
• Mix proportioning is the process of optimized selection of concrete ingredients, discussed
determining the quantities of concrete in chapter 3. The first section of this chapter discusses
ingredients for a given set of requirements. the sequences of activities when designing a mix. The
The objective of proportioning concrete next section provides one method of optimizing the
mixtures is to determine the most economical aggregates to obtain a good combined grading. The
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
and practical combination of readily available third section provides a method of calculating mix
materials to produce a concrete that will have proportions, followed by possible modifications to
the required properties. achieve selected concrete properties.
10 Troubleshooting
Sequence of Development
on concrete producers and contractors to
2 Design
essential.
Traditionally, strength has been the primary accep-
tance criteria for concrete pavements. Durability,
• Sufficient trial batches should be made so
however, is not simply a function of strength (see
that adjustments of the workability and
Concrete Durability is Affected by Many Concrete
air content can be made in the field with
Properties in chapter 5, page 130.) Many other fac-
confidence.
5 Properties
rience with the specifications and materials that will mix that will be used during paving. Field adjust-
2 Design
be used for the project. However, when specifications ments should be anticipated. In other words, different
change, when new material sources are introduced, or laboratory mixes should be batched that will allow the
when material sources change, it may be necessary to plant to respond to changes in the materials sources
batch and test trial laboratory mixes during the bid- and properties, environment, and demands on the con-
3 Materials
ding process to reduce the risks of uncertainty. When crete system without deviating from the specification.
testing before the bid is deemed appropriate, test results When the raw materials are delivered to a concrete
should be interpreted carefully with respect to sample plant, it is too late to change the cement chemistry or
size, test precision, and between-batch variability. the physical properties of the aggregates. Therefore,
workability and air content are the primary concrete
Laboratory Mixes
4 Hydration
properties that can be manipulated during the batch-
All of the desktop approaches that can be used to
ing process in the field. This can be accomplished by
proportion a mixture are only the starting point for
adjusting the dosage of the appropriate admixture
making trial batches. The risk of severe problems is
and, if still within the specified w/cm ratio, the water.
significant if a new mixture is taken from the calcula-
Particular attention should be paid to preparing
tor to the batch plant. It is essential to prepare trial
laboratory mixes that are representative of the materi-
5 Properties
batches in the laboratory to ensure that the fresh and
als that will be used on the project. Portland cement
hardened properties comply with the requirements,
and supplementary cementitious materials should
and that there are no incompatibilities between the
be obtained from the suppliers’ normal production
materials, at the temperatures at which the field mixes
and not be specially prepared. If necessary, aggregates
will be made.
should be screened into separate sizes and recom-
It is more convenient and economical to test
bined to match as closely as possible the gradation
6 Mix
concrete mixes in the laboratory than to batch large
that will be provided on the project.
quantities at a concrete plant. However, project
The suggested laboratory testing plan should be
conditions are often significantly different from the
followed for the target w/cm ratio. Additional labora-
7 Preparation
controlled environment of a laboratory. Production
tory mixes should be batched at different w/cm ratios,
variability and testing variability need to be consid-
one higher and one lower.
ered and understood when laboratory test results are
Figure 6.1 provides an example of a plot showing
interpreted. Ideally, some laboratory tests should be
the strength values for mixes with different water-
conducted at the same range of temperatures expected
cement ratios. This graph provides a basis for setting
in the field.
limits for field adjustments that may occur. At the
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Choose a qualified laboratory and design a testing
point that concrete production begins, it is assumed
plan that will provide the information desired.
that if the “recipe” is followed, an acceptable mix will
Laboratories and technicians should be experienced
be delivered to the paver.
with concrete mixtures and accredited by an indepen-
Once the mix proportions have been proven in the
dent source. The testing plan should be specific and
laboratory, they can be tested in full-scale batches in
include all tests needed to verify the mix properties.
the equipment that will be used on the project. This
A suggested testing plan is shown in table 6-1.
may appear expensive at the outset, but the savings
When the potential for changes in materials sources
in preventing later problems will more than offset this
or environment can be anticipated, it is advisable to
investment.
batch additional laboratory mixes with alternative
materials and at different temperatures as a backup.
10 Troubleshooting
Field Trials
Anticipating Responses to Field Conditions Just before paving, the mix designs should be
Laboratory mixes should be batched so that the verified in the field (unless there is experience with a
w/cm ratio and air content are representative of the similar mix). This process is necessary to ensure that the
Sequence of Development
materials and the final mix are substantially the same as • Are the fresh properties acceptable for the type
2 Design
those that were used during the laboratory trials. of equipment and systems being used?
The following questions should be considered • Are there signs of incompatibilities?
when verifying laboratory mixes in the field: • Are the strengths from the field mix compara-
ble to those from the laboratory mix (±1.7 MPa
3 Materials
[250 lb/in2])?
Table 6-1. Suggested Laboratory Testing Plan
Grading and moisture content ASTM C 136 / AASHTO T 27 Use the moisture content
of aggregates and in conjunction with the
ASTM C 566 /AASHTO T 255 absorption of the aggregate
to calculate w/cm ratio
Strength development Compressive or flexural strength ASTM C 39 / AASHTO T 22 Cast as many specimens
and/or as possible from a single
ASTM C 78 / AASHTO T 97 batch– break 3 @ 3 days, 3 @
7 days, and 12 @ 28 days
7 Preparation
Air content Air content ASTM C 231 / AASHTO T 152 Target the middle of
the specification range
– laboratory batches with air
contents on the low end of
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Permeability Rapid chloride penetration ASTM C 1202 / AASHTO T 277 Results are interpreted in
ranges that are broadly related to permeability
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Field trials are also a preferred practice when por- Table 6-2. Suggested Field Trial Batch Testing Plan
table plants are used. The batching process, including
mix time, should be the same as that to be used When or what Action or test
during paving operations. Before production Test and verify scales and plant
Workability of the field trial batches should be begins operations
3 Materials
tested immediately after batching and at a later time Determine aggregate moisture
to simulate the transportation time. Field trial batches contents and adjust batch
proportions
should be remade until the desired workability is
achieved after the estimated time in transport and The primary mix design Workability
then tested (table 6-2). Air content
4 Hydration
Unit weight
Yield
Maturity curves
5 Properties
Mixer uniformity test CRD-C-55
(front to rear
of the batch) Slump
Air content
________________________________________________ Unit weight
Figure 6.1. Example w/c ratio vs. strength curve (laboratory
6 Mix
mix target w/c = 0.40)
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
to the more chemically reactive cement paste. Well- passing the 9.5-mm (3/8-in.) sieve and retained on the
graded aggregate reduces the space between aggregate 2.36-mm (# 8) sieve. Such a mixture is gap-graded. A
particles that has to be filled with cement paste. value of 0 describes a mixture with no coarse aggregate,
Well-graded aggregate also contributes to achieving a i.e., no particles retained on the 9.5-mm (3/8-in.) sieve.
workable mix with a minimum amount of water. The workability factor is the percent of the com-
Shilstone considers that the best means of speci- bined aggregate that passes the 2.36-mm (# 8) sieve
6 Mix
fying and selecting mix proportions is through plus an adjustment for the amount of cementitious
combined grading analysis (Shilstone 1990) (see material in a mixture. The base cementitious materi-
Combined Grading in chapter 9, page 253). He devel- als content for the chart is 335 kg/m3 (564 lb/yd3).
7 Preparation
oped three tools to help in the process of optimizing The workability factor is increased 2.5 points for
the combined aggregate grading: each 56 kg/m3 (94 lb/yd3) variation from the original
• The Coarseness Factor Chart (CFC): provides cementitious materials content. The coarseness factor
overview of the mixture. and the workability factor establish the coordinates
• The 0.45 Power Chart: shows trends. for a mixture.
• The Percent of Aggregate Retained on Each
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
9.5‑mm (3/8-in.) sieve. They provide the pri- dance of coarse particles and are not desirable.
mary body of the mixture. The coarseness factor zones identify regions where
• Intermediate particles pass the 9.5-mm (3/8-in.) plotted mixtures will have generally predictable char-
sieve and are retained on the 1.18-mm (#8) acteristics:
• Zone I indicates that a mixture is gap-graded variable strength, high shrinkage, cracking,
2 Design
and has a high potential for segregation during curling, spalling, and scaling.
placement and/or consolidation due to a defi- • Zone V indicates a mixture that has an exces-
ciency in intermediate particles. These mixtures sive amount of coarse and intermediate aggre-
are likely not cohesive; therefore, segregation gate and is not plastic.
3 Materials
may occur. Mixtures plotting in this zone may
result in local cracking, blistering, spalling, and 0.45 Power Chart
scaling. The chart provides a means to describe an ideal
• Zone II indicates an optimum mixture for combined aggregate grading. Sieve sizes, in microns to
concretes with nominal maximum aggregate the 0.45 power, are plotted along the X axis.
4 Hydration
size from 50 mm (2 in.) through 19 mm (3/4 in.). The cumulative amount of the total aggregate that
Mixtures in this zone generally produce con- passes each sieve can then be plotted and compared to
sistent, high-quality concrete. Mixtures that a line on the 0.45 power chart. A well-graded com-
plot close to the trend bar or near the limits for bined aggregate in a concrete mixture will follow a
Zones I and IV require close control and adjust- trend from the nominal maximum aggregate size to
ments in proportions, as small variations in the 2.36 mm (# 8) sieve and then bend downward, as
5 Properties
consecutive batches can result in the aggregate shown in figure 6-3. Deviations from this line identify
plotting outside of Zone II. deviations from the optimum.
• Zone III indicates an optimum mixture for Examining plotted points from right to left, the
maximum nominal aggregate sizes smaller than first point that falls well below the line indicates that
19 mm (3/4 in.). too much material was retained on the correspond-
• Zone IV indicates excessive fines and a high ing sieve. Correspondingly, a point that falls well
6 Mix
potential for segregation during consolidation above the line indicates that not enough material was
and finishing. Such mixtures will likely produce retained on the corresponding sieve.
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
_______________________________________________ _______________________________________________
Figure 6-2. Modified coarseness factor chart (Shilstone Figure 6-3. 0.45 power chart for 25 mm (1 in.) nominal maxi-
1990) mum aggregate (Shilstone personal communication)
The 0.45 power chart should be used only as a When there is a deficiency in two adjacent sieve
2 Design
guide and should not be incorporated into specifica- sizes, the sizes on either side tend to balance them.
tions. Experience shows that good gradations plot However, three adjacent deficient sizes indicate a
roughly parallel to and within a few percent of the line problem that should be corrected, as illustrated by the
on the 0.45 power chart. Trial batching and the behav- (b) grading in figure 6-4.
3 Materials
ior of the mixture will indicate whether the selected Special attention must be given to cases where the
combined aggregate is satisfactory. sum of the percentage retained on two adjacent sieves
is less than 13 percent of the total aggregate.
Percent Aggregate Retained Chart
Figure 6-4 graphically illustrates the aggregate par-
ticle distribution as a plot of the percent of aggregate
4 Hydration
________________________________________________
on the 300- and 150-µm sieves (#50 and #100). Figure 6-4. Percent retained chart
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Key Points Step 1: Concrete Strength
3 Materials
• Several methods of calculating proportions ments of the concrete. The strength (flexural or
are available. One—the Absolute Volume compressive) required to resist the loads applied to
Method—is outlined here. the structure is part of the thickness design (see Con-
crete Strength in chapter 2, page 16). Some durability
issues can be addressed with a limit on the w/cm ratio
4 Hydration
(see Permeability in chapter 5, page 131).
In order to be reasonably sure of meeting the
Calculated mix proportions provide a starting point specified strength, the average design strength of a
for trial batches. A concrete mixture can be propor- concrete mix, f´cr, must be greater than the specified
tioned by calculation, from field experience (historical strength, f´c, to account for variations in materials
5 Properties
data), or from trial mixtures with trial and error. Sev- and variations in the production, curing, and testing
eral calculation methods are available, one of which of cylinders. See ACI 301, section 4.2.3, for a statisti-
is described in detail below. The requirements for a cal approach for determining the required average
given mix are often an act of balancing different (and strength.
possibly contradictory) requirements for the fresh and
Step 2: Water-Cementitious
hardened properties. Material Ratio
6 Mix
Concrete mixture proportions are usually expressed
on the basis of the mass of ingredients per unit
volume. The unit of volume is either a cubic meter or The w/cm ratio is simply the mass of water divided
7 Preparation
a cubic foot of concrete. The absolute volume method by the mass of cementitious materials (portland
of mix proportioning (ACI 211), explained below, cement; blended cement; fly ash; ground, granulated
involves using relative density (specific gravity) values blast-furnace [GGBF] slag; silica fume; and natural
for all the ingredients to calculate the absolute volume pozzolans). The w/cm ratio used in the mix design
each will occupy in a unit volume of concrete (see should be the lowest value required to meet both
page 184). If the aggregate grading has been calcu- strength and durability requirements.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
lated using the Shilstone approach described above, ACI 318 (and AASHTO) has requirements for
then some of the steps in ACI 211 are unnecessary. various exposure conditions (see chapter 5, table 5‑4,
Further information on this and other methods page 140, for requirements for concrete exposed
can be found in the standard practices developed by
ACI 211 (2002) and Kosmatka et al. (2002). Hover
(1994 and 1995) provides a graphical process for W/C or W/CM Ratio?
designing concrete mixtures, and Thomas and Wilson
The w/cm ratio is often used synonymously with
(2002) provide a self-contained training program water-to-cement (w/c) ratio; however, some
on compact disk for selecting mix characteristics in specifications differentiate between the two ratios.
accordance with ACI 211.1. Traditionally, w/c refers to the mass ratio of water to
10 Troubleshooting
The absolute volume method of mixture propor- supplementary cementitious materials in the concrete.
tioning may be summarized in 12 steps:
to sulfates). When durability does not control, the The most desirable fine-aggregate grading will
2 Design
w/cm ratio should be selected on the basis of concrete depend on the type of work, the paste content of the
strength (figure 6-5). In such cases, the w/cm ratio mixture, and the size of the coarse aggregate. For
and mixture proportions for the required strength leaner mixtures, a fine grading (lower fineness modu-
should be based on adequate field data or trial mix- lus) is desirable for workability. For richer mixtures, a
3 Materials
tures made with actual job materials to determine the coarse grading (higher fineness modulus) is used for
relationship between the ratio and strength. The type greater economy.
of supplementary cementitious materials should be The quantity (bulk volume) of coarse aggregate can
known and allowed for when selecting the w/cm ratio. be estimated using figure 6-6. The values in the tables
are based on aggregates in a dry-rodded condition
(ASTM C 29). They are suitable for producing con-
4 Hydration
Step 3: Aggregates
crete with a moderate workability suitable for general
concrete construction. For less workable concrete
(slipform paving), the bulk volume may be increased
Grading (particle size and distribution), shape,
by about 10 percent.
porosity, and surface texture of the aggregate have
Following is a list of key considerations when
an important influence on proportioning concrete
5 Properties
________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
Figure 6-5. Approximate relationship between compressive Figure 6-6. Bulk volume of coarse aggregate per unit vol-
10 Troubleshooting
strength and w/cm ratio for concrete using 19-mm to 25-mm ume of concrete. Bulk volumes are based on aggregates in
(3/4 in. to 1 in.) nominal maximum size coarse aggregate. a dry-rodded condition (ASTM C 29 / AASHTO T 19). For less
Strength is based on cylinders moist-cured 28 days per workable concrete (slipform paving), the bulk volume may
ASTM C 31 / AASHTO T 23. (Adapted from ACI 211.1, ACI be increased by about 10 percent. (Adapted from ACI 211.1
211.3, and Hover 1995) and Hover 1995)
2 Design
Step 6: Water Content
the requirements for placing the concrete will
produce the most economical concrete with the
least tendency to crack due to thermal effects or
The amount of water required in a concrete mix
autogenous, plastic, or drying shrinkage.
depends on several factors:
3 Materials
2. The maximum size should generally not exceed
1. Slump requirements of the job.
one-fourth the thickness of the pavement or
2. Aggregate size, texture and shape.
64 mm (2.5 in.), whichever is less.
3. Air content.
3. In areas where D-cracking in pavements is
4. Amount of cementitious material.
known to be a problem, a smaller maximum
5. Temperature of the concrete.
4 Hydration
size may help mitigate the problem. Testing at
Water content can be reduced by incorporating
the reduced maximum size is advisable.
water-reducing admixtures (see Water Reducers in
4. Aggregates should contain no more than the
chapter 3, page 58).
specified percentages of deleterious materials
For batch adjustments, the slump can be increased
listed in ASTM C 33/AASHTO M 6/M 43 or in
by about 10 mm by adding 2 kg of water per cubic
the contract specifications.
5 Properties
meter of concrete (by about 1 in. by adding 10 lb of
Step 4: Air Content
6 Mix
The amount of air required (figure 6-7) is a function
of the severity of exposure and the maximum size of
aggregate used in the concrete. Testing for spacing
7 Preparation
factors by ASTM C 457 or use of the air-void analyzer
will give better assurance of freeze-thaw durability.
Step 5: Workability/Slump
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Concrete must always be made with a workability,
consistency, and plasticity suitable for job placement
conditions. The slump test is used to measure con-
crete consistency.
However, slump is only indicative of workability
when assessing similar mixes and should not be used
to compare mixes of significantly different proportions.
Also, the slump test is not a true indicator of concrete
for slipform paving. Typical slump requirement for ________________________________________________
side-form concrete is 25 to 75 mm (1 to 3 in.) and Figure 6-7. Target total air content requirements for con-
10 Troubleshooting
for slipform concrete is 12.5 to 50 mm (0.5 to 2 in.). cretes using different sizes of aggregate. The air content
in job specifications should be specified to be delivered
water per cubic yard). The water content required Step 7: Cementitious
2 Design
for gravel with some crushed particles, and 25 kg water content by the water-cementitious materials
(45 lb) for a rounded gravel to produce the slumps (w/cm) ratio.
shown. This illustrates the need for trial batch testing
of local materials, as each aggregate source is different Cementitious Materials Content = Required Water Content
and can influence concrete properties differently. w/cm Ratio
See ACI 211.1 for the requirement for non-air-
4 Hydration
1 percent air).
335 kg/m3 (564 lb/yd3) of concrete.
(For requirements regarding water quality, includ-
2. Only enough mixing water to achieve the de-
ing the use of recycled water, see Water in chapter 3,
sired consistency.
page 52.)
See ACI 302 for minimum cementitious material
contents for concrete flatwork.
6 Mix
Step 8: Cementitious
Materials Type
7 Preparation
Figure 6-8. Approximate water requirement for various Code places limits on the maximum amount of SCM
slumps and crushed aggregate sizes for air-entrained allowed in concrete exposed to deicing salts (table 6-3)
concrete (Adapted from ACI 211.1 and Hover [1995]) (see Sulfate Resistance in chapter 5, page 139).
2 Design
Step 9: Admixtures Step 10: Fine Aggregate
The quantities of admixtures are calculated to Fine aggregate amount is determined after the
provide the required air and water-reducing effect. quantities of coarse aggregate, air, water, and cementi-
3 Materials
Consideration must also be given to ensuring that tious materials are known.
the chloride limits for reinforced concrete are not In the absolute volume method, these quantities are
exceeded when using calcium chloride as an a accel- converted to volumetric proportions using the appro-
erator or other chloride-containing admixtures. priate specific gravity (relative density) of the material.
Incorporating certain chemical admixtures will These volumes are then subtracted from a unit volume
4 Hydration
result in changes to the water requirement or the air (1 m3 or 1 ft3/1 yd3) to give the required volume of
content of concrete (see Set-Modifying Admixtures in sand.
chapter 3, page 59): The volume of sand is then converted to a mass
1. Water reducers typically decrease water re- proportion using its specific gravity. If the combined
quirements by 5 to 10 percent and may in- aggregate grading has been optimized (see page 176),
5 Properties
crease air content by up to 1 percent. then the sand quantity calculated here must be
2. Calcium chloride-based admixtures reduce checked against the amount indicated by the optimi-
water requirements by about 3 percent and zation calculation.
increase air by up to 0.5 percent.
3. Retarding admixtures may increase air content.
Step 11: Moisture/Absorption
Correction
6 Mix
Table 6-3. Cementitious Materials Requirements for
Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals Corrections are needed to compensate for moisture
7 Preparation
in and on the aggregates. In practice, aggregates will
Cementitious materials* Maximum percent of total contain some measurable amount of moisture. The
cementitious materials by
mass** dry-batch weights of aggregates, therefore, have to
be increased to compensate for the moisture that is
Fly ash and natural pozzolans 25
absorbed in and contained on the surface of each par-
GGBF slag 50 ticle and between particles. The mixing water added
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Silica fume 10 to the batch must be reduced by the amount of free
Total of fly ash, GGBF slag, 50*** moisture contributed by the aggregates. The magni-
silica fume and natural tude of the water correction should be equal to the
pozzolans
correction made to the aggregate; the overall mass of
Total of natural pozzolans and 35*** material in the unit volume must remain unchanged.
silica fume
Consider the following example of aggregate
Source: Adapted from ACI 318 moisture correction: A particular mix design calls for
* Includes portion of supplementary cementitious 1,800 lb/yd3 of fine aggregate. The measured absorp-
materials in blended cements.
** Total cementitious materials include the tion of the aggregate is 1.8 percent by mass of sample,
summation of portland cements, blended and the in-storage aggregate moisture content is 2.8
10 Troubleshooting
*** Silica fume should not constitute more than 10% of water above the amount the aggregate absorbed. To
of total cementitious materials and fly ash or
other pozzolans shall not constitute more than determine the amount of water that must be withheld
25% of cementitious materials. from the batch, multiply 1 percent by 1,800 lb: 18 lb.
be checked through trial laboratory batches and full- for mixing (see Laboratory Mixtures in this chapter.,
size field batches. Enough concrete must be mixed page 173).
The absolute volume of a granular material (such as The relative density of normal aggregate usually ranges
cement and aggregates) is the volume of the solid matter between 2.4 and 2.9. The relative density of aggregate as
in the particles; it does not include the volume of air used in mix design calculations is the relative density of
spaces between particles. The volume (yield) of freshly either saturated surface-dry (SSD) material or oven-dry
material.
5 Properties
2 Design
Key Points ing becomes finer (particle sizes are reduced),
more cement is required to maintain the same
• Achieving the required properties in the
consistency. Further, mixtures containing little
concrete may require making adjustments
cement are often harsh, whereas mixtures rich
to the materials selected, to materials
3 Materials
in cement are generally more workable but
proportions, or even to other factors such
may become sticky and difficult to finish if too
as temperature.
much cement is used. Mixtures deficient in fine
aggregate will be harsh, prone to segregation,
• Refer to corresponding sections of
and difficult to finish, whereas mixtures made
chapter 5 for descriptions of various
4 Hydration
with an excess of fine aggregate are typically
concrete properties and related tests and
more permeable and less economical, although
specifications.
readily workable. The use of finer sand will
also reduce workability unless water content is
increased, whereas concrete made with coarse
sand is often difficult to finish.
5 Properties
Chapter 5 describes the properties (and related • Aggregate properties: In general, the more
tests) that are required to achieve a constructable spherical the aggregate, the more workable
concrete mix and a durable concrete pavement. This the concrete, due to a reduction in mechani-
section outlines some adjustments that can be made cal interlock that occurs with angular particles.
to a mix to achieve these properties. Adjustments may A high degree of flat and/or elongated coarse
aggregate particles will reduce workability, as
6 Mix
include changes in the materials selected or in their
proportions. will the use of rough-textured aggregate versus
Sometimes, the required properties may impose smooth aggregate.
mutually exclusive demands on the mix design. Mix • Cement characteristics: Although less important
7 Preparation
proportioning is, therefore, a series of decisions to find than aggregate properties, finer cement (e.g.,
the best compromise among competing needs. Type III) reduces workability at a given water-
to-cement ratio.
Workability • Admixtures: The use of air-entraining admix-
Fresh concrete mixtures must possess the workabil- tures will increase workability by creating
ity—including mobility, compactability, stability, and small, spherical bubbles that act as ball bear-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
freedom from segregation—required for the job con- ings in the fresh concrete. As the name implies,
ditions (Kosmatka et al. 2002; Mindess et al. 2003). water-reducing admixtures will also increase
The following can be adjusted to achieve the desired workability if other mixture design parameters
workability (Scanlon 1994; Mindess et al. 2003): are not changed. Pozzolans and finely divided
• Water content: Increasing the water content of materials, including inert, cementitious materi-
concrete will generally increase the ease with als, generally improve workability when used to
which the concrete flows. However, increased replace part of the sand instead of the cement.
water content will reduce the strength and • Time and temperature: As ambient temperature
increase the permeability of the hardened con- increases, workability decreases. Yet over short
crete and may result in increased segregation. periods of time, temperature appears to have
10 Troubleshooting
Shrinkage also increases with increased water little effect. Workability decreases with time as
Adjusting Properties
The slump test (ASTM C 143 / AASHTO T 119) is keep a constant water-cementitious materials
2 Design
most often used to measure the workability of fresh ratio (see Step 11, page 183). Ideally, aggregates
concrete. Although this test does not measure all should be at or near an SSD state.
factors contributing to workability, it is convenient • Temperature: The higher the temperature, the
as a control test, providing an indication of consis- shorter the setting time and the higher the risk
3 Materials
tency from batch to batch (Scanlon 1994). In general, of incompatibility issues. Use chilled water
concrete used for paving is relatively stiff, with slip- or ice to reduce the mix temperature to 16 to
form paving mixtures having slump values specified 21°C (60 to 70°F) where possible.
between 12.5 and 50 mm (0.5 and 2 in.). • Water-cementitious materials (w/cm) ratio:
A lower w/cm ratio reduces set time.
Stiffening and Setting
4 Hydration
Both stiffening and setting can be affected by the the simultaneous upward migration of water
following in the concrete mixture: (Kosmatka et al. 2002).
• Cementitious materials: The rate of stiffening A number of techniques can be used to prevent or
and setting of a concrete mixture will be pri- minimize bleeding in the mix design stage, including
marily controlled by the cement content, chem- the following (Kosmatka 1994):
istry, and fineness. Generally, setting is delayed • Reducing the water content, water-cementitious
6 Mix
fly ashes may result in false set, particularly at (resulting in a reduced w/cm ratio).
elevated temperatures. It is important to make • Increasing the fineness of the cementitious
trial mixes using the materials available at the materials.
plant to check for incompatibility (see Poten- • Using properly graded aggregate.
tial Materials Incompatibilities in chapter 4, • Using certain chemical admixtures such as air-
page 97.) entraining agents may be effective in reducing
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
conditions of the aggregates in order to meet ing fineness in a cement is likely to result in
the water requirement of the mix design and increased entrained air.
• Supplementary cementitious materials: Increas- size of the aggregate. Density is a useful indicator of
2 Design
ing the carbon (LOI) content of fly ash will batching uniformity and consolidation. Density is
rapidly reduce the amount of air entrained for affected by the following factors:
a given air-entraining admixture (AEA) dosage. • Density of the material in the mixture, with the
Small variations in a fly ash composition may most influence from the coarse aggregate.
3 Materials
result in large swings in the air content, making • Moisture content of the aggregates.
production of uniform concrete difficult. The • Air content of the mixture.
use of GGBF slag or silica fume may require the • Relative proportions of the materials, particu-
use of an additional air-entraining admixture to larly water.
achieve the desired air content. The density (unit weight) and yield of freshly
4 Hydration
• Aggregates: Increasing the amount of material mixed concrete are determined in accordance with
retained on the 600- to 300-µm sieves (#30 to ASTM C 138 (AASHTO T 121) (see chapter 9,
#50) will result in increased air entrainment. page 258). The results should be sufficiently accurate
• Workability: Increasing workability will result in to determine the volumetric quantity (yield) of con-
increased air content for a given concrete mix. crete produced per batch. The test can also indicate
Trial batching prior to the start of the job will air content, provided the relative densities of the
5 Properties
indicate the air contents expected with the job-specific ingredients are known.
materials, batching sequence, and mixing time and
speed. However, the air-void system in the field will be Strength
affected by the following factors: The pavement designer establishes the concrete
• Changes in the grading of the aggregates: The strength requirement that meets the intent of
air content requirement decreases with an the design. Strength and rate of strength gain are
6 Mix
increase in large-size aggregate, and air content influenced by the following factors:
increases with an increased fine aggregate con- • Water-cementitious materials ratio: Reducing
tent, especially with an increase in the 600- to the w/cm ratio will increase strength.
7 Preparation
300-µm (#30 to #50) sizes. • Cement chemistry: Cements with high alkali
• Water: Air content increases with extra water. and tricalcium silicate, or alite (C3S), contents
• Admixture dosage: Air content increases with and high fineness will tend to gain strength
an increase in water-reducing and retarding more quickly, although long-term strengths
admixtures based on lignin. may be slightly reduced.
• Delays. Some air loss is expected during deliv- • SCMs: GGBF slag and Type F fly ash may
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
ery and with time. reduce early strength gain, but will normally
• Temperature. An increase in temperature will result in higher long-term strengths.
require an increase in the amount of air-en- • Chemical admixtures: Water reducers that
training admixture to maintain the target air effectively decrease the w/cm ratio will result in
content (Whiting and Nagi 1998). increased strengths. Retarders may reduce early
strengths but increase long-term strengths.
Density (Unit Weight) • Aggregates: Optimizing aggregate grading will
Conventional concrete, normally used in pave- help reduce the water requirement of the sys-
ments, has a density (unit weight) in the range of tem with a consequent strength increase. Using
2,200 to 2,400 kg/m3 (137 to 150 lb/ft3). The density crushed coarse aggregates and increasing coarse
10 Troubleshooting
of concrete varies, depending on the amount and den- aggregate size will increase flexural strengths.
sity of the aggregate, the amount of air entrapped or • Temperature: Increasing temperature will
purposely entrained, and the water and cement con- increase early strengths and suppress later
tents, which in turn are influenced by the maximum strengths.
Adjusting Properties
conditions and variations in materials, consolida- Permeability is a direct measure of the potential
tion, and curing affect the strength at a specified age durability of a concrete mixture.
and affect strength development with age. Increased Lower permeability can be achieved by making the
temperatures will increase early strength but may sup- following adjustments:
3 Materials
content of concrete as low as possible. Water resistance in a pavement. This can be improved with
content is normally controlled by controlling the following adjustments:
the maximum w/cm ratio This is achieved by • Choosing hard, dense, siliceous aggregates.
keeping the total coarse aggregate content of • Increasing compressive strength.
the concrete as high as possible (minimizing • Increasing the curing time.
paste content).
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
resist the shrinkage stresses and reduce the risk • Using 20 to 50 percent GGBF slag for moderate
of cracking. sulfate resistance.
2 Design
cementitious materials through ternary mixes. which has been shown to reduce the expansion
of a given system.
• Perhaps using lithium admixtures. (The effec-
Alkali-Silica Reaction tiveness of lithium has not been proven, and no
3 Materials
Deleterious expansion of pavements due to alkali- accepted testing protocols exist.)
silica reaction can be a serious problem. Reduction of • Perhaps blending reactive aggregate with non-
this reaction can be achieved by making the following reactive aggregate.
adjustments: The PCA’s Guide Specification for Concrete Subject
• Using aggregates that have a history of satisfac- to Alkali-Silica Reactions (PCA 1998) provides guid-
tory performance. ance on evaluating and selecting systems that can be
4 Hydration
• Using low-alkali cement. (Using low-alkali used to prevent deleterious expansion when poten-
cements may not mitigate all situations.) tially reactive aggregates are used.
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
References
AASHTO standards may be found in Standard Specifications ——— Committee 211. 1991. Standard Practice for
for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and
2 Design
Testing, 24th Edition, and AASHTO Provisional Standards, Mass Concrete. ACI 211.1-91. Farmington Hills,
2004 Edition, HM-24-M. https://www.transportation.org/ MI: American Concrete Institute.
publications/bookstore.nsf.
——— Committee 224. 2001. Control of Cracking in
AASHTO T 19, Test Method for Bulk Density and Concrete Structures. ACI 224R-01. Farmington Hills,
Voids in Aggregate MI: American Concrete Institute.
3 Materials
AASHTO T 23, Test Method for Making and Curing ——— Committee 301. 1999. Specifications for
Concrete Test Specimens in the Field Structural Concrete. ACI 301-99. ACI Committee
301 Report. Farmington Hills, MI: American
AASHTO T 119, Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Concrete Institute.
Cement Concrete
——— Committee 302. 1996. Guide for Concrete Floor
AASHTO T 121, Test Method for Density, Yield, and
4 Hydration
Materials. 296–314.
ASTM standards may be found in Annual Book of ASTM ———. 1995. Graphical Approach to Mixture
Standards, ASTM International. www.astm.org. Proportioning by ACI 211.1-91. ACI Concrete
ASTM C29, Standard Test Method for Bulk Density International 17.9: 49–53.
and Voids in Aggregate Kosmatka, S.H. 1994. Bleeding. Significance of Tests
ASTM C31, Standard Practice for Making and Curing and Properties of Concrete and Concrete Making
6 Mix
Concrete Test Specimens in the Field Materials. Special Technical Publication 169C.
Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and
ASTM C 33, Standard Specification for Concrete Materials.
Aggregates
Kosmatka, S.H., B. Kerkhoff, and W. C. Panarese.
7 Preparation
ASTM C 138, Standard Test Method for Density, Yield, 2002. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures.
and Air Content of Concrete EB001. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
ASTM C 143, Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Mindess, S., J.F. Young, and D. Darwin. 2003. Concrete.
Cement Concrete 2nd. Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for Portland Portland Cement Association (PCA) Durability
Cement Subcommittee. 1998. Guide Specification for Con-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
——— 2002. Building Code Requirements for Structural Whiting, D.A. and M.A. Nagi. 1998. Manual of Control
Concrete and Commentary. ACI 318. Farmington of Air Content in Concrete. EB116. Skokie, IL:
Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute. Portland Cement Association.
2 Design
Preparation for Concrete
Placement
3 Materials
Subgrades 192
4 Hydration
Bases 196
5 Properties
Other than early-age cracking, the most common the base. Concrete on a base with irregular grades will
cause of distress in a pavement is failure of the sub- have variable thickness, potential thin spots, and a
grade or base below the pavement. It is important that tendency to roughness.
a concrete pavement or slab be provided suitable sup- This chapter provides a brief outline of subgrade
port that is uniform, level, and able to carry the loads and base preparation issues that are critical to the life
6 Mix
imposed. of the concrete pavement. The information is limited
Before the concrete pavement is placed, the existing to that which is relevant to the pavement system; it
subgrade must be properly prepared and compacted. is not a full discussion of construction practice. More
7 Preparation
On top of this, a base is usually constructed. It is also detailed information can be found through the American
essential to pay attention to the levelness or grade of Concrete Pavement Association, www.pavement.com.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Subgrades
4. Using selective grading in cut and fill areas to
2 Design
Key Points place the better soils nearer to the top of the
final subgrade elevation.
• The subgrade is the natural ground, graded
5. Improving extremely poor soils by treating
and compacted, on which the pavement is
them with lime, cement, cement kiln dust, or
built.
3 Materials
• Pavement subgrades may need to be form foundation. The subgrade should have a uniform
improved temporarily (soil modification) or condition, with no abrupt changes in the degree of
permanently (soil stabilization) through the support (figure 7-1). That is, there should be no hard
use of additives or binders. or soft spots. Nonuniform support increases local-
ized deflections and causes stress concentrations in
the pavement. Localized deflections and concentrated
6 Mix
compacted, on which the pavement is built. Subgrade Providing reasonably uniform support conditions
uniformity and stability affect both the long-term beneath the concrete slab requires controlling three
performance of the pavement and the construction major causes of subgrade nonuniformity:
process. Requirements for subgrade preparation may 1. Expansive soils.
vary considerably, depending on soil type, environ- 2. Frost action.
mental conditions, and amount of heavy traffic. In any 3. Pumping.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
________________________________________________
form conditions in areas where there are abrupt Figure 7-1. Effects of two examples of nonuniform support
horizontal changes in soil types. on concrete slabs on the ground (Farny 2001)
2 Design
Excessive differential shrinkage and swelling of Frost action includes the effects of both frost heave
expansive soils can cause nonuniform subgrade sup- and subgrade softening. However, only frost heave is
port. As a result, concrete pavements may become a consideration for concrete pavements. (Field experi-
distorted enough to impair riding quality. Several ence has shown that subgrade softening, which occurs
3 Materials
conditions can lead to expansive soils becoming a in the spring in many areas of the United States, is
problem under concrete pavements: not a design factor because strong subgrade support
1. The expansive soils were compacted too dry or is not required under concrete pavements. Concrete
allowed to dry out before paving. pavement reduces pressure on the subgrade layers
2. The expansive soils have widely varying mois- by distributing applied traffic loads over large areas.
4 Hydration
ture contents, leading to subsequent shrinkage Concrete pavements designed for typical subgrade
and swelling. conditions will have ample reserve capacity for the
3. There are abrupt changes in soil types and two to three weeks of the spring softening of the
associated volume-change capacities along the subgrade.)
project. Frost heave occurs when ice lenses form in the soil,
The key to minimizing the effects of potentially which continue to attract water and expand fur-
5 Properties
expansive soils is to identify and treat them early in ther. The heaving itself is not a problem for concrete
the process. Table 7-1 lists simple index tests that can pavements; rather, it is the subsequent thawing and
be performed to determine the potential for expansion differential settling of the concrete slabs that can lead
in soils. to roughness and/or cracking.
Procedures such as ASTM D 1883, ASTM D 3152, For frost heave to occur, all three of the following
ASTM D 4546, ASTM D 4829, and CALTRANS conditions must be present:
6 Mix
Test 354 are especially suitable for evaluating the 1. A frost-susceptible soil.
volume change of subgrade soils. Some factors deter- 2. Freezing temperatures that penetrate the
mined by these tests that are not indicated by the subgrade.
7 Preparation
simple index tests are the following: 3. A supply of water.
• The effect of compaction moisture and density Controlling any one of the three conditions will
on soil swell characteristics. dramatically reduce the potential for frost heave.
• The effect of surcharge loads. The degree of frost susceptibility of a particular soil
• Expansion for the total sample grading rather is related to its capillarity, or suction, and its perme-
than for only a finer grading fraction of the soil. ability (figure 7-2).
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Table 7-1. Soil Index Properties and Their Relationship to Potential for Expansion (Bureau of Reclamation 1998)
Subgrade
centage of silt particles (0.005 to 0.05 mm [0.0002 to Grade preparation lays the foundation for the entire
0.002 in.]) are particularly sensitive to frost heave. pavement structure. The uniformity and stability of
These soils have pore sizes small enough to develop the subgrade affect both the long-term performance of
capillary potential and large enough to permit water to the pavement and the rest of the construction pro-
3 Materials
travel to the frozen zone. Coarser soils accommodate cess. The important elements of subgrade preparation
higher rates of flow, but lack the capillary potential to include evaluating subgrade stability and uniformity,
lift moisture from the water table. More cohesive soils, modifying the subgrade to improve stability, and
although they have high capillarity, have low perme- evaluating surface tolerances.
ability, which prevents water from moving quickly
Pre-Grading
enough to form ice lenses in the soil.
4 Hydration
tinued, uncontrolled pumping eventually leads to the is accomplished in this phase, which involves cutting
displacement of enough soil so that uniformity of the high points and filling low spots to roughly achieve
subgrade is destroyed, which can result in cracking, the desired alignment.
faulting, and settling of the concrete pavement.
Moisture-Density Control
Three factors are necessary for pumping to occur:
Subgrade volume changes are reduced by adequate
1. Pump-susceptible material beneath the slab.
moisture and density control during compaction.
6 Mix
_______________________________________________
Figure 7-2. Relationship between frost action and hydraulic the pavement, the process is termed “soil stabilization”
properties of soils (ACPA 1995) or “soil-cement base.” Certain techniques, additives,
or addition rates lend themselves to temporary soil involves driving a heavy, pneumatic-tired vehicle
2 Design
modification, while others are often used for the more over the prepared grade while observing for rutting
permanent soil stabilization. or deformation. A fully-loaded tandem axle truck or
For more information on soil characteristics, refer rubber-tired loader may be used as the proof-roller.
to www.cement.org/pavements/pv_sc.asp. Steel drum rollers are not recommended because
3 Materials
they may potentially distribute the load across soft
Trimming areas without any observed movement. Proof-rolling
Once the subgrade has been compacted to the is recommended if an unstabilized base is to be used
desired density at the proper moisture level and/or between the concrete pavement and subgrade.
treated to reduce expansion potential, it is trimmed
4 Hydration
to the proper grades, elevations, and cross-slopes.
Typically, a string line is set up to guide an automatic
trimmer at the correct grade. For fixed-form construc-
tion, an automatic trimmer can ride on the forms after
they are fastened into place (figure 7-3). For smaller
projects or pavements without a smoothness specifica-
5 Properties
tion, the grade is not typically trimmed according to a
string line, but is graded with a motor grader or small
loader and then spot-checked from survey hubs set
approximately 15 m (50 ft) apart (ACPA 2003).
Proof-Rolling
6 Mix
Proof-rolling can locate isolated soft areas that Figure 7-3. Autograder that references the string line and
are not detected in the grade inspection process. It trims the subgrade material (ACPA)
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Bases
• Selecting base materials that meet minimum
2 Design
projects.
• Specifying a minimum base depth of 100 mm
• Bases may be constructed of granular
(4 in.).
materials, cement-treated materials,
• Specifying a minimum density for untreated
lean concrete, or open-graded, highly
bases of 105 percent of ASTM D 698 /
permeable materials, which may be
AASHTO T 99 for heavily traveled projects.
4 Hydration
stabilized or unstabilized.
• Specifying a cement-treated or lean concrete
base that provides a strong and uniform sup-
• As with subgrades, the most important
port for the pavement and joints, provides an
characteristics of a base are uniformity
all-weather working platform, and contributes
and adequate support.
to smoother pavements by giving firm support
5 Properties
• Balance must be achieved between the to the forms or paver during construction.
degree of drainage and the stability of • Specifying a permeable base for pavements car-
the base layer. Stability should not be rying high volumes of heavy trucks for which
sacrificed for the sake of drainage. past experience indicates the potential for pave-
ment faulting and pumping.
6 Mix
ate, the best results are obtained by following these cement-treated open-graded. Such stabilized bases
guidelines: provide the following benefits:
1. A stable working platform to expedite all are not recommended for bases in frost areas or where
2 Design
construction operations and permit large daily large volumes of heavy truck traffic are expected.
production of concrete pavement with mini- Use of A-6 and A-7 soils is not recommended. To
mum downtime for inclement weather. permit accurate grading of the base, the maximum
2. Firm support for slipform paver or side forms. size of material is usually limited to 25 mm (1 in.)
3 Materials
3. Construction of smooth pavements due to and preferably to 19 mm (3/4 in.).
stable trackline for slipform pavers. Econocrete or lean concrete bases are typically
4. Prevention of base consolidation under traffic. designed for a specific application and environment.
5. Reduction in pavement deflections from vehicle In general, they use aggregates that do not necessarily
loadings. meet quality standards for conventional concrete. A
4 Hydration
6. Improved load transfer at pavement joints. single aggregate, rather than coarse and fine aggregates
7. Minimized intrusion of hard granular particles stockpiled separately, is often used in the mixture.
into the bottom of pavement joints. Cement content is less than that for normal concrete
8. A more erosion-resistant base surface. and is selected based on the target strength.
A common source of aggregate for any base type is
Grading Control crushed, recycled concrete. Existing concrete pave-
5 Properties
ments can be taken up, crushed, and reused in base
The base for an individual project should have
courses, either as unstabilized aggregate bases or stabi-
a reasonably constant grading to allow compaction
lized bases. The fractured concrete and fine material
equipment to produce uniform and stable support,
contain cement that will begin to hydrate and thereby
which is essential for good pavement performance.
provide some of the benefit of a stabilized base. There
Abrupt changes in base grading can be nearly as
is evidence, however, that in some States leaching
6 Mix
harmful as abrupt changes in subgrade soils.
from recycled aggregates used as a base can cause
problems (Mulligan 2002).
Compaction Requirements
7 Preparation
To prevent the consolidation of granular materials Construction
from the action of heavy traffic once the pavements Cement-treated bases can be placed using either
are in service, bases must be compacted to very high road-mixed or pre-mixed methods. In road mixing,
densities. Unstabilized bases under concrete pave- the material is processed on the grade. The proper
ments should have a minimum of 100 percent of amount of cement is placed with a cement spreader,
ASTM D 698 / AASHTO T 99 density. For projects and the mixing is usually accomplished with a pulver-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
that will carry large volumes of heavy traffic, the izer or reclaimer. It is then compacted with rollers.
specified density should not be less than 105 per- For pre-mixed bases, the material can be mixed in
cent of standard density or 98 to 100 percent of either a pugmill or a central-mixed concrete plant.
ASTM D 1557 / AASHTO T 180 density. The material is batched into dump trucks and typi-
cally placed using an asphalt paving machine. In some
Materials cases, the machine will achieve the proper density, but
Granular materials in AASHTO Soil Classification additional compaction may be required.
Groups A-1m, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 are used for Econocrete or lean concrete bases are constructed
cement-treated bases. They contain not more than in essentially the same manner and with the same
35 percent passing the 75-μm (#200) sieve, have equipment as normal concrete pavements. They
10 Troubleshooting
a PI of 10 or less, and may be either pit-run or are mixed using a central-mixed concrete plant and
manufactured. Cement-treated bases have been built placed using a slipform paver. The only differences are
with A-4 and A-5 soils in some non-frost areas and are the jointing practice and the treatment of the surface
performing satisfactorily. Generally, however, such soils of the lean concrete base. Construction of joints in the
Bases
lean concrete base is not considered necessary as long Bonding of the concrete pavement to a hot-mixed
2 Design
as a debonding treatment is applied to the surface of asphalt base is less detrimental, because the asphalt
the base. A few States and some European countries, has sufficient flexibility to prevent reflective cracking
however, notch the base at the planned locations of from occurring.
the joints in the concrete pavement above.
Drainage in the Base Layer
3 Materials
provides some alternative materials that may be used strengths, and resulting pavement distresses.
to reduce friction and prevent bonding of pavement A method of providing drainage in a pavement sec-
concrete to base layers. tion is to specify a drainable or permeable base layer,
utilizing an open-graded aggregate grading. This layer
can be daylighted to the side ditches, or it can direct
5 Properties
Bladed fines Recycled job site material works well as problems, often related to initial quality or mainte-
thin layer.
nance issues.
Asphalt emulsion Works well on smoother base surfaces. An important balance must be achieved between
Must be an even coating.
the degree of drainage and the stability of the base
Polyethylene Works well but difficult to use layer. Base stability should not be sacrificed for the
sheets* when windy. Could pose traffic hazard in
urban areas. May cause problems with sake of drainage. A target permeability of 60 to
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
moisture in slab or base. 90 m/day (200 to 300 ft/day) produces a stable drain-
Tar paper Works as debonding medium directly ing layer that will support the paving equipment and
over shrinkage cracks in the base. Not
recommended for application on the construction vehicles. Layers with higher permeability
entire base area. do not have the in-place stability necessary for con-
Choker stone For stabilized open-graded materials struction and pavement performance.
only. Chip-size material to fill near-
surface voids and minimize penetration
of concrete into base. Trackline
One of the most significant design considerations
* Polyethylene (i.e., plastic) sheets are
recommended for small areas only. Large sheets for obtaining a consistently smooth concrete pave-
can be difficult to work with and have been ment is provision of a stable, smooth trackline or
known to contribute to (1) tearing (a form of
10 Troubleshooting
refasten dislodged sheets, and paving machine’s tracks will follow. They are usually
(3) vehicle accidents if sheets are blown onto
adjacent lanes with active traffic. 1 m (3 ft) outside either edge of the concrete slab
(figure 7-4). Agencies that specify and pay for this • Reapply the cutback asphalt curing agent and
2 Design
extra three feet of base width on either side of the slab spread a thin layer of sand before paving.
get the benefit of smoother pavements, as well as the • Apply two coats of wax-based curing com-
additional support provided to the slab edges, shoul- pound before paving.
ders, and curb-and-gutter sections.
3 Materials
Trimming to Grade
Like subgrades, unstabilized bases can be trimmed
to grade. Econocrete (lean concrete) and asphalt bases
are typically not trimmed after being placed, but are
4 Hydration
instead constructed to the planned grade referenced
from a string line or the trimmed subgrade surface.
Care must be exercised, however, when trimming
cement-treated bases. Trimming these types of bases
prior to paving can disturb the base surface.
After trimming, the base may be rough in certain
5 Properties
locations, increasing the surface for bonding. One
of the following methods will minimize bonding in
trimmed areas: Figure 7-4. Trackline of slipform paving machine (ACPA)
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
• The surface of the existing layer must be ing asphalt surface influences its ability to develop
appropriately prepared, either for bonded a strong bond with the thin concrete overlay. For
or unbonded overlays. example, milling new asphalt will simply smear the
fresh, oily asphalt binder across the milled surface and
will not expose fractured aggregate faces. It is difficult
to develop a good bond in these cases.
4 Hydration
oughly by milling or shot-blasting the surface. This pavement. Separation is accomplished by constructing
procedure removes a thin layer of the existing asphalt a thin separation layer (usually asphalt) between the
pavement surface; removes oil, loose stones, and other two pavements, which acts as a stress relief course. A
minimum 25-mm (1-in.) interlayer of asphalt pave- overlay types. In most cases, all that is required is a
2 Design
ment typically works best. power brooming of the existing asphalt pavement to
The asphalt interlayer does bond to both concrete remove loose stones, road dust, and debris. The con-
layers but is flexible enough to provide the required crete is then directly applied to the asphalt surface.
stress relief, ensuring that joints and cracks in the If there is extensive rutting (greater than 50 mm
3 Materials
existing concrete do not reflect into the overlay (ACPA [2 in.]) in the asphalt, a leveling course or profile
1990b). milling may be employed to remove or minimize
the ruts.
Preparing for Conventional In conventional whitetopping projects, bonding
Whitetopping between the existing asphalt and the concrete overlay
4 Hydration
Conventional whitetopping overlays require the is not required or relied upon. However, any such
least amount of surface preparation of all the concrete bonding that may occur is generally desirable.
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
References
AASHTO standards may be found in Standard Specifications ———. 2002. Early Cracking of Concrete Pave-
for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and ment–Causes and Repairs. TB016.01P. Skokie, IL:
2 Design
Testing, 24th Edition, and AASHTO Provisional Standards, American Concrete Pavement Association.
2004 Edition, HM-24-M. https://www.transportation.org/
———. 1990a. Guidelines for Bonded Concrete
publications/bookstore.nsf.
Overlays. TB007P. Skokie, IL: American Concrete
AASHTO T 96, Resistance to Degrading of Small-Size Pavement Association.
Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the ———. 1990b. Guidelines for Unbonded Concrete
3 Materials
Using a 4.54-kg (10-lb) Rammer and 457-mm Bureau of Reclamation. 1998. Earth Manual. Denver,
(18-in.) Drop CO: US Department of the Interior, US Government
Printing Office.
ASTM standards may be found in Annual Book of ASTM Cable, J.K., H. Ceylan, F.S. Fanous, T. Cackler,
Standards, ASTM International. www.astm.org. D. Wood, D. Frentress, T. Tabbert, S-Y Oh,
ASTM C131-03, Standard Test Method for Resistance K. Gopalakrishnan. 2005. Design and Construc-
5 Properties
to Degrading of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by tion Procedures for Concrete Overlay and Widening of
Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine Existing Pavements. Iowa Highway Research Board
Project TR-511,6. Ames, IA. Center for Transporta-
ASTM D 698-00a, Standard Test Methods for Labo- tion Research and Education, Iowa State University.
ratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using
California Department of Transportation. CALTRANS
Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lb/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3))
Test 354: Evaluating the Expansive Potential of
6 Mix
ASTM D 1557-02e1, Standard Test Methods for Soils Below Rigid Pavements (Third-Cycle Expan-
Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of sion Pressure Test). Historical Method. Sacramento,
Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lb/ft3 CA: California Department of Transportation.
(2,700 kN-m/m3)) Farny, J.A. 2001. Concrete Floors on Ground. EB075.
7 Preparation
ASTM D 1883-99, Standard Test Method for CBR Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
(California Bearing Ratio) of Laboratory-Compacted FHWA. 2002. Portland Cement Concrete Overlays: State
Soils of the Technology Synthesis. FHWA-IF-02-045, ACPA
ASTM D 3152-72(2000), Standard Test Method for SP045P. Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pavement
Capillary-Moisture Relationships for Fine-Textured Association.
Soils by Pressure-Membrane Apparatus Mulligan, S. 2002. Soundness Test by Freeze/Thaw.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
ASTM D 4546-03, Standard Test Methods for One- Recycled Concrete Materials Report. http://www.dot.
Dimensional Swell or Settlement Potential of state.oh.us/testlab/In-House-Research/sndtest1.pdf.
Cohesive Soils Okamoto, P.A, P.J. Naussbaum, K.D. Smith, M.I.
Darter, T.P. Wilson, C.L. Wu, and S.D. Tayabji.
ASTM D 4829-03, Standard Test Method for
1994. Guidelines for Timing Contraction Joint Sawing
Expansion Index of Soils
and Earliest Loading for Concrete Pavements, Volume 1.
ACPA. 2003. Constructing Smooth Concrete Pavements. FHWA-RD-01-079. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
TB006.02P. Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pave- Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
ment Association. Administration.
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Construction
3 Materials
Field Verification 204
Paving 212
4 Hydration
Dowel Bars and Tiebars 218
Finishing 220
Texturing 221
Curing 224
5 Properties
Weather Considerations 226
6 Mix
The starting point for constructing good-quality combination of marginal materials used in marginal
7 Preparation
concrete pavement is to design and use good-quality equipment operated by insufficiently trained operators.
concrete during construction. The plastic properties This chapter discusses various concrete pavement
of concrete affect many construction operations, construction operations and addresses how decisions
made about the concrete or its constituent materials
including mixing, transporting, placing, paving,
may affect constructability or pavement performance.
curing, and jointing. Concrete’s hardened properties
The information is generally limited to that which
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
affect long-term pavement performance. is relevant to the pavement system; it is not a full
The other significant requirement is to use discussion of construction practices. More detailed
appropriate, high-quality equipment and good information can be found through the American
practices. Failures in construction are often due to a Concrete Pavement Association, www.pavement.com.
10 Troubleshooting
Field Verification
laboratory is recommended to establish working
2 Design
Key Points criteria, goals, and practices for the project. The meet-
ing provides an opportunity for the project team to
• Properties of the concrete must be verified
resolve issues before they occur during construction.
both before and during construction to
It also gives the team an opportunity to establish a
confirm that it is suitable for the intended
3 Materials
from concrete required for hand placing flatwork. Grading See chapter 9 page 253
Similarly, fast-track concrete differs significantly from
Shrinkage Temperature sensors to feed data
normal-setting concrete. Regardless of the mixture, for HIPERPAV analysis
its properties must be verified both before and during
Strength - early ASTM C 1074 (maturity)
construction to confirm that it is suitable for the
intended use. Field verification of mixtures should use Strength ASTM C 31 / AASHTO T 23
6 Mix
the production equipment anticipated for the job and (test specimens)
ASTM C 39 / AASHTO T 22
should also include the construction of a test strip, if (comp. strength)
possible. Table 8-1 provides available tests and analy- ASTM C 78 (flexural strength)
7 Preparation
sis tools for field analysis and mixture verification. Water/cement ratio Microwave oven AASHTO T 318
A preconstruction meeting between the contractor,
Loss of consistency Slump loss
agency, construction manager, and/or testing
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
minimized while recognizing and accounting for
Key Points material variations.
It is important to consider the mix design, as well
• Variability of the production process must
as a realistic production schedule, in the plant selec-
be minimized to produce concrete of
tion process. Production capacity and limits on haul
consistent quality and uniformity.
3 Materials
time require forethought. Projects in congested areas,
which do not allow for on-site production, may
• Material variations must be recognized and
require a mix design that allows for extended hauling
accounted for with planned and permitted
and placement times.
field adjustments.
4 Hydration
• The plant must have the capacity to meet
production requirements for the project. Concrete plants are either permanent, stationary
facilities, or they may consist of portable equipment
• A quality control plan outlining the that is erected adjacent to the paving site (figure
process for material verification may be 8-1). Plant location and setup depend primarily on
required. site factors like zoning, access to utilities, availability
5 Properties
of materials, and public traffic (urban or rural). The
• Critical aspects of aggregate stockpile plant must have the capacity necessary to meet the
management include maintaining uniform production requirements for the project.
grading and moisture content and Optimizing traffic flow at the plant is important.
preventing aggregate contamination. Items to consider include the following:
• Delivery of raw materials.
6 Mix
• Dry ingredients in concrete should be • Delivery of concrete.
batched by weight. • Quality control-related traffic operations and
testing personnel safety.
7 Preparation
• The order in which materials are • Operation of equipment for managing the
introduced into the mixer must be aggregate stockpiles.
consistent. • Plant safety.
• Environmental impact.
• Sufficient mixing time must be allowed
The concrete plant needs to be in good condition,
to ensure a homogeneous mixture and to
operate reliably, and produce acceptable concrete
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
entrain the required air-void system.
Concrete Production
uniformly from batch to batch. Plants should be tions. Many projects require a quality control (QC)
2 Design
inspected prior to the start (or restart) of each paving plan outlining the process for material verification.
project and when uniformity or strength problems are The agency typically reviews the QC plan and assumes
encountered during production. Table 8-2 provides a an integral role in the process.
checklist for inspection. At the plant, different cementitious materials
3 Materials
uniformity. The contractor should use only certified to maintain an adequate area for cement, fly ash, and
materials on the project and follow the manufacturer’s other supplementary material deliveries.
recommendations, as appropriate.
The contractor and the concrete producer should Stockpile Management
ensure that all materials meet the project specifica- Stockpile management is the coordination of the
5 Properties
2 Check bins for adequate partitions to prevent aggregate separation layer in the stockpile area. This
intermingling of aggregates. will minimize contamination of the aggregate from the
3 Check scales with test weights throughout range
to be used. soil below as well as prevent material loss.
7 Preparation
9 Check mixers for hardened concrete around • Complete each lift before beginning the next.
blades. • Do not dump material over the edges of a
10 Inspect concrete hauling units for cleanliness. stockpile.
11 Check to ensure that all concrete-making materials • Minimize free-fall heights of aggregates to avoid
have been certified and approved for use. segregation.
12 Observe stockpiling operations. Verify that
segregation and contamination will not occur. • Only stockpile as much material as practical.
• Minimize crushing of the aggregate by the
13 Observe charging of the bins. Verify that
segregation and contamination will not occur. loader.
14 Review aggregate moisture tests. • Manage the stockpile carefully to obtain close
15 Observe batching operations at start and to saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. For
periodically during production.
10 Troubleshooting
17 Check to ensure proper batch weights are set on • Monitor the moisture content of the aggregate
the scales.
using probes in the stockpile.
2 Design
In some cases, the aggregates may be contaminated • Observing and reporting moisture variations.
with clay or soil before arriving on the plant site. • Adding material to the feed hopper(s) appropri-
Dirty aggregates require washing or cleaning or should ately.
be rejected. In addition to causing clay ball problems • Notifying the plant foreman of anticipated
in the concrete, dirty aggregates can lead to problems aggregate shortages.
3 Materials
such as low strength. The loader operator has a key
role in preventing clay or mud from being deposited Batching
into the plant’s feed hoppers (figure 8-2). The opera- Batching is the process of measuring the mixture
tor must control the elevation of the loader blade to ingredients and introducing them into the mixer
prevent picking up contamination from below the (for information about batching as it affects concrete
4 Hydration
aggregate stockpile. uniformity, see Batching Operations in chapter 5,
Portable central-mix plants are usually more sus- page 106).
ceptible to producing concrete contaminated with Dry ingredients in concrete should be batched by
clay balls, simply because they are temporarily placed weight, while water and chemical admixtures may
near the project site and may have clay or loose soil be batched by volume. The potential error in volume
underneath the stockpiles. The batch plant or con- batching cement and aggregates is large because of
5 Properties
crete foreman must keep a close eye on stockpile bulking of the materials with handling and increasing
management at portable plant sites. Stationary ready- moisture content.
mix plants often have a paved surface or bunkers on The order in which materials are introduced into
which the stockpiles are placed or stored and where the mixer is important to ensure uniform mixing and
the loader operates. This reduces the likelihood of clay maximize concrete consistency. Figure 8-3 shows the
being introduced into the ready-mixed concrete. typical sequence of adding components into a station-
6 Mix
The aggregate loader operator is an important ary mix plant. Materials are blended in approximate
person in the production of consistent quality con- proportions as they enter the mixer. One batch of
crete. The primary functions of the loader operator concrete is mixed while another is being batched.
7 Preparation
include the following: These operations occur simultaneously.
• Working the stockpile to provide uniform water Specific sequences may vary depending upon the
content and gradation, while avoiding segregation. materials. The plant operator may adjust the sequence
• Minimizing contamination. to accommodate production requirements or if
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
________________________________________________
Figure 8-2. Loader operation is key to stockpile manage- Figure 8-3. Typical sequence of adding material in a
ment. (ACPA) stationary mix plant (Ayers et al. 2000)
Concrete Production
incompatibility is reported to occur. The requirements If the aggregate moisture content is lower than the
2 Design
for specialty materials, such as fibers and other addi- saturated surface dry (SSD) moisture, additional
tives, may also alter the sequence. The sequencing of water will be required in the mix to prevent stiffening
ingredients will also have an important effect on the caused by water being absorbed into the aggregate
uniformity of truck-mixed concrete. Elevating the rear (see Step 11, Moisture/Absorption Correction, in
3 Materials
portion of the truck mixer during charging operations chapter 6, page 183).
minimizes the time required to get all the ingredients The maximum additional amount of water required
into the drum. Figure 8-4 shows the typical sequence in the mix is calculated as the difference between
of adding components into a truck mixer. Once the SSD moisture and the current moisture content,
agreed upon, the sequencing process should remain multiplied by the mass of the respective aggregate.
the same. A sequencing diagram is a useful tool in However, if the aggregate is wetter than the SSD value,
4 Hydration
clearly showing the particular charging process for the the amount of water must be reduced at the batch
concrete mix and plant. plant. Otherwise, the water-cementitious materi-
In a dry batch process, the first ingredients into the als ratio of the mix will be exceeded, leading to low
drum are usually a portion of the water and a por- strength and poor durability.
tion of the coarse aggregate. The water is shut off and Aggregate moisture content and the potential for
5 Properties
aggregates and cementitious materials are combined segregation greatly affect concrete quality and unifor-
until all of the cementitious material is in the drum. mity. ASTM C 94 provides four key items to control
The final portion of water goes in with the last of uniformity:
the aggregates to clean and wash any cementitious • For each size of coarse aggregate, use separate
material clinging to the mixer’s hoppers, rear fins, and aggregate bins that can shut off material with
chutes (Ayers et al. 2000). precision.
6 Mix
Ribbon loading is a method of batching concrete in • Use controls to monitor aggregate quantities
which the solid ingredients, and sometimes the water, during hopper charging.
enter the mixer simultaneously. This process will • Use scales accurate to +0.2 percent tested
7 Preparation
often produce a very consistent product if the plant is within each quarter of the total scale capacity.
configured appropriately. Adequate standard test weights for checking
Aggregate moisture content (monitored using scale accuracy should be available.
probes in the stockpile) and the potential for segrega- • Add water to an accuracy of one percent of the
tion greatly affect concrete quality and uniformity. required total mixing water.
The following considerations are important for con-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
_______________________________________________
Figure 8-4. Typical sequence of adding material in a truck • Periodic moisture tests on the fine and coarse
mixer (Ayers et al. 2000) aggregate are necessary (at least twice a day).
2 Design
• Truck operators must be sure to remove free trucks may travel freely. However, densely populated
water or excess release compounds from drums urban areas require careful evaluation to determine
or dump beds after washing or rainfall. whether traffic delays will hamper concrete delivery.
Consideration of the concrete mixture’s stiffening
Mixing Concrete properties is also necessary, with normal-setting
3 Materials
Concrete is normally mixed and delivered using mixtures allowing longer travel times than fast-setting
one or a combination of the following operations: mixtures allow.
• Central mixing. In a central mix concrete plant, Feeding concrete into the paving machine consis-
the plant operator adds the batched (weighed tently requires an adequate number of batch delivery
or metered) ingredients into a stationary mixer. trucks. The number of trucks will often dictate
4 Hydration
The mixer then completely mixes the compo- the slipform or placement speed. The entire cycle
nents before discharging the concrete into a of mixing, discharging, traveling, and depositing
delivery vehicle for transporting to the point of concrete must be coordinated for the mixing plant
discharge. The delivery vehicle can be a truck capacity, hauling distance, and spreader and paving
mixer operating at low mixing speed, a truck machine capabilities. Extra trucks may be needed as
agitator, or a nonagitating (e.g., flatbed) truck. the haul time increases.
5 Properties
• Shrink mixing. Shrink-mixed concrete is
partially mixed in a stationary mixer and then a) Too much
transported while mixing is completed in a
truck mixer.
• Truck mixing. Truck-mixed concrete is mixed
entirely in the truck mixer.
6 Mix
Changes to the mixture’s water and admixtures
are possible at the job site if a truck mixer is used to
transport the mixture (Ayers et al. 2000).
7 Preparation
The required mix time varies depending on the
equipment, proportions, and materials used, grada-
tions of aggregates, amount and types of admixtures,
temperature, etc. However, if there are any prob-
lems regarding a concrete mix, such as segregation,
bleeding, finishing, etc., the first and easiest aspect b) Appropriate amount
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
to change or consider is the mix time. For a por-
table central mix batch plant that is used to produce
a concrete paving mixture, mix times will typically
range from 60 to 90 seconds. Short mixing periods
will reduce the amount of entrained air and will likely
lead to a nonuniform mixture (see Type of Plant and
Production Procedures in chapter 5, page 134).
Delivering Concrete
Consistent delivery of concrete to the paving
10 Troubleshooting
________________________________________________
This is usually less challenging in rural areas than in Figure 8-5. Depositing concrete in front of the paving
urban areas because haul roads are wider and haul machine (ACPA)
Concrete Production
The manner in which the crew deposits concrete in then the concrete head may run out or the grout
2 Design
front of the paving operation is an important factor in box may run empty, creating a low spot and voids or
this cycle and in creating a smooth pavement surface. pockets in the pavement surface. Avoid such problems
For slipform paving (see the section later in this chap- by using a placer/spreader machine (figure 8-6) or by
ter on Paving), the amount of concrete being carried carefully depositing concrete from the haul trucks.
3 Materials
creating an uncorrectable surface bump. The slipform closely monitored and proportions adjusted (within
machine may even lose traction and steering. This the constraints of the specification) to improve the
is more of a problem with small two-track pavers. uniformity of the final product from batch to batch
Larger four-track pavers may be heavy enough to and day to day. The following sections discuss some
handle concrete buildup in front of the paver. If there of the variables that have to be considered as paving
5 Properties
Ambient Temperatures
Daily and seasonal temperature variations impact
the fresh and hardened concrete. Concrete stiffens,
sets, and gains strength faster as the temperature rises.
6 Mix
winter, can cause scaling of the pavement surface. The and concrete brought to the paver to fill the required
old concrete can also create honeycombed areas or head. This is disruptive and costly.
seams that can lead to cracking.
1. Maximum allowable water-cement ratio is not water from the aggregates. Most modern batch plants
2 Design
exceeded. have moisture sensors in their fine aggregate bins.
2. Maximum allowable slump is not exceeded. Aggregate grading should be monitored at least
3. Maximum allowable mixing and agitating time daily. Frequent density (unit weight) tests can be
(or drum revolutions) are not exceeded. helpful in detecting changes in aggregate gradation.
3 Materials
4. Concrete is remixed for a minimum of 30 revo- Modest variations in gradation are normal and will
lutions at mixing speed or until the uniformity not generally have an adverse impact on performance.
of the concrete is within the limits described in Severely segregated stockpiles should be rejected or
ASTM C 94 / AASHTO M 157. rebuilt. Batch proportions of the aggregates should be
Water should not be added to a partial load. adjusted if the combined gradation of the mix deviates
Adjustments for cool or falling temperatures are less significantly from the mix design and the workability
4 Hydration
critical with respect to the water-cementitious materi- properties are causing placement difficulties.
als (w/cm) ratio and strength. However, consistent Variability in cementitious materials also impacts
workability must still be maintained. Heated water is workability. There are currently no standard test
a common mix adjustment when cooler temperatures methods that provide timely feedback on this variable;
occur. Consistent cool temperatures may also require therefore adjustments must be made based on feedback
5 Properties
the addition of an accelerating admixture to minimize from the paver. Changes in cement and supplementary
the risk of random cracking due to late sawing. cementitious materials fineness (higher Blaine value)
may require additional water and air-entraining admix-
Materials Variability
ture to maintain workability and air content.
Three of the four largest constituents in a concrete
mix by volume—coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and Material Supply Changes
6 Mix
cementitious materials—are processed/manufactured When an ingredient source is replaced or the
from raw materials that are extracted from naturally amount required changes by more than five percent
occurring deposits. The very nature of these materi- (excluding admixtures used within recommended
7 Preparation
als dictates that they have an inherent variability. The dosages), trial batches are needed. Time is usually a
quarrying and manufacturing processes used to pro- critical factor in how material changes are handled.
duce concrete materials reduce but do not eliminate The best and safest alternative is to batch anticipated
all of this variability. mix designs in the laboratory well before construc-
Moisture content in the aggregate stockpiles is the tion starts. Otherwise, workability, setting time, air
most common parameter that requires an adjustment entrainment properties, and early-age strength (matu-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
in the plant process. Stockpiles should be sampled and rity and/or three-day strength) should be closely
tested at least daily, or, depending on weather condi- compared with the initial mix design; proceed with
tions, more frequent testing may be required. The caution and increase testing frequency during the
plant should be capable of compensating for this free initial days with the new materials.
10 Troubleshooting
Paving
Contractors use either slipform or fixed-form
2 Design
• Fixed-form paving is adaptable to nearly any placement circumstance, but because it requires
any placement circumstance. setting up side forms to hold the concrete, it is gener-
ally not as efficient. Table 8-3 lists common elements
• The paving train is a term referring to the of paving machines.
combination of individual machines that The paving train is a term referring to the combi-
5 Properties
place and finish concrete pavement. nation of individual machines that place and finish
concrete pavement. For highway applications, a typical
• All equipment must be suitable for the paving train includes the following:
application, well-maintained, and operated • Spreader with belt placer.
by suitably trained personnel. • Slipform paver.
• Texturing machine.
6 Mix
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 8-7. Components of a typical slipform paving machine (ACPA)
2 Design
front of the machine leads to difficulty with striking
There are a variety of fixed-form paving machines; off. The concrete should not overly exceed the height
the less complex equipment includes hand-operated of the forms. However, piling too little concrete in
and self-propelled vibratory screeds, single-tube fin- front of the machine may produce low spots in the
ishers (figure 8-8), and revolving triple tubes. Larger, pavement surface. Although it is ideal to distribute the
3 Materials
form-riding machines can place and consolidate the concrete evenly with the chute from the ready-mix or
concrete between forms in one pass. These machines other concrete hauling truck, some distribution of the
ride on the forms or on pipes laid outside the forms. concrete with hand tools is usually necessary. Concrete
To make paving easier, it is important to evenly should never be moved with a vibrator, which is for
deposit concrete onto the grade in front of the fixed- consolidation only. Using vibrators to move concrete
4 Hydration
form placement machine. Piling too much concrete in can segregate the mix, sending the large aggregate
5 Properties
The following critical elements should be in place
Self-propelled with Ride on the forms or on self-
either two or four propelled wheels. before production paving starts (IPRF 2003):
tracks. • Check all the equipment in the paving train to make
Steering and elevation Steering and elevation sure it is in operational condition.
controlled from controlled by fixed forms. • Verify that an acceptable length of grade is avail-
reference stringlines.
6 Mix
able for concrete paving.
Paving width: up to 15 m Paving width: various.
(50 ft), depending upon • Check that approved test reports are available for
model and available all materials in storage at the job site and the plant
attachments. site.
7 Preparation
(Most are 7.3 to 8.5 m
(24 to 28 ft) width.) • Verify that backup testing equipment is available;
develop extra equipment backup plans.
Weight: about 3,000 kg Weight: about 1,500 kg/m
or more per meter (1,000 lb/ft) of paving width. • Verify that all necessary concrete placement tools
(2,000 lb/ft) of paving
lane width. are available, such as hand tools, straight edges,
hand floats, edgers, and hand vibrators.
Continuous auger or Suspended screw auger to
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
hydraulic plow-pans to spread concrete in front of • Verify that radio/telephone communication with the
distribute concrete in screed or roller. plant is operational.
front of the screed (may
carry head of concrete • Verify that equipment is available to water the
in front of paver). grade, if necessary.
Contain variable speed Have one or two vibrators that • Monitor the string line regularly and re-tension as
hydraulically controlled move transversely in front of the necessary (slipform only).
internal vibrators, with screed. May also use fixed
optional vibration vibrators near the form edges. • Check the forms for proper bracing (fixed-form only).
monitoring capabilities.
• Verify that the day’s work header is in place (or just
Provide the consolidation Provide the consolidation saw off the excess).
energy required for energy required for pavements
highway pavements as as thick as 250 mm (10 in.). • Develop an extreme-weather management plan.
thick as 375 mm (15 in.).
10 Troubleshooting
Paving
to the bottom and paste to the top. This can also preferable to insert the vibrator head at an angle or
2 Design
compromise the air entrainment and ultimately the horizontally to keep it completely immersed in the
concrete durability. concrete. Operators should neither drag spud vibrators
For ease of removal and cleaning, forms require through the concrete nor attempt to move the concrete
a thin application of oil before paving. Without oil, laterally, as either will tend to cause segregation.
3 Materials
concrete can adhere to the steel or wooden surfaces Leaving the vibrator head inserted for about 5 to 15
of the forms. The paving crew should inspect forms seconds will usually provide adequate consolidation.
just before paving and carefully reapply oil to any dry In general, proper consolidation of air-entrained
areas. If steel reinforcement is in place, care is neces- concrete takes less time than non-air-entrained con-
sary to avoid getting oil onto the bars. crete, even when both mixtures are prepared with the
same consistency (slump).
4 Hydration
spud vibrators is usually necessary for adequate con- and create a uniform shape. These tools are the auger
solidation of unreinforced concrete slabs thicker than spreader (or spreader plow), strike-off, vibrators,
75 mm (3 in.). A combination of internal and surface tamper bar, profile pan, or any combination of these
vibration is preferable for reinforced slabs at any thick- items (see figure 8-7).
ness (Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2002). Because The molding components are the bottom of the
surface vibration of concrete slabs is least effective near profile pan or forming plate and the side forms. All
6 Mix
the fixed forms, it is also beneficial to consolidate con- of these elements confine the concrete and form its
crete along the forms with a spud vibrator. shape in the same manner that a caulking gun nozzle
Supplemental vibration with hand-held spud confines the caulk and defines the shape of the bead.
7 Preparation
vibrators should precede the placement screed. In paving, the mold is forced through or over a
Standard practice for thicker slabs calls for vertical volume of concrete that remains static on the grade.
plunges of the vibrator head. For thin slabs, it is Vibrators mounted to the slipform machine fluidize
the concrete and make it easier to mold. The slipform
paver thus passes over the fluidized concrete while its
mass keeps the pan and side forms steady to confine
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
frequent adjustments of the placing speed or vibration vibrators on a slipform paving machine. These units
2 Design
frequency, the result will be a nonuniform surface. A permit alarm settings that alert the operator of high or
slipform paving machine must spread and consoli- low frequencies, for all or individual vibrators, or total
date the concrete as it moves forward, and it cannot loss of vibration.
produce a smooth riding surface if it must stop often Studies have shown that heavy vibration is not det-
3 Materials
or push a large pile of concrete ahead of it. rimental to the frost-resistance of well-proportioned
mixtures, provided that the proper air-void system
Consolidation (Slipform) is initially established in the concrete (Tynes 1975;
Vibration is necessary for consolidating the con- Simon et al. 1992). Mixtures that are gap-graded
crete. On slipform pavers, a series of vibrators fluidize (oversanded) will tend to segregate more easily than
the concrete and remove large air voids (figure 8-9). well-graded mixtures at a given vibration frequency.
4 Hydration
The vibrators are typically set at a constant frequency, Therefore, the need for reduced vibration frequencies
which can be monitored and adjusted by the paver is critical for gap-graded mixtures.
operator. Some adjustment to vibrator frequency If the operator slows the paver to match the deliv-
may be helpful, but running the vibrator at a higher ery of concrete, reduction of the vibration frequency
frequency should not be used to overcome poor equip- is also likely to be necessary to maintain consistent
5 Properties
ment setup, poor alignment, or poor mixtures (see extrusion pressure. The adjustment is relative to the
Vibration Monitoring in chapter 9, page 248). normal vibration frequency and paving speed of the
Vibrators may cause undesirable effects, such as operation.
loss of air entrainment or vibrator trails, when oper-
ating at a very high frequency. For most mixtures, a String Lines
frequency from 5,000 to 8,000 vibrations per minute, The profile pan, the part of a slipform paver that
6 Mix
at paver speeds greater than 0.9 m (3 ft) per minute, controls the pavement surface, references its position
can adequately fluidize and consolidate the concrete from sensors that follow string lines placed along the
without loss of entrained air or segregation of particles grade, usually on both sides of the paver. The string
7 Preparation
(Tymkowicz and Steffes 1997). Vibrator frequency line is the primary guidance system for a slipform
might need to be lower if the paving speed falls below paver (ACPA 2003b). The paver’s elevation sensing
0.9 m (3 ft) per minute. wand rides beneath the string, and the alignment
Vibrator sensing systems are available to provide a sensing wand rides against the inside of the string.
real-time readout of vibration frequency for all of the Neither of these wands should deflect the line any
measurable amount. A typical setup includes a string
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
line on each side of the machine (figure 8-10). The
string line itself may be wire, cable, woven nylon,
polyethylene rope, or another similar material.
The string lines are not necessarily parallel to the
grade, but are set to form the surface regardless of the
grade elevation. A well-positioned string line can help
overcome minor surface deviations in a base or track
line, but it is not a substitute for a smooth, stable track
line built to a tight tolerance. The hydraulic systems that
control a slipform paving machine’s profile pan cannot
10 Troubleshooting
Figure 8-9. An array of vibrators under a slipform paver track line. An unstable track line causes the profile pan
(ACPA) to continually attempt to adjust its position relative to
Paving
the machine’s frame. These types of mechanical adjust- ment. For multioperational usage, the stakes and
2 Design
ments cause bumps or dips in the resulting pavement strings must be offset farther from the pavement area
surface if too abrupt or too frequent (ACPA 2003b). to keep them clear of the equipment and operations.
Achieving a smooth surface with slipform paving In many instances, the haul road is next to the
requires close attention to the setup and maintenance string line. This arrangement necessitates regular
3 Materials
of the string line. The string line material, stakes, inspection of the string line by eye to determine
staking interval, splices, and repositioning frequency whether any heaving or settling of the grade disturbed
all may impact the resulting pavement surface. Stakes the hubs and/or line stakes. It takes considerable
that secure the string line should be long enough to experience to properly “eyeball” corrections to a
be firm when driven into the subgrade. There must string line due to a deviation in the grade. When
be an adequate stake length exposed above the grade noticed, the survey or string line crew should reposi-
4 Hydration
to allow adjustment of the string line to the desired tion misaligned stakes immediately. It is sometimes
height above the subgrade survey hub, typically advantageous to check a string line at night using light
450 to 750 mm (1.5 to 2.5 ft). A maximum spacing shone from vehicle headlights. This night smoothing
between stakes of no more than 7.5 m (25 ft) on tan- technique reduces visibility of background objects and
gent sections will produce the best results. Decreasing enhances the ability to focus solely on the illuminated
5 Properties
operations, including subgrade preparation, subgrade lines. These technologies include laser-guided systems
stabilization, base construction, and pavement place- and global positioning systems (GPS). Another alter-
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 8-10. Typical string line setup (ACPA 2003b)
2 Design
native to using string lines is the use of a ski, which Most specifications limit the area considering edge
rides off of a previously paved surface. This technique slump to within 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 in.) away
is also referred to as being “locked to grade.” The use from the slab edge.In general, most agencies specify an
of these alternatives is dictated by their need in special edge slump of 6 mm (1/4 in.) as the trigger for correc-
situations and the demonstration of similar tolerances tive action.
3 Materials
and accuracies to string line-guided pavers. Corrective action usually involves the finishers
behind the paver reworking the edge to remove the
Edge Slump irregularity. However, continual correction of excessive
Edge slump occurs when the top edge of a freshly- edge slump in fresh concrete can lead to unacceptable
placed, slipformed concrete pavement sags down after levels of joint spalling in the finished concrete. If such
4 Hydration
the slab is extruded from behind the paver. A small a problem develops, paving should be stopped and
amount of edge slump is usually acceptable when the measures taken to correct excessive edge slump.
longitudinal joint will have some traffic moving across In most cases, edge slump can be corrected imme-
it. When the slab edge forms the absolute extent (free diately behind the paver, and the mixture can be
edge) of the pavement, a larger amount of edge slump calibrated to prevent reoccurrence.
is acceptable. If the edge slump is not detected in time, it may
5 Properties
Edge slump is generally more common in thicker require patching and/or diamond grinding to correct
pavements, which have to stand higher and are there- the irregularity.
fore more susceptible. The most common form of
edge slump is when the top edge slumps down (figure
8-11). The bottom edge slumping out usually indi-
cates a more serious problem with the mix design and
6 Mix
is often associated with higher slump mixtures that are
not intended for slipform paving. When this type of
edge slump occurs, paving should be suspended until
7 Preparation
the concrete mixture has been modified to work with
slipform paving.
The following factors affect edge slump:
• Concrete consistency.
• Concrete mixture compatibility with placement
techniques.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• Paver adjustments and operation.
• Excessive finishing. ________________________________________________
• Segregation on the belt placer. Figure 8-11. Two types of edge slump
10 Troubleshooting
• Using specialized equipment, dowels can baskets. In fixed-form construction, standard tiebars
be inserted after concrete placement. or two-piece bars with a threaded coupling insert
through holes in side forms for longitudinal construc-
tion joints. Care in consolidating the concrete around
these bars is necessary.
5 Properties
a) Staking
Dowel bars and tiebars are used to provide support
between adjacent panels in a pavement.
They are either placed in baskets (dowels) or
6 Mix
Pre-Placed Bars
Dowel assemblies are fastened to the subbase using
steel staking pins for granular materials or nailing
clips for stabilized materials (figure 8-12).
If not properly fastened, the bars may tip or move b) Pinning
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Inserted Bars
2 Design
The alternative to placing dowel bars in basket
assemblies is to use automatic dowel insertion equip-
ment (figure 8-13).
The key to controlling the location and positioning
3 Materials
of automatically inserted dowel bars is the concrete
mixture. Mixtures with well-graded aggregate and
appropriate workability produce excellent results with
dowel insertion. Mixtures with gap-graded aggregate,
on the other hand, tend to allow the dowels to migrate
4 Hydration
within the concrete mass.
Figure 8-13. Dowel bar insertion equipment (ACPA)
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Finishing
length of the straightedge to help ensure that the tool
2 Design
Key Points detects high and low spots in the surface. Experienced
finishers can use the straightedge to remove noticeable
• It is best to limit the amount of hand and
bumps by employing a scraping motion. Otherwise,
mechanical finishing.
they use a long-handled float to smooth bumps and
3 Materials
behind the screed or slipform equipment. In general, with the hand-placed area.
it is best to limit hand and mechanical finishing. If Hand forming headers can be avoided by using a
longitudinal floating is the only method to produce an cutback method to create the joint. The paver opera-
acceptably closed surface, adjustments are needed in tor continues paving until all of the concrete is used.
the concrete mixture and/or to the paving equipment. The following morning, a transverse saw cut is made
The agency and contractor should review and adjust about 1.6 m (5 ft) from the end of the hardened con-
6 Mix
their design and operations to improve the results crete slab. The end material is removed and dowels
achieved by the paving machine alone. are grouted into holes drilled into the smooth saw
Checking the surface behind the paving equip- face. This method of header construction is less labor
7 Preparation
ment with a 3- to 6-m (10- to 20-ft) hand-operated intensive and produces a smoother riding construc-
straightedge is a recommended procedure. Successive tion joint than is generally achieved using the form
straightedge checks should overlap by one-half the and hand finishing technique.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Key Points to provide adequate friction and skid resistance. The
texture also affects tire-pavement noise.
• The texture of a concrete surface affects
It is generally preferable to conduct texturing
skid resistance and noise.
sooner rather than later, so that curing can be applied
3 Materials
• Texture is usually applied to the pavement early.
surface while it is plastic.
Texturing Options
• It is important to apply texture uniformly. Most texturing techniques involve dragging a tex-
• Pavement condition is often judged by its turing tool across plastic concrete (table 8‑4). Work
4 Hydration
smoothness. Follow good construction is ongoing to find the optimum means of achieving
practices. satisfactory skid resistance while reducing noise effects
(Rasmussen et al. 2004) (see Functional Performance
in chapter 2, page 13).
5 Properties
Table 8-4. Description of Various Concrete Pavement Texture Options
Burlap drag Produced by dragging moistened coarse burlap from a device that allows control
of the time and rate of texturing – usually a construction bridge that spans the
pavement. Produces 1.5 to 3 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.) deep striations.
6 Mix
Artificial turf drag Produced by dragging an inverted section of artificial turf from a device that allows
control of the time and rate of texturing – usually a construction bridge that spans
the pavement. Produces 1.5 to 3 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.) deep striations when using turf
with 77,500 blades/m2 (7,200 blades/ft2).
7 Preparation
Transverse broom Obtained using either a hand broom or mechanical broom device that lightly drags
the stiff bristles across the surface. Produces 1.5 to 3 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.) deep
striations.
Longitudinal broom Achieved in similar manner as transverse broom, except that broom is pulled in a
line parallel to the pavement centerline.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Random transverse Achieved by a mechanical device equipped with a tining head (metal rake) that
tining* moves across the width of the paving surface laterally or on a skew. (A hand tool is
(perpendicular or skewed) sufficient on smaller areas.)
Longitudinal tining* Achieved in similar manner as transverse tining, except the tines are pulled in a line
parallel to the pavement centerline.
Exposed aggregate Occasional European practice of applying a set retarder to the new concrete
pavement, covering with plastic sheeting, and then washing or brushing away
mortar at a later age to expose durable aggregates. Other techniques involve the
uniform application of aggregates to the fresh concrete, and mechanically abrading
the mortar at a later age.
Diamond grinding Longitudinal, corduroy-like texture made by equipment using diamond saw blades
10 Troubleshooting
gang-mounted on a cutting head. The cutting head produces 164 to167 grooves/m
(50 to 60 grooves/ft) and can remove 3 to 20 mm (1/8 to 3/4 in.) from the pavement
surface.
* For best results, most agencies precede with a burlap or artificial drag texture.
Texturing
Dragging artificial turf or moistened, coarse burlap • Angle of tines to the surface.
across the surface of plastic concrete creates a shallow • Cleanliness of burlap, turf, or tines.
surface texture. The texture depth primarily depends on both the
time at which the texturing tool is applied (relative to
Longitudinal Tining
when the concrete was placed and finished) and the
3 Materials
Transversely tined textures are created by moving begin texturing and the amount of pressure required
a tining device across the width of the plastic pave- to achieve the desired depth, and then to consistently
ment surface. The tines can be uniformly or randomly apply the texture at that time and pressure.
spaced, or skewed at an angle.
If transverse tining is used, it is recommended that Pavement Smoothness
5 Properties
a spacing of 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) be used. Pavement smoothness is the users’ primary measure
of a pavement’s condition, and it is therefore a very
Diamond Grinding important aspect in terms of quality. Several impor-
Diamond grinding is a process of removing a thin tant specification and construction factors influence
layer of hardened concrete pavement using closely the smoothness of a pavement. Tables 8-5 and 8-6
spaced diamond saw blades. describe these factors (ACPA 2003b).
6 Mix
Innovative Techniques
Exposed aggregate pavements and pervious pave-
ments are being investigated for their friction and
7 Preparation
noise levels.
Texture Variability
Whichever technique is used, it is important to
apply the texture as uniformly as possible to produce
uniform friction and noise levels. The following fac-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
2 Design
Table 8-5. Specification Factors that Influence Pavement Smoothness
3 Materials
Horizontal alignment, cross-slope, Curves and cross-slopes can add to roughness by design.
and super-elevated curves
Embedded reinforcement and Manholes, valve access covers, rebar, etc., have potential to affect smoothness.
fixtures
4 Hydration
Concrete mixture Proper proportioning and gradation is key to having a mix that will slipform easily.
Access to businesses and local Block-outs or leave-outs will add to roughness; minimize or eliminate if at all
residences possible.
5 Properties
Table 8-6. Construction Factors that Influence Pavement Smoothness
6 Mix
Preparing the grade Pay attention to the smoothness of each layer of material under the pavement.
Delivering concrete Keeping the paver moving is essential to minimize bumps; hauling is often the
7 Preparation
critical step in consistent paving.
Setting and maintaining the stringline Check often; use night-smoothing techniques; ensure that it is taut.
Operating the paving machine Keep proper amount of concrete (head) consistently in front of paver; minimize
stops; monitor vibrators.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Paving on vertical grades and curves Adjust the paver’s profile pan; adjust staking interval.
Handling dowel bars and reinforcement Place concrete on dowel assemblies before paver; turn down vibrators.
Finishing the surface and headers Check surface (cut bumps) behind paver with longest straightedge possible; use
cut-back header if formed headers cause bumps.
Educating and motivating the crew Training is essential; explain factors involved and consequences of actions;
implement an employee bonus system for smoothness incentives.
10 Troubleshooting
Curing
rate of moisture loss from the concrete (see Curing
Key Points
2 Design
loading conditions.
forming compound to the concrete surface. This
• Curing compounds provide the most material limits water evaporation to about 20 percent
efficient means of providing curing for of unprotected concrete when properly applied. A
pavement concrete. liquid membrane-forming compound that meets
ASTM C 309 / AASHTO M 148 material requirements
5 Properties
• Curing activities include controlling is adequate for most situations when applied at the
the temperature of the concrete during following rates (ACPA 1994):
extreme weather. • 5.0 m²/L (200 ft²/gal) for normal paving
applications.
• 3.75 m²/L (150 ft²/gal) for fast-track concrete.
• 2.5 m²/L (100 ft²/gal) for thin overlays.
6 Mix
crete to allow hydration and pozzolanic reactions to Therefore, for curing compound to be of benefit it
proceed. Internal temperature and moisture directly should be applied as soon as possible after the water
influence both early and ultimate concrete proper- sheen has left the surface and texturing is complete.
ties (Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2002). Proper The concrete surface should be damp when the com-
curing measures prevent rapid water loss from the pound is applied.
mixture and allow more thorough cement hydration.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Curing Compound
Curing compounds are organic materials that form Figure 8-15. A curing machine coats both the top surface
a skin over the surface of the concrete and reduce the and sides of a slipform paving slab. (ACPA)
The initial application of curing compound should the volume on a given area and compare it to
2 Design
coat both the top and edges of slipformed concrete the specified or recommended application rate.
(figure 8-15). For fixed-form paving, the curing • Apply curing compound to all exposed faces of
compound should initially coat the exposed concrete the concrete after slipforming or after forms are
surface. If removing forms early, a second coat is removed.
3 Materials
necessary to any exposed vertical edges of the slab in • When moist curing, maintain the moist condi-
order to provide a complete seal. Timely application is tion over the entire concrete surface for the
important; curing compound should be applied as the entire curing period (typically seven days) or
water sheen is disappearing on the surface. until a curing compound is applied.
Curing compounds should be applied by hand- A curing compound is not the same as an evapo-
ration retarder, which is a water-based, spray-on
4 Hydration
operated or power-driven spray equipment imme-
diately after final finishing of the concrete. liquid that forms a mono-molecular film over the
Hand-operated equipment should be used only for plastic concrete surface. It is intended to be applied
small areas. immediately after strike-off and/or between finish-
Power-driven spray equipment is recommended ing operations to reduce the risk of plastic shrinkage
for uniform application of curing compounds on large cracking. Evaporation retarders will not retard the
5 Properties
paving projects. Spray nozzles and windshields on setting characteristics of the concrete, but they will
minimize the amount of water loss in the concrete due
such equipment should be arranged to prevent wind-
to evaporation. They are useful in very dry or windy
blown loss of curing compound.
conditions, when evaporation rates are high. A curing
Complete coverage of the surface must be attained
compound (or other curing method) must still be
because even small pinholes in the membrane will
applied subsequent to final finishing or texturing.
6 Mix
increase the evaporation of moisture from the concrete.
Evaporation retarders should not be used as finish-
Normally, only one smooth, even coat is applied. If
ing aids because, as they are worked into the surface
two coats are necessary to ensure complete coverage,
of the concrete, they will elevate the water-cement
7 Preparation
the second coat should be applied at right angles to
ratio at the surface. This may lead to lower strengths
the first as soon as the first coat becomes tacky.
at the surface, poor air content or air-void structure,
Curing compounds might prevent bonding and nondurable surface mortar.
between hardened concrete and a freshly placed
concrete overlay. Consequently, they should either Other Curing Methods
be tested for compatibility or not used when a Plastic sheeting can be used for curing, usually as
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
bonded overlay is used. a supplement to curing compound, to facilitate cold
White pigmentation in the compound is preferable weather placements, or to protect the freshly placed
to a clear compound because the amount of coverage slab from rain (see Weather Considerations on the
is easy to see. The pigment also reflects solar radiation next page). Plastic sheeting is also useful to sustain
that may otherwise heat the concrete surface excessively. the heat of hydration and increase the strength gain
Recommendations for curing compound applica- because it maintains a layer of air above the surface,
tion include the following (IPRF 2003): which acts as an insulator.
• Apply liquid curing compounds using spray Curing blankets can also be used for curing. Con-
equipment mounted on a self-propelled frame sider carefully before removing curing sheeting or
that spans the paving lane. blankets from a recently placed concrete pavement.
10 Troubleshooting
• Limit hand-held sprayers for curing application If the concrete is still warm when the blankets are
on small areas. removed, and the ambient temperature is low, thermal
• Even though a visual check is feasible with shock can occur, which may cause cracking (Huang
white-pigmented curing compound, measure et al. 2001).
Weather Considerations
trial batches and casts specimens at temperatures
2 Design
• During cold-weather paving conditions, take steps to reduce the evaporation rate from the
primary concerns are to keep the concrete. The likelihood of plastic shrinkage cracking
concrete temperature above freezing so increases when the evaporation rate increases. Plastic
that hydration continues and to control shrinkage cracking results from the loss of moisture
cracking through joint placement. from the concrete before initial set. The evaporation
5 Properties
• The average daily air temperature is greater than has started. The precautions are listed in the order in
25°C (77°F). The average daily temperature is which they should be done during construction:
the mean of the highest and the lowest tempera- • Moisten dry, absorptive aggregates.
tures occurring during the period from midnight • Keep the concrete temperature low by cooling
to midnight. aggregates and mixing water.
• The air temperature for more than one-half of • Dampen the subgrade and fog forms before
any 24-hour period is not less than 30°C (86°F). placing the concrete.
Preparation for hot-weather paving should take • Erect temporary windbreaks to reduce wind
place long before paving begins. velocity over the concrete surface.
Whenever the construction team anticipates • Erect temporary sunshades to reduce concrete
10 Troubleshooting
tion testing is conducted in the laboratory during wind are too severe (figure 8-16) to prevent plastic
the mix design phase. The testing laboratory mixes shrinkage cracking, or if corrective measures are not
effective, paving operations should be stopped until reducing tendencies toward slump loss, prema-
2 Design
weather conditions improve (IPRF 2003). ture stiffening, and thermal cracking. Certain
The following are general recommendations/ class C fly ashes, with high calcium and alumi-
options/considerations for hot-weather concreting num contents, may cause premature stiffening.
(IPRF 2003): • Low air contents can be corrected by increasing
3 Materials
• Do not exceed the maximum allowable water/ the dosage of air-entraining admixture. Bet-
cementitious materials ratio or the manufac- ter or longer mixing may allow maintenance
turer’s maximum recommended dosage of any of a constant air-void spacing factor without
admixture. a greater air content. Using additional water
• Consider retarding admixtures if their perfor- reducer may also be helpful.
mance has been verified during trial batches. • Risk of early-age thermal cracking is reduced
4 Hydration
• Substitute ground, granulated blast-furnace slag by ensuring that the temperature of the plastic
or class F fly ash for part of the portland ce- concrete is as low as practical.
ment. These materials hydrate more slowly and ◦ Sprinkling with water may cool aggregates;
generate lower heats of hydration than cement, be sure to correct for the aggregate moisture.
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 8-16. A monograph to estimate the rate of evaporation (PCA)
Weather Considerations
◦ Aggregates need to be batched in a saturated Trial batches are needed to verify that the proposed
2 Design
surface-dry condition to avoid absorbing mixtures will achieve the desired strength at the
mixture water. potential temperatures. Mixtures with accelerating
◦ Chilling the mixing water or adding chipped admixtures must be treated carefully to ensure that
ice in substitution for some of the water they accelerate the setting and/or early strength gain
3 Materials
lowers the mix temperature. Be sure that all of concrete but do not lead to workability or construc-
of the ice melts during mixing. tability challenges.
• Consider painting the mixing and transport- The following are recommendations/options/con-
ing equipment white or another light color to siderations for cold-weather concreting (IPRF 2003):
minimize the heat absorbed from the sun. • Consider using a higher portland cement con-
• In extreme conditions, consider scheduling con- tent in concrete mixture designs for placement
4 Hydration
possible to apply the curing compound at the • The necessary air-entraining admixture dosage
earliest possible time. The use of a white curing will likely be lower for cold-weather concrete
compound will reflect the sun’s heat. If there than for concrete designed for normal tempera-
is any delay in applying the curing compound, tures.
use a fog spray or evaporation retardant to keep • An accelerating admixture conforming to ASTM
the surface from drying out. C 494 Type C or E may be used, provided its
6 Mix
• Refer to ACI 305, Hot Weather Concreting, for performance has been previously verified by
additional information. trial batches.
• Do not use admixtures containing added chlo-
7 Preparation
the mean of the highest and lowest tempera- than the ambient air or the wind speed is
tures occurring during the period from mid- significant.
night to midnight. • Consider heating the mix water (if practical for
• The air temperature is not greater than 10°C the size of the pour). The temperature of the
(50°F) for more than one-half of any 24-hour mixed concrete should not be less than 10°C
period. (50°F).
Cold-weather paving requires special consider- ◦ The mixture water and/or aggregates may be
ations. The contractor and material supplier should heated to 66°C (150°F).
address these considerations well before temperature ◦ The material must be heated evenly.
forecasts predict temperatures to drop close to or • Insulating blankets also are necessary for curing
10 Troubleshooting
below freezing. The primary concern is to keep the concrete pavement in cool weather. The blan-
temperature of the concrete above freezing so that the kets reduce heat loss and lessen the influence
hydration reaction continues and to control cracking of both air temperature and solar radiation on
through joint placement. the pavement temperature. The blankets are
2 Design
not a substitute for curing compound, which is only washing away the curing membrane (ACPA
is still needed to contain moisture for complete 2003a).
hydration. Climatic conditions during a rain event can actu-
• The concrete temperature should be main- ally be conducive to good concrete curing. During
tained at 10°C (50°F) or above for at least rain, the humidity is at or near 100 percent and there
3 Materials
72 hours after placement and at a temperature is little chance for the evaporation of mix water.
above freezing for the remainder of the curing Temperatures are generally moderate during rain,
time (when the concrete attains a compressive which is also beneficial. In these situations, the rain
strength of 20 MPa [3,000 lb/in2]). Corners and essentially provides a beneficial moist curing environ-
edges are the most vulnerable to freezing. ment, which assists with strength development and
4 Hydration
• Concrete should not be placed when the tem- decreases the chance for uncontrolled cracking. This
peratures of the air at the site or the surfaces on provides a natural cure.
which the concrete is to be placed are less than Sometimes, particularly if the prevailing weather
4°C (40°F). is hot and humid, rain precedes the passage of a cold
• Concrete placed in cold weather gains strength front, which may drop the air temperature more than
slowly. Concrete containing supplementary ce- 11°C (20°F). Where this occurs, and when the pave-
5 Properties
mentitious materials gains strength very slowly. ment is under construction, the risk of uncontrolled
◦ Sawing of joints and opening to traffic may cracking will increase (ACPA 2002). The drop in the
be delayed. dew point that usually occurs with a cold front may
◦ Verify the in-place strength by a maturity also lead to a lower relative humidity above the warm
method, temperature-matched curing, concrete and thus a greater susceptibility for plastic
nondestructive testing, or tests of cores from shrinkage cracking.
6 Mix
the pavement before opening the pavement Some marring of the concrete surface may occur
to traffic. from the plastic sheeting used to protect the slabs
• Allow the slabs to cool before completely remov- from rain. Except for an undesirable appearance,
7 Preparation
ing insulating blankets to avoid a thermal shock there is nothing wrong with surfaces affected by
to the pavement that might induce contraction plastic sheeting. A similar appearance can occur when
cracking. Insulating blankets may be temporarily using plastic sheeting to cure concrete.
rolled aside to saw contraction joints.
• Refer to ACI 306, Cold Weather Concreting, for
additional information.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Protection From Rain
Plastic sheeting (figure 8-17) and steel side forms or
wooden boards must be available at all times to protect
the surface and edges of the newly placed concrete
pavement when it rains. If rain is expected on newly
placed concrete pavement that has not hardened, cover
the surface with the plastic sheeting.
The sheets must be weighted down to prevent them
from blowing in the wind. When it starts raining, a
10 Troubleshooting
is not indenting the pavement surface. The covering Figure 8-17. Plastic sheeting ready for placement to protect
does not need to be extended to areas where the rain the fresh surface from rain (ACPA)
Weather Considerations
Additional water on the pavement surface will ele- tible to crazing, scaling, and dusting (figure 8-18).
2 Design
vate the surface water-cementitious materials (w/cm) For slipform paving operations, it is advantageous
ratio, potentially reducing durability. Do not finish to install side forms where severe erosion of the fresh
rainwater into the concrete surface. This elevates the concrete edge may occur (figure 8-19) because of
w/cm ratio, creating a nondurable top surface, suscep- heavy rain.
3 Materials
4 Hydration
5 Properties
Figure 8-18. Typical scaling of concrete pavement due to Figure 8-19. Edge erosion of freshly placed slab due to rain
rain on nondurable paste surface (ACPA 2003a) (ACPA 2003a)
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Key Points • Drying shrinkage.
• Slab-sub-base restraint.
• A number of variables influence the risk of
• Modulus of elasticity.
cracking in concrete:
• Strength.
3 Materials
◦ Temperature. All of these performance parameters are calculated
based on complex numerical models that use the fol-
◦ Rate of drying. lowing factors as input parameters:
◦ Shrinkage. • Pavement design inputs:
◦ Subbase type.
◦ Restraint. ◦ Slab-base friction (bond).
4 Hydration
◦ Transverse joint spacing.
◦ Strength.
◦ Tensile strength.
◦ Modulus of elasticity. ◦ Modulus of elasticity.
◦ Slab thickness.
◦ Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). ◦ Mix design inputs.
5 Properties
◦ Concrete strength development.
• A computer program, HIPERPAV, is ◦ Portland cement type.
available to model the risk of cracking for ◦ Cement chemistry.
a given mix under a given environment. ◦ Cement content.
◦ Silica fume content.
◦ Fly ash (type F and C) content.
6 Mix
◦ GGBF slag content.
◦ Water content.
Many variables can influence the propensity of ◦ Coarse aggregate type and content.
7 Preparation
a specific concrete to crack (see Early-Age Crack- ◦ Fine aggregate content.
ing in chapter 5, page 148). However, it is possible ◦ Water reducer content.
to numerically model the dominant mechanisms of ◦ Super water reducer.
failure to assess the risk of cracking within a given set ◦ Retarder content.
of conditions. ◦ Accelerator content.
Such a model has been developed for pavements by • Environmental inputs:
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA 1999). ◦ Air temperature.
The resulting software package, known as HIPERPAV, ◦ Relative humidity distribution.
is briefly described below. For more information, see ◦ Cloud conditions.
www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/pccp/hipemain.cfm. ◦ Moisture conditions.
HIPERPAV is a commercially available computer ◦ Wind speed.
software package. It is intended to be used by person- • Construction inputs:
nel involved in constructing concrete pavements and ◦ Curing method.
bonded overlays. Its purpose is to model and predict ◦ Time of curing application.
whether the concrete is likely to crack at an early age ◦ Time of curing removal.
due to conditions unrelated to structural slab loading. ◦ Time of construction.
10 Troubleshooting
The program is also used to estimate the window of ◦ Time of saw cutting.
opportunity for saw cutting. ◦ Initial portland cement concrete.
2 Design
A fundamental of jointed concrete pavement design
Key Points is to introduce a jointing system to control the loca-
tion of this expected cracking. Of the three joint types,
• Joints are required to control cracking in a
contraction, construction, and isolation, contraction
concrete pavement.
joints are specifically for crack control. For unrein-
3 Materials
forced concrete pavement, joint spacing or slab length
• Joints can be saw cut after the concrete has
depends upon slab thickness, concrete aggregate,
been placed.
subbase, and climate (ACPA 1991). In most areas, the
• It is critical to cut the joints at the right typical maximum transverse joint spacing for unrein-
time: too early will result in raveling, too forced (plain) pavement is about 4.5 m (15 ft) (ACPA
4 Hydration
late will be after random cracking occurs. 2004b). Longitudinal joints are typically about 3.0 to
4.2 m (10 to 13 ft) apart and serve the dual purpose
• The timing of saw-cutting is dependant on of crack control and lane delineation.
concrete properties and the environment. The climate and concrete coarse aggregate common
to some geographic regions may allow transverse
joints to be further apart or require them to be closer
5 Properties
together than the average. For example, concrete
Like all materials, concrete expands and contracts made from granite and limestone coarse aggregate
with variations in temperature and moisture content, is much less sensitive to temperature change than
which can cause cracking if it is restrained. Cutting concrete made from siliceous gravel, chert, or slag
the pavement into smaller elements helps relieve the aggregate. A less temperature-sensitive concrete
does not expand or contract much with temperature
6 Mix
restraint and generally ensures that the cracks form
where desired rather than at random (see Early-Age change, which allows a longer spacing between pave-
Cracking in chapter 5, page 148). ment contraction joints without a greater chance of
Concrete slabs crack when tensile stresses within random cracking.
7 Preparation
the concrete overcome the tensile strength. At early Various kinds of saws can be used for cutting joints
ages, the tensile stresses develop from restraint of the (figure 8-21).
concrete’s volume change or restraint of slab bending
from temperature and moisture gradients through the Saw Timing
concrete (Okamoto et al. 1994). Early volume changes There is an optimum time to saw contraction joints
are associated with the concrete’s drying shrinkage in new concrete pavements. That time occurs within
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
and temperature contraction. Each transverse and lon- the sawing window (figure 8-22) (Okamoto et al.
gitudinal saw cut induces a point of weakness where a 1994). The window is a short period after placement
crack will initiate and then propagate to the bottom of when the concrete pavement can be cut to suc-
the slab. cessfully control crack formation (see the Stages of
In most cases, cracks first appear at large intervals, Hydration charts and Concrete Strength Gain, Tensile
10 to 45 m (30 to 150 ft), and then form at closer Stress, and the Sawing Window in chapter 4, pages 76
intervals over time. Intermediate sawed joints, nor- and 93, respectively). The window begins when
mally required to control cracking from differentials, concrete strength is sufficient for sawing without
sometimes do not crack for several weeks to months excessive raveling along the cut. The sawing window
after opening the pavement to traffic. However, this ends when random cracking starts to occur.
10 Troubleshooting
may not be true on every pavement, and it may be Sawing too early causes the saw blade to break or
very difficult to determine whether restraint to volume pull aggregate particles free from the pavement sur-
changes or restraint to temperature or moisture gradi- faces along the cut. The resulting jagged, rough edges
ents cause the first cracks. are termed raveling. Some raveling is acceptable where
Joint Sawing
b)
5 Properties
________________________________________________
Figure 8-22. Sawing window (ACPA)
c)
________________________________________________
Figure 8-23. Close-up of different degrees of raveling
caused by joint sawing (ACPA)
one pass. (c) A newer class of saw, the early-entry dry saw, the scratch removes the surface texture, it is probably
is a walk-behind saw that allows sawing sooner than with too early to saw.
conventional saws. (ACPA)
One study (Okamoto et al. 1994) found that ravel- HIPERPAV software, which can help determine saw
2 Design
ing was within acceptable limits when the concrete timing and predict the possibility of uncontrolled
compressive strengths were from 2.1 to 7.0 MPa cracking (McCullough and Rasmussen 1999).
(300 to 1,015 lb/in2), depending upon the type of Early-entry saws are now frequently used on paving
aggregate used in the mixture. Refinement of a specific projects. Smaller and lighter than conventional saws,
3 Materials
strength threshold number to be used on a project they have the advantage of allowing sawing to begin
would require trial and error testing of the job materi- within an hour or two of paving. The sawing window
als using the concrete maturity principle. for early-entry saws begins earlier and ends sooner
The length of the sawing window depends upon than for conventional saws; see figure 4-13.
many factors and is likely to be different for each First-generation early-entry saws were designed to
project and each day of construction. Certain design cut shallow (25 mm [1 in.)]) joints. At final set (the
4 Hydration
features, materials, or weather conditions can consid- beginning of the sawing window for early-entry saws),
erably shorten the window (table 8-7). Under most a shallow joint is enough to create a plane of weakness
weather conditions and for typical pavement designs, where a crack will form to relieve stresses as the pave-
the window will be long enough to complete sawing ment builds strength. Early, shallow cuts work well
with excellent results. In extreme conditions, the for transverse joints, regardless of the thickness of the
5 Properties
window can be so short as to be impracticable for pavement.
crack control. Concrete maturity testing helps indicate Longitudinal joints, on the other hand, are typically
the influence of ambient conditions on the concrete cut later (often within the first day). By this time, the
strength profile and consequently helps define the concrete has developed more strength, and a deeper
sawing window. Other tools include the FHWA’s cut is required to effectively create a plane of weak-
ness. Therefore, first-generation early-entry saws were
6 Mix
not normally used for longitudinal joints. Today, both
Table 8-7. Factors that Shorten the Sawing Window
early-entry and conventional saws can cut longitudi-
Category Factor nal joints to the required one-third depth of the slab.
7 Preparation
Note about joint width: Because transverse joints
Concrete mixture High water demand
Rapid early strength move, they are typically sealed to prevent the infil-
Retarded set tration of water and foreign matter. The saw cuts
Fine aggregate (fineness and
grading) (whether early-entry or conventional) must therefore
Coarse aggregate (maximum size be at least 6 mm (1/4-in.) wide to form adequate res-
and/or percentage)
ervoirs for the sealant. Because longitudinal joints are
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Weather Sudden temperature drop or rain tied and thus designed not to move, many states do
shower
Sudden temperature rise not seal them. The saw cuts can therefore be narrow
High winds and low humidity (3 mm [1/8 in.]). With granular bases and subdrains,
Cool temperatures and cloudy
Hot temperatures and sunny any water entering longitudinal joints will effectively
drain away.
Subbase High friction between the subbase
and concrete slab
Bond between the underlying Mixture Effects
subbase and concrete slab
Dry surface Regardless of other related factors, the concrete
Porous aggregate subbase mixture itself is a primary factor in defining the poten-
materials
tial to control cracking with a jointing system.
10 Troubleshooting
Miscellaneous Paving against or between The primary influences of the mixture are the
existing lanes
following:
Joint Sawing
• Type of cementitious materials. concrete set time and the ability to saw without
2 Design
content increases shrinkage. On the other hand, the weather. Many agencies specify a usage period for
greater the strength, the better able the concrete is to such mixtures, prohibiting their use in early spring or
resist shrinkage induced stresses. late fall.
Mixtures containing fly ashes or ground, granulated The coarse aggregate influences the temperature
blast-furnace (GGBF) slag or blended cement may sensitivity of the concrete. Concrete that is more tem-
experience a delay in early-age strength development, perature sensitive will expand or contract more with
4 Hydration
especially in cooler weather. This could delay the temperature change, increasing cracking potential.
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Key Points • Joint type and spacing.
The following list includes common factors for
• Joints are filled with sealant to prevent
which the concrete material or installation technique
ingress of deleterious materials.
affects the joint seal performance:
3 Materials
• Silicone sealants are known to have poor adhe-
• Many alternative sealant systems are
sion to concrete containing dolomitic lime-
available.
stone. A primer application to the sealant reser-
• Sealant material selection considerations voir walls will ensure that the silicone adheres.
include the environment, cost, • Concrete containing harder coarse aggregates,
4 Hydration
performance, joint type, and joint spacing. such as gravel or granite, will expand and
contract more with a given temperature change
than a concrete containing limestone. The seal-
ant will be stretched farther for a given joint
spacing. To keep this under control, use an ap-
The purpose of sealing joints is to minimize infiltra- propriate shape factor for sealant (figure 8-24).
5 Properties
tion of surface water and incompressible material into ◦ Hot-poured asphalt-based sealants typically
the pavement layers (ACPA 1993). Excess water can need a reservoir shape factor (width/depth
contribute to subgrade or base softening, erosion, and ratio) of one.
pumping of subgrade or base fines over time. This ◦ Silicone and two-component cold-poured
degradation results in a loss of structural support, sealants typically need a reservoir shape factor
pavement settlement, and/or faulting. of two.
6 Mix
There are many acceptable materials available for ◦ Compression sealants are selected such that
sealing joints in concrete pavements. Sealants are the maximum compression of the seal is
either placed in a liquid form or are preformed and 50 percent and the minimum is 20 percent
7 Preparation
inserted into the joint reservoir. Sealants installed in through the anticipated ambient temperature
a liquid form depend on long-term adhesion to the cycles in the area.
joint face for successful sealing. Preformed compres- • Chemical solvents used to clean the joint res-
sion seals depend on lateral rebound for long-term ervoir may be detrimental. Solvents can carry
success. For more specific information on joint sealing contaminants into pores and surface voids on
materials and required shape factors and sizes, consult the reservoir faces that will inhibit bonding of
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
reference ACPA 1993. the new sealant.
Sealing prevents incompressible objects from enter- • For cleaning joints, the air stream must be free
ing joint reservoirs. Incompressibles contribute to of oil. Many modern compressors automatically
spalling and, in extreme cases, may induce blow-ups. insert oil into the air hoses to lubricate air-pow-
In either case, excessive pressure along the joint faces ered tools. New hoses or an oil and moisture
results as incompressibles obstruct pavement expan- trap prevents contamination of the joint face
sion in hot weather. Years ago, the term joint fillers from oil in the compressor or air hoses.
described liquid asphalt materials placed in joints. Above all, the most critical aspect in sealant per-
Joint fillers aid more in keeping out incompressibles formance is reservoir preparation. A considerable
than minimizing water infiltration. investment in joint preparation and cleaning activi-
10 Troubleshooting
Sealant material selection considerations include ties is necessary for almost all sealant types. There is
the following: little doubt that poorly constructed joints will perform
Joint Sealing
following outlines the recommended procedures the joint faces, but provides texture to enhance
2 Design
direction to minimize contamination of pumping ensures that the material will enter
surrounding areas. an extremely clean reservoir. The contractor
• After the joint has sufficiently dried, a sand- must provide assurance that the air compres-
blasting operation removes any remaining sor filters moisture and oil from the air. The
residue. Do not allow sandblasting straight into compressor should deliver air at a minimum
the joint. Holding the sandblast nozzle close to 3.4 m3/min (120 ft3/min) and develop at least
4 Hydration
the surface at an angle to clean the top 25 mm 0.63 MPa (90 lb/in2) nozzle pressure. Some
(1 in.) of the joint face provides cleaning where contractors also use a vacuum sweeper and
needed. One pass along each reservoir face hand brooms to keep the surrounding pave-
provides excellent results. This not only cleans ment clean.
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 8-24. Different forms of joint sealant (ACPA)
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Testing, 24th Edition, and AASHTO Provisional Standards,
National Highway Institute, Federal Highway
2004 Edition, HM-24-M. https://www.transportation.org/ Administration.
publications/bookstore.nsf. Huang, H., C.A. Beckemeyer, W.S. Kennedy, and L.
AASHTO M 148, Liquid Membrane-Forming Com- Khazanovich. 2001. Finite Element Modeling of
pounds for Curing Concrete Cracking in Fast-Track Full Depth PCC Repairs.
Paper submitted for 80th Annual Meeting of the
3 Materials
AASHTO M 157, Ready-Mixed Concrete Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
ASTM standards may be found in Annual Book of ASTM IPRF. 2003. Evaluation, Design and Construction Tech-
Standards, ASTM International. www.astm.org.
niques for the Use of Airfield Concrete Pavement as
ASTM C 94/C94M-04a, Standard Specification for Recycled Material for Subbase. Project 03-5. Skokie,
Ready-Mixed Concrete IL: Innovative Pavement Research Foundation.
4 Hydration
ASTM C 309-03, Standard Specification for Liquid Okamoto, P., R. Rollings, R. Detwiler, R. Perera, E.
Membrane-Forming Compounds for Curing Concrete Barenberg, J. Anderson, M. Torres, H. Barzegar, M.
ASTM C 494/C494M-04, Standard Specification for Thompson, J. Naughton. 2003. Best Practices for
Chemical Admixtures for Concrete Airport Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Construction
(Rigid Airport Pavement). IPRF-01-G-002-1. Washing-
ACI. 1999. Hot Weather Concreting. ACI 305R-99. ton, D.C.: Innovative Pavement Research Foundation.
Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute.
5 Properties
Kosmatka, S., B. Kerkhoff, and W.C. Panarese. 2002.
———. 1988. Cold Weather Concreting. ACI 306-88. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. EB001.
Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
ACPA. 1991. Design and Construction of Joints for McCullough, B.F. and R.O. Rasmussen. 1999.
Concrete Highways. TB010P. Arlington Heights, IL: Fast-Track Paving: Concrete Temperature Control and
American Concrete Pavement Association. Traffic Opening Criteria for Bonded Concrete Overlays
6 Mix
———. 1993. Joint and Crack Sealing and Repair for Volume II: HIPERPAV User’s Manual. FHWA-RD-98-
Concrete Pavements. TB012P. Arlington Heights, IL: 168. Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway
American Concrete Pavement Association. Administration.
———. 1994. Fast Track Concrete Pavements. TB004P. Okamoto, P.A, P.J. Naussbaum, K.D. Smith, M.I. Darter,
7 Preparation
Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pavement Association. T.P. Wilson, C.L. Wu, and S.D. Tayabji. 1994. Guide-
———. 2000. Concrete Pavement Surface Textures. lines for Timing Contraction Joint Sawing and Earliest
SR902P. Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pavement Loading for Concrete Pavements, Volume 1. FHWA-RD-
Association. 01-079. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
———. 2002. Early Cracking of Concrete Pavements,
Causes and Repairs. TB016P. Arlington Heights, IL: Rasmussen, R.O., Y.A. Resendez, G.K. Chang, and
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
American Concrete Pavement Association. T.R. Ferragut. 2004. Concrete Pavement Solutions For
Reducing Tire-Pavement Noise. FHWA/ISU Coopera-
———. 2003a. How to Handle Rained-on Concrete tive Agreement DTFH61-01-X-00042. Ames, IA:
Pavement. Research & Technology Update 4.04. Center for Transportation Research and Education,
Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pavement Association. Iowa State University.
———. 2003b. Constructing Smooth Concrete Pavements. Tymkowicz, S. and B. Steffes. 1997. Vibration Study for
TB006.02P. Skokie, IL: American Concrete Pavement Consolidation of Portland Cement Concrete. Interim
Association. Report for MLR-95-4. Ames, IA: Iowa Department
———. 2004a. Clay Ball Prevention and Repair: of Transportation.
Stockpile Management is Key. Research & Technol- Wiegand, P. T. Ferragut, D.S. Harrington, R.O. Ras-
ogy Update 5.04. Skokie, IL: American Concrete mussen, S. Karamihas, and T. Cackler. 2006.
Pavement Association. Evaluation of U.S. and European Concrete Pavement
10 Troubleshooting
———. 2004b. Database of State DOT Concrete Noise Reduction Methods. FHWA/ISU Cooperative
Pavement Practices. Skokie, IL: American Concrete Agreement DTFH61-01-X-00042 (Project 15).
Pavement Association. http://www.pavement.com/ Ames, IA: Center for Transportation Research and
PavTech/Tech/ StPract/Query.asp. Education, Iowa State University.
3 Materials
Quality Assurance/Quality Control Records 242
Batching 246
4 Hydration
Test Methods 250
This chapter discusses quality assurance and quality are described. These descriptions do not represent
control systems as they influence concrete pavement, all quality control tests discussed throughout this
5 Properties
with special emphasis on materials. The chapter manual. Rather, they have been identified as current
also describes actions that are needed to monitor quality control best practices in the “Materials and
and adjust for critical parameters, such as the water- Construction Optimization for Prevention of Prema-
cementitious materials (w/cm) ratio, air-void system, ture Pavement Distress in Portland Cement Concrete
and the risk of cracking. Finally, tests commonly Pavements” project at Iowa State University
used to monitor the materials and concrete quality (TPF-5[066]).
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
with the specification. have been satisfied. Other quality factors that are often
overlooked because they are not as easily measured
• Quality control (QC) is the set of activities
include steel placement for joints, air-void structure,
conducted by the contractor to monitor
the process of batching, placing, and permeability, and curing.
finishing the concrete to be sure that the QA testing may also be performed by contractor
pavement will meet or exceed QA test personnel, but then independent testing is needed for
4 Hydration
proper training. Most agencies require distributed. The average and standard deviation (vari-
technicians to be certified (American ability) of test results are then used to estimate the
Concrete Institute, National Institute for percent of material that is within the specified limits.
Certification in Engineering Technologies, Since a portion of the overall standard deviation is due
etc.). to testing variability, the contractor should have the
• Many tests performed on concrete right to maintain control over the acceptance testing.
6 Mix
have varying levels of precision. Open Acceptance methods that include criteria that are at
communication and cooperation between least partially based upon standard deviation should
QC and QA organizations is important to not penalize contractors if they are not allowed the
7 Preparation
avoid and resolve conflicts. opportunity to be in control of all factors that con-
• Thorough record keeping allows for tribute to the overall variability. Whether explicitly
interpreting data, making informed stated or not, PWL specifications require contractors
decisions, and troubleshooting problems to reduce variability. This can be accomplished by
that may arise in the future.
producing more consistent concrete and attempting to
reduce testing variability. Reducing testing variability
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate quality control as “The sum total of activities performed
confidence that a product or service will satisfy given by the seller to make sure that a product meets contract
requirements for quality” (AASHTO 1996). specification requirements” (AASHTO 1996).
Quality control is not an exercise in mirroring QA purposes. This research project has identified a suite
2 Design
tests. Materials and processes are monitored at all of tests that can be considered to be the current best
stages of the batching and paving process to preempt practices. Summary sheets describing the why and
problems or variations rather than simply react to how of each test are provided later in this chapter.
them. A comprehensive QC program encompasses all These summaries can be used for guidance in deter-
3 Materials
aspects of the concrete paving process: mining which tests may be useful in the design of a
• Training of all contractor personnel: Every QC program for constructing durable concrete pave-
person on the project contributes to quality. ments.
• Preliminary material testing: Test material
before it is batched.
• Equipment and process monitoring: Develop Quality of Testing
4 Hydration
checklists, procedures, and responses to All personnel involved with QA and QC should
prevent quality deficiencies. receive proper training. Laboratories should be
• Testing of concrete and individual materials certified by AASHTO (or equivalent) and meet the
during trial batching and production: Concen- requirements of ASTM C 1077. Most agencies require
trate on timely and early results. Additional certification for QC and QA technicians (American
5 Properties
samples may be used as a backup for QA tests. Concrete Institute, National Institute for Certification
• Analysis of QC test results and process moni- in Engineering Technologies, etc.).
toring: Organize data and identify changes in A thorough understanding of test procedures is
the process. necessary. Just as important, however, is the knowl-
• Adjust processes in response to QC analysis: edge that many tests performed on concrete have
Proactively react to process changes and inputs varying levels of precision.
6 Mix
in a timely manner. Disputes and disagreements often stem from differ-
A quality control plan is required to ensure that QC ing test results between an owner’s laboratory and a
activities are carefully planned, sufficient, and consis- contractor’s laboratory. When two technicians split a
7 Preparation
tent. The plan should provide a detailed description of sample of concrete and the resulting flexural strength
the type and frequency of inspection, sampling, and results differ by 90 lb/in2, which test is correct? Assum-
testing to measure the various properties described in ing that both tests were performed according to the
the specification (AASHTO 1996). prescribed test method (ASTM C 78-02), both answers
Preliminary information from the “Materials are correct—neither is more right than the other.
and Construction Optimization for Prevention of The nature of the materials and the tests is such
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Premature Pavement Distress in Portland Cement that test results are estimates of actual pavement prop-
Concrete Pavements” project at Iowa State University erties. From the owner’s perspective, it is imperative
(TPF‑5[066]) provides a starting point for alterna- to understand that each test has an inherent level of
tive and new test methods that can be used for QC precision and variability; a single test result may not
represent the true condition of the pavement. From
a contractor’s perspective, this implies that the mix
New QC Skills and Tools should be designed to accommodate testing variability
in order to meet specified tolerances.
Shifting the focus from conventional concrete testing At a minimum, marginal test results should be
to process control requires a different set of skills and evaluated or examined with the precision and bias
tools. Statistical control charts can be utilized, along associated with that test method (table 9-1).
10 Troubleshooting
with new and/or alternative test methods to improve One way to interpret each of the example test
on traditional QC methods. results in table 9-1 is to say that you can be 95 percent
confident that the true value of the material being
tested is between the lower and upper limits shown. table 9-2. The corresponding control chart for that
2 Design
In other words, there is a range of values associated unit weight data is shown in figure 9-1.
with each test result. The range depends on the preci- Figure 9-1 is a plot of example concrete unit weight
sion of each test method. test results. Each point is a test result (Sample ID).
Open communication and cooperation between The green horizontal line represents the mean of the
3 Materials
QC and QA organizations is important to avoid and test results. The dashed horizontal lines are drawn at
resolve conflicts. intervals of one and two times the standard deviation
on both sides of the mean. The solid red horizontal
lines are the upper and lower control limits and are
Record Keeping placed three standard deviations away on each side of
Proper documentation of QC and QA tests is a key the mean.
4 Hydration
factor for interpreting data, making informed deci- Standard criteria can be used to determine if an
sions, and troubleshooting problems that may arise out-of-control condition exists. These criteria are as
in the future. Test data can become overwhelming on follows (Seward 2004):
moderate to large concrete paving projects. Without • Any one point is outside of the control limits
clear and accurate data, process control adjustments (more than three standard deviations from the
5 Properties
Rodded unit weight for aggregate 120 lb/ft3 114.5 lb/ft3 125.5 lb/ft3
Smoothness (0.2” blanking band) 4.00 in./mi 2.58 in./mi 5.42 in./mi
(data from DOT equipment
certification)
• Six points in a row are all increasing or all Table 9-2. Example Concrete Unit Weight Test Results
2 Design
decreasing.
• Fourteen points in a row are alternating up and Sample ID Unit weight (lb/ft3)
down. 1-1 150.3
• Two out of three points are more than two 1-2 151.0
1-3 148.0
3 Materials
standard deviations from the mean (and on the
1-4 150.7
same side of the mean). 1-5 151.7
• Four out of five points are more than one stan- 1-6 148.6
dard deviation from the mean (and on the same
2-1 147.4
side of the mean). 2-2 149.2
• Fifteen points in a row are all within one stan- 2-3 147.1
4 Hydration
2-4 149.8
dard deviation of the mean.
2-5 147.2
• Eight points in a row are all more than one 2-6 147.9
standard deviation from the mean (on either
3-1 147.3
side of the mean).
3-2 148.0
Once an out-of-control condition is identified 3-3 150.7
5 Properties
using these criteria, the process must be analyzed to
Average 149.0
determine the cause of the variability, and appropriate
Standard deviation 1.6
action must be taken to correct the process.
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Batching
important to proper mix control, surface moisture
2 Design
Batching is a critical part of concrete QC. To ensure trolled to maintain concrete quality. The w/cm ratio is
a uniform mix from batch to batch, the materials must difficult to measure directly, so it is important to care-
be uniform and the handling systems consistent. The fully monitor and control the batching process.
batch plant must be continuously monitored and The microwave test method (AASHTO T 318) has
regularly calibrated (see Stockpile Management and been used to determine the water content of fresh
5 Properties
Batching in chapter 8, pages 206 and 207). concrete. By coupling the water content (less water
absorbed in the aggregates) with batch weights of the
Aggregate Moisture dry ingredients, the w/cm ratio is computed.
Aggregates’ moisture content can influence concrete’s
workability, strength, and durability. All normal-weight Batching Tolerances
aggregates possess some porosity accessible to water. If Aggregates and cementitious materials should be
6 Mix
the accessible pores are filled, films of water may exist batched by weight. (If batching is done by volume,
on the aggregate surface. Depending on its moisture wide variations can occur in batch quantities due to
condition, aggregate can either take up or add to bulking of moist aggregate, resulting in significant
7 Preparation
the mix water. It is therefore important to know the errors.) Liquid constituents, such as mix water and
aggregate’s moisture condition during batching and to liquid admixtures, can be batched by volume.
adjust the mix water accordingly. ASTM C 94, Specifications for Ready-Mixed Concrete,
Most difficulties with surface moisture stem from stipulates the recommended tolerances for batching
fine aggregate. Coarse aggregate will commonly have concrete tolerances (table 9-3).
absorption levels of 0.2 to 4 percent and free water
content from 0.5 to 2 percent. Fine aggregate will have Table 9-3. Recommended Batch Tolerances for Ready-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
absorption levels of 0.2 to 2 percent and free water Mixed Concrete* (ASTM C 94)
content from 2 to 6 percent (Kosmatka et al. 2003). Constituent Individual**, % Cumulative***,%
Coarse aggregate moisture can be assessed using
Cementitious +1 +1
ASTM C 127-04 / AASHTO T 85; fine aggregate, using materials
ASTM C 70-94 or ASTM C 128‑04 / AASHTO T 84. Water +1 +3
Total moisture content, fine or coarse, can be deter- Aggregates +2 +1
mined using ASTM C 566-97 / AASHTO T 255. It is Admixtures +3 N.R.****
common to conduct moisture tests on representative
* Batch weights should be greater than 30 percent
examples of stockpiled aggregates once or twice a day of scale capacity.
(Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2003). ** Individual refers to separate weighing of each
constituent.
10 Troubleshooting
Good stockpile management, allowing fine aggre- *** Cumulative refers to cumulative weighing
gate stockpiles to drain, will help maintain uniform of cement and pozzolan, of fine and coarse
2 Design
• Freezing of the concrete before it sets (with
Key Points extremely cold temperatures).
An optimal temperature for freshly placed con-
• During construction, the concrete
crete is in the range of 10 to 15°C (50 to 60°F), and it
temperature, air-void system, amount of
vibration, and dowel bar locations must be should not exceed 30 to 33°C (85 to 90°F) (Mindess,
3 Materials
monitored and adjusted as necessary. Young, and Darwin 2003).
For a given concrete mixture, the temperature of
• An optimal temperature for freshly placed
concrete is from 10 to 15°C (50 to 60°F). fresh concrete can be controlled by adjusting the tem-
perature of the constituent materials or altering the
• Routinely achieving the target air content local environment, or through a combination of the
and air-void system is one of the most
4 Hydration
two (see Field Adjustments, chapter 8, page 210).
challenging aspects of controlling concrete
mixtures because so many variables affect Time of placement will affect the temperature of
the air system. Tests should be conducted the concrete at early ages. Heating due to solar energy
at the batch plant and, if practical, behind may coincide with hydration heating to raise the tem-
the paver. perature of the concrete more than if the hydration
• Vibrator monitors help equipment peak occurs overnight.
5 Properties
operators ensure that the proper amount In hot weather, the concrete mixture can be cooled
of vibration is applied to produce by adding liquid nitrogen or by cooling one or more
homogeneous, dense concrete without of the components. Due to their high volume, cool-
adversely affecting the entrained air. ing the aggregates can be very effective in reducing
• Dowel bars must be aligned horizontally the concrete temperature. Even though water is a
6 Mix
and vertically and positioned at about the relatively small component, it has a high specific heat
middle of the slab depth. capacity and is more practical to cool than aggregates
(Kosmatka, Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2003).
In cold weather, the concrete can be sufficiently
7 Preparation
warmed through the use of hot water. Water near
Temperature the boiling point can be used if it is mixed with the
The temperature of concrete as placed and shortly aggregate prior to the addition of cement (Kosmatka,
thereafter can have a large impact on both the fresh Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2003). When air temperatures
and hardened properties (see Temperature Effects in are well below freezing, it may be necessary to heat
chapter 5, page 127). the fine aggregate as well. In all cases, frozen lumps
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Problems associated with high concrete tempera- must be avoided in the aggregate.
tures include the following: ASTM C 1064 / AASHTO T 309 provide the
• Increased water demand to maintain workability. standard for determining the temperature of fresh
• Decreased setting time.
• Increased danger of plastic and early-age
shrinkage cracking. Cooling Concrete in Hot Weather
• Reduction in air-void system effectiveness.
• Lower ultimate strength. During hot weather, the concrete temperature can
Problems associated with low concrete temperatures often be lowered to an acceptable level simply by
include the following: doing the following: Cool the aggregates by shading
10 Troubleshooting
• Reduced rate of hydration, thus increasing the the stockpiles and sprinkling them with water, and chill
the mix water or use ice. (Be sure the total of all water
concrete. The temperature measuring device used air-void analyzer (see Air-Void Analyzer in this chap-
2 Design
must be accurate to ±0.5°C (±1.0°F) and must remain ter, page 265).
in the concrete for at least two minutes or until the Other methods may be considered if necessary:
temperature stabilizes. volumetric air meter (ASTM C 173 / AASHTO T 196),
or gravimetric (ASTM C 138 / AASHTO T 121) (see
3 Materials
-1 to +2 percentage points of the target value. vibration produces a pavement that is homogeneous
The factors that affect the air-void system in con- and dense without adversely impacting the entrained
crete include the following: air in the mix.
• Ingredients. Any change in source or amount Prior to 1996, vibrator monitors were not available
of any of the mix ingredients may change the commercially (Steffes and Tymkowicz 2002). Today’s
air-void system. vibrator monitors give the paver operator a convenient
5 Properties
• Temperature. Increasing concrete temperature way to preprogram, operate, and monitor vibrator
tends to reduce air content for a given dosage operation. Vibrator monitors also enable the inspec-
of air-entraining admixture. tion personnel to view in real time the frequency of all
• Mixing time. Air content tends to increase with vibrators during the paving operation. Data can also
continuing mixing time up to a limit, at which be downloaded to a computer for later analysis.
In well-proportioned mixtures, vibrations in
6 Mix
• Slump. More air will be entrained in a high- beneficial air voids. In such cases, 5,000 to 8,000 vpm
slump mixture than in a similar low-slump are generally used (Steffes and Tymcowics 1997).
mixture. However, water should not be added
to the truck in order to raise the air content of a Dowel Bar Tolerances
given batch. The most critical factors in dowel performance are
• Admixture interactions. Some water-reducing diameter, alignment, and embedment length. Dowels
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
admixtures will affect air. transfer applied load across joints and must allow
• Haul time. Increasing haul time may reduce air freedom of movement between adjacent slabs. Dowel
content. placement tolerances usually reference the three ways
• Vibration. Excessive vibration may remove air that dowel bars can be out of alignment:
from the concrete. • Longitudinal translation. (Is the joint centered
Tests should be conducted at the batch plant on the dowel/is there adequate embedment
for monitoring purposes and, if practical, behind length?)
the paver for payment purposes. Tests should be • Depth. (Is the dowel near the midpoint of the
conducted every hour or every 100 lane-miles slab thickness?)
(300 lane-feet) of paving, every 50 m3 (70 yd3) of con- • Horizontal and vertical skew. (Is the dowel
10 Troubleshooting
crete, or when samples for strength are made. parallel to both the centerline and top surface
Tests are most easily conducted using the pressure of the pavement?)
air meter (ASTM C 231-04 / AASHTO T 152) (see Air Numerous studies have been conducted on the
Content [Pressure] in this chapter, page 266) or the topic of dowel bar alignment, many of them brought
2 Design
In more recent years, the majority of studies have fied, providing 150 mm (6 in.) of tolerance (±75 mm
concluded that stricter tolerances are not necessary. [3 in.]). For any given dowel size, the maximum
Summarized below is the current state of the practice, bearing stresses occur near the joint face. Any loss of
as well as recommended guidelines for dowel alignment. load transfer that might occur from inadequate dowel
3 Materials
embedment relates to the magnitude of the bearing
Alignment stresses along the dowel.
Alignment of each dowel must be within certain
tolerances to allow adequate freedom of movement Dowel Depth
between slabs. Alignment requirements are typically There is usually no problem with placing dowels
4 Hydration
in both the horizontal and vertical planes, as well as a slightly above or below mid-depth in a concrete slab.
combination thereof. A survey by the American Con- The vertical location is not as critical to dowel or
crete Pavement Association in 1999 of State highway joint performance as are many other factors. Increas-
agency concrete pavement practices showed that the ing the slab thickness by even several centimeters or
average tolerance for dowel skew in both the vertical inches on a concrete pavement, basket assemblies
and horizontal dimensions currently allowed by State will position the dowels below mid-depth. This is not
5 Properties
agencies is 6 mm (0.25 in.) per 300 mm (12 in.) of a significant variation on the design, and there have
dowel length, or three percent. been no cases of decreased performance of the dowels
or the pavement. Many miles of concrete pavement
Embedment Length have been placed with the dowels above nominal mid-
To provide a construction tolerance, the total depth (ACPA 1994).
length of dowel bars is always somewhat longer than The current industry-recommended tolerance
6 Mix
required for embedment depth. The current state of for dowel skew is 9.5 mm (0.375 in.) per 300 mm
the practice is to provide a minimum dowel embed- (12 in.) of dowel length, or three percent, in the hori-
ment length of 150 mm (6 in.) for a joint to be zontal and vertical planes. Dowels must be lubricated
7 Preparation
effective under most loading conditions. In highway sufficiently to prevent bonding and allow movement.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
Test Methods
Test descriptions on the following pages are not
2 Design
crete pavements has been identified in the TPF-5(066) Current Best Practices
project (table 9-4). The methods should be used during
The tests listed in table 9-4 and described in the
the three phases of a mix’s evolution during a project:
following pages do not represent all QC tests
1. Material selection and mix design.
discussed throughout this manual. Rather, they
2. Preconstruction verification.
have been identified as current best practices for
5 Properties
3. Quality control.
QC purposes in the “Materials and Construction
The tests have been categorized according to five Optimization for Prevention of Premature Pavement
concrete properties: Distress in Portland Cement Concrete Pavements”
1. Workability. project at Iowa State University (TPF-5[066]). These
2. Strength development. tests provide a starting point for alternative and
3. Air content. new test methods that may yet be identified as best
6 Mix
Strength development Concrete maturity (ASTM C 1074 / AASHTO T 325) Mobile laboratory
Flexural strength and compressive strength (ASTM C 78 /
ASTM C 39 / ASTM C 39M / AASHTO T 97 / AASHTO T 22) Mobile laboratory
Permeability Chloride ion penetration (ASTM C 1202 / AASHTO T 277) Central laboratory
Thermal movement Coefficient of thermal expansion (ASTM C 531 / AASHTO TP 60) Central laboratory
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Test Method
The form and content of calcium sulfate in portland cement • Place a 100-µL aluminum crucible containing a sample
are important factors affecting the workability and durability and a reference crucible on a sensor plate of the DSC
of concrete mixes. Commonly observed setting problems, measuring cell.
3 Materials
such as false set and flash set, are caused by inadequate • Heat the cell at a constant rate of 10˚C/min (18˚F/min) from
content and proportions of gypsum and plaster in the cement. 50 to 400˚C (122 to 205˚F). The experiment is performed
Monitoring the level of sulfate forms in cement can help under regular atmospheric conditions.
prevent problems during construction and improve the quality
of the pavement structure. • The cell obtains measurements and continuously
sends data to the control unit. An endothermic profile
of the tested sample is demonstrated by an obtained
4 Hydration
Principle – What is the Theory? experimental curve.
Gypsum and plaster are two forms of calcium sulfate that • The area under the peaks, proportional to the heat of
greatly affect setting properties, strength development, and the endothermic reaction, is integrated and expressed
volume stability of cement and concrete. Gypsum is added in joules/gram (J/g). This heat corresponds to specific
to clinker to control the setting of cement. The addition gypsum and/or plaster content of the submitted sample.
of gypsum is optimized to produce the highest concrete The actual amount of gypsum and plaster is determined
5 Properties
strength. Gypsum dehydrates to plaster in a cement mill from a calibration curve (weight percent vs. J/g) estab-
under high temperatures and low humidity conditions. lished for the DSC used in testing.
The amount of gypsum and plaster present in cement can be • The total amount of sulfate added to the clinker is the
determined by subjecting the sample to heating and monitor- calculated sum of sulfate present in gypsum and plaster.
ing the change in energy of the sample. The intensity of the
endothermic peaks associated with the dehydration process
of gypsum and plaster is proportional to the amount of these
6 Mix
constituents present in the sample.
Output – How Do I Interpret the Results?
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? The results of the DSC testing are expressed as weight
7 Preparation
percent of gypsum and plaster present in the tested samples.
The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) method consists The test can also be used to determine other components of
of determining the areas of endothermic peaks associ- the cementitious system.
ated with the dehydration process of gypsum and plaster. The effect of various sulfate forms content on the concrete
To obtain these endothermic peaks, a cement sample is performance greatly depends on the physical and chemical
subjected to heating under specific conditions, such as atmo- properties of cement, the use of alternate materials such as
sphere and heating rate. fly ash and ground, granulated blast-furnace slag in con-
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
crete, the type of admixture, and weather conditions.
Test Apparatus Data from the test can be used as a monitoring tool, to assess
variability of the cement, or to assess the risk of incompatibility.
• Sample crucible: 100-µL aluminum crucible sealed with a
pierced lid needed to create the pressure leak necessary
to resolve peaks of the two-stage gypsum dehydration.
• Reference crucible: 100-µL aluminum crucible sealed
with a lid. Construction Issues – What Should I Look For?
• Measuring cell: Measures the difference between the
Changes in workability that may be due to portland cement
heat that flows to a sample and a reference crucible. The
unit has a high signal resolution and detects changes in chemistry variability include the following:
the heat flow. The cell obtains measurements, and con- • False set, an initial stiffening that disappears when
tinuously sends data to the control unit. remixing or vibration occurs.
10 Troubleshooting
Test Methods
Blaine Fineness
2 Design
The particle size (fineness) of portland cement affects • Place the perforated disk inside the permeability cell,
concrete’s rate and heat of hydration, workability, water and place a paper filter on top of the perforated disk.
requirement, rate of strength gain, and permeability. Fine • Weigh a cement sample equal to the mass of the
3 Materials
cements can increase early strength gain, but ultimately calibration sample and place the cement sample in the
sacrifice long-term strength gain, which can result in higher permeability cell on top of the paper filter.
concrete permeability. Daily monitoring of the fineness of the
cement used on a project will provide a means of tracking • Place another paper filter inside the permeability cell on
variability in the cement. top of the cement sample. (The cement sample is sand-
wiched between two paper filters on top of the perforated
The smaller a particle is, the greater the relative surface disk.)
4 Hydration
• Plunger: A steel rod with a 1/8-in. flat slot that fits tightly compensated for by the use of a water-reducing admixture.
inside the permeability cell.
An increase in slump loss after initial mixing may indicate
• Perforated disk: A steel disk with 1/32-in. holes that fits in
variability in the fineness of the cement, and the use of
the bottom of the permeability cell.
chilled water may offset this impact during warm weather
• Paper filters: Circular paper disks cut to fit the cell. conditions.
10 Troubleshooting
Combined Grading
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Output – How Do I Interpret the Results?
Aggregate grading may influence the water requirement, Points on the coarseness/workability chart (figure 9-2) rep-
workability, and paste contents. These in turn may impact resent the coarseness factor and the workability factor for a
the risk of segregation, bleeding, and increased shrinkage of mix based on the grading test results of each individual aggre-
3 Materials
concrete paving mixes. gate. For an optimized grading mix, the points should plot
It is desirable to blend different aggregate sizes to obtain a above the control line (28<workability factor<44) and inside
smooth grading curve for the combined aggregates system. the zone labeled well-graded (45<coarseness factor<75).
When the sample combined grading plot on the 0.45 power
chart (figure 9-3) crosses back and forth across the refer-
ence line, it indicates gap grading.
Principle – What is the Theory?
4 Hydration
A general rule of thumb for optimized grading is to have
The sieve analysis (amount of material retained or passing a between 8 and 18 percent retained on each individual sieve
series of sieves with different-sized openings) is compared to on the 8-18 chart (figure 9-4).
optimized systems using a number of numerical and graphi-
Each of the charts (figures 9-2 through 9-4) provides a dif-
cal models. The closer the batch grading is to the optimum,
ferent perspective of gradation. When used together, the
the lower the risk of grading-related problems in the mixture.
information in these three charts can provide the contractor
5 Properties
and the agency with a basis for evaluating the combined
grading of a concrete mix.
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run?
Sieve analyses are conducted in accordance with Construction Issues – What Should I Look For?
ASTM C 136 for the coarse and fine fractions, and the data
are applied to the following models. Modest variations in grading are to be expected from batch
to batch and generally do not have a significant impact on
6 Mix
The coarseness/workability chart plots a single point on a
performance. Extreme variations in grading and workability
graph, with the coarseness factor on the horizontal axis and
should be addressed as they occur.
the workability factor on the vertical axis,
Workability concerns attributable to aggregate grading can
where
7 Preparation
be identified by observing the following conditions:
Coarseness factor = (percent retained on 3/8-in. sieve) /
• Stockpile segregation and/or inconsistent stockpiling
(percent retained on #8 sieve)
methods.
Workability factor = percent passing #8 sieve • Inconsistent slump (mix water is static while grading
changes).
The 0.45 power chart plots the combined grading on a chart
with sieve size on the horizontal axis (scale = sieve size 0.45 • Excessive bleeding.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
µm) and percent passing on the vertical axis. • Variation in vibrator frequencies.
The 8-18 chart plots the material retained on each sieve with • Edge slump.
sieve size on the horizontal axis and percent passing on the
• Poor consolidation observed in cores.
vertical axis.
• Segregation observed in cores.
10 Troubleshooting
Test Methods
________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
Figure 9-2. Coarseness/workability chart Figure 9-4. Sample combined aggregate gradation 8-18
band
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
________________________________________________
Figure 9-3. Sample combined aggregate gradation 0.45
power curve
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Test Method
Some portland cements and combinations of cement and • Obtain a mortar sample from the project-mixed concrete.
pozzolans may be prone to false set. False set reduces the • Place the mortar sample in the mold, consolidate it, and
workability of the concrete mix. Workability can be restored strike it off.
3 Materials
by remixing without the addition of water.
• Using the Vicat, hold the 10-mm rod in contact with the top
Since remixing is not normally possible when a central mix surface of the mortar by a set screw.
plant and dump trucks are used for delivery, the false set
condition is usually offset by adding more mixing water, • Release the rod from the set screw and allow it to pen-
which increases the water-cementitious materials (w/cm) etrate into the mortar. Record the depth of penetration 10
ratio. This is poor practice. seconds after the rod is released.
4 Hydration
Performing the penetration resistance test on the • Take penetration readings 3 minutes, 5 minutes, 8 minutes,
cementitious materials will indicate whether the mix is prone and 11 minutes after batching.
to false set. • After the 11-minute reading, remix the mortar sample for
1 minute.
Principle – What is the Theory? • Replace the mortar sample in the mold, consolidate it, and
strike it off.
5 Properties
As concrete mortar stiffens (sets), the resistance required • Measure the penetration 45 seconds after remixing.
for a 10-mm diameter rod to penetrate into the mortar will
increase. The depth of penetration of the 10-mm rod into a • Record the depths of penetration for each of the five
mortar sample is measured and recorded over time. If, after repetitions.
remixing, the 10-mm rod penetrates the mortar sample to a
depth greater than was measured before remixing, then a Output – How Do I Interpret the Results?
false set condition is occurring.
The depths of penetration are reported in tabular format, as
6 Mix
in this example:
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? Initial penetration 50 mm
5-minute penetration 40 mm
ASTM C 359, the Standard Test Method for Early Stiffen-
7 Preparation
8-minute penetration 25 mm
ing of Portland Cement (Mortar Method) (false set), tests a 11-minute penetration 10 mm
laboratory-mixed mortar. It may be advisable to test a mortar Remix penetration 25 mm
sample obtained from the actual project-mixed concrete. The
test method uses a Vicat apparatus to measure the depth of If, as shown in the example, the penetration after remixing
penetration of a 10-mm diameter plunger 10 seconds after it is greater than the 11-minute penetration, false set is likely,
is released into the mortar at fixed time intervals. affecting the workability of the project mix.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Test Apparatus Construction Issues – What Should I Look For?
• Vicat: A frame holding the 10-mm rod and an indicator to Situations that may indicate the occurrence of false set
measure the depth of penetration in mm. include the following:
• Mortar Mold: A box 51-mm wide x 51-mm high x 152-mm • Excessive vibration that essentially remixes the concrete.
long (2- x 2- x 6-in.) used for containing the mortar sample.
• Loss of workability during moderate temperatures.
• Mixer: A laboratory mixer used for remixing the mortar
sample. • Workability changes that occur when pozzolans and/or
admixtures are removed or added.
10 Troubleshooting
Concrete property: workability (see Testing and Prevention for Incompatibilities in chapter 4, page 100).
Test Methods
The chemical reactions that occur during hydration of There is no standard method for this test at present. The fol-
portland cement generate heat. The coffee cup test is a lowing is one approach:
field procedure that can be performed on a paste mixture • Acquire representative material samples from the plant.
3 Materials
Portland cement, supplementary cementitious materials ing one parameter (e.g., SCM dosage, admixture dosage,
(SCMs), chemical admixtures, and water are mixed and w/cm ratio) at a time.
stored in an insulated container. The temperature of the paste • Observe the effects of changing the system on the shape
is recorded at intervals for up to 24 hours and compared to a of the temperature plot.
sample of sand kept under the same conditions. The first few
minutes are the most critical.
Construction Issues – What Should I Look For?
6 Mix
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Test Method
The strength of concrete used for pavements is mainly a • Weigh the glass pan and fiberglass cloth (tare).
function of the water-cementitious materials (w/cm) ratio of • Place the concrete sample in the glass pan on top of the
the concrete mix being used. Acceptance strength tests on fiberglass cloth.
3 Materials
hardened concrete are normally performed at least seven
days after placement of the concrete. The microwave method • Weigh the glass pan, fiberglass cloth, and concrete
can be used to obtain w/cm ratio results within hours, instead sample.
of waiting days for strength results. Monitoring the test • Heat the concrete sample in the microwave oven for five
results may provide an early flag of potentially low-strength minutes.
concrete, allowing the contractor to adjust operations sooner
• Remove the sample from the microwave, weigh, and break
than conventional strength testing might indicate.
4 Hydration
up the sample using the pestle.
Concrete strength varies inversely with the amount of water
• Reheat the sample for five minutes.
in the mix. In simplest terms, less water implies higher
strength. Other factors, such as consolidation, curing, • Repeat the weighing, breaking, and heating cycle at two-
aggregate quality, air content, and aggregate shape, affect minute intervals until the sample loses less than 1 g
strength as well. For a given mix with a constant amount of of mass between reheating cycles.
cement, the w/cm ratio has the greatest impact on strength. • Record the mass of the wet concrete sample and the
5 Properties
mass of the dry concrete sample and the difference
between the two masses (mass of total water content).
Principle – What is the Theory?
6 Mix
The total water content of the concrete sample can be
• Free water on the aggregate. expressed as a percentage:
• Water added in the batching process. Total water content % (Wt) = (wet sample mass – dry
The mass of water removed from a fresh mixture by drying in sample mass) / wet sample mass
7 Preparation
a microwave can be used to calculate the w/cm ratio of the This Wt can be monitored and used as a relative indicator of
mixture. potential variability in pavement strength.
It should be noted that the value of Wt will not provide the
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? true w/cm ratio because the microwave test drives out all
of the water in the concrete, including the water that is
The test is described in AASHTO T 318. A sample of fresh absorbed in the aggregate. As such, the value of Wt will be
concrete from the project is weighed and then dried in a greater than the true w/cm ratio of the mix. By compensating
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
microwave. It is then reweighed to determine the mass of for the measured absorption of the aggregate, the result from
water that was contained in the mix. The water absorbed in this test can be used to monitor variability in the concrete
the aggregate is subtracted from this total, and the remain- from batch to batch.
der is used to calculate the w/cm ratio using the batched
cementitious materials content.
Test Methods
Unit Weight
2 Design
The unit weight of fresh concrete is a general indicator that • Determine the level-full volume of the air pot.
the concrete has been batched in the correct proportions. It • Weigh the empty air pot.
is an excellent indicator of uniformity of a mixture from batch
• Consolidate a sample of fresh concrete in the air pot using
3 Materials
to batch.
the tamping rod or vibrator and mallet.
• Strike off the concrete so that it is level-full with the top
rim of the air pot.
Principle – What is the Theory?
• Clean off all excess concrete from the exterior of the air pot.
A concrete mix design is composed of several ingredients: • Weigh the air pot full of concrete.
4 Hydration
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Test Method
Heat signature is a representation of the heat of hydration • Cast a standard concrete cylinder (6 in. x 12 in.) from
generated by a specific concrete mix over time. Variations concrete sampled at the project site.
in the chemistry and dosage of portland cement and • Place the cylinder inside the adiabatic calorimeter and
3 Materials
supplementary cement materials (SCMs), along with seal it.
interactions between them and chemical admixtures, may be
flagged by the heat signature. • Temperature sensors record the temperature inside the
drum at 15-minute intervals.
• Data from the sensors are uploaded to a central database.
Principle – What is the Theory? • Centralized database software is utilized for analysis and
4 Hydration
downloading reports.
Chemical reactions that occur as concrete hardens emit
heat (heat of hydration). By insulating a standard cylinder
of concrete from the influence of outside temperatures and Output – How Do I Interpret the Results?
using sensors to record the heat generated by the concrete,
The basic analysis of the heat signature consists of a graph
it is possible to measure the adiabatic heat signature of a
of time vs. temperature. Plotting multiple samples on the same
concrete mix. A chart that plots time on the x-axis and tem-
5 Properties
chart may reveal differences in the mix’s chemistry (figure 9-5).
perature on the y-axis is produced from this data.
6 Mix
is equipped with temperature sensors that record the
temperature inside the drum at 15-minute intervals. The
temperature and time data are transmitted by computer to a
centralized database, where data are stored and analyzed.
7 Preparation
For this research, the analysis period will range from 2 days
up to 10 days.
________________________________________________
Figure 9-5. Heat signature sample plots
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
properties:
• Standard concrete cylinder.
• Workability and consolidation.
• Personal computer to transmit data to a central database.
• Rate of strength gain.
• Ultimate concrete strength.
• Initial window for saw-cutting contraction joints. 10 Troubleshooting
Test Methods
Interactions between concrete pavements and the • Measure and record concrete temperature when the
3 Materials
the project.
with a thermometer when the concrete is sampled. Many combinations of weather conditions can adversely
Subgrade temperature is taken with a pyrometer in front of affect a concrete pavement. The following are the primary
the paver when the concrete is sampled. conditions to observe:
Project environmental conditions are recorded using a por- • High temperatures may increase the risk of incompatibility
table weather station. between the reactive components of a mix.
• Hot, dry, windy conditions contribute to plastic shrinkage
cracking.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Concrete Maturity
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Test Method
3 Materials
may be used as a criterion for opening a pavement to traffic
and for quality control purposes. ◦ Completely embed a temperature sensor in one of the
specimens. This specimen is used only for recording
the temperature over time and will not be broken.
Principle – What is the Theory?
◦ Cure all the strength specimens in the same location
The degree of hydration (leading to strength) of a given mix (constant temperature).
4 Hydration
design is a function of time and temperature. Correlation ◦ Test the strength of the specimens at one, three, five,
curves can be developed for a mix design that estimate con- and seven days. Break and average three specimens
crete strength based on its maturity. The in-place strength of at each age.
a pavement can be estimated by monitoring the temperature
◦ Download and record the time/temperature factor (TTF)
of the slab over time and using the correlation curve that was
for each set of strength specimens when they are
developed for that mixture.
broken.
A maturity curve (strength estimate based on maturity) is only
5 Properties
◦ Plot the strength and TTF data for the strength speci-
applicable to a specific mix design.
mens on a graph, with TTF on the x-axis and concrete
strength on the y-axis.
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? ◦ Fit a smooth curve through the plotted points.
The maturity curve is developed by casting, curing, and • In-Place Maturity (estimated strength):
testing standard strength specimens while measuring and ◦ Completely embed a temperature sensor in the
6 Mix
recording the temperature of those specimens over time pavement.
(ASTM C 1074).
◦ Download the TTF from the sensor at any time.
Maturity testing is performed by inserting a temperature
◦ Estimate the strength of the concrete pavement using
sensor in the slab and then downloading the temperature
7 Preparation
computer software and the appropriate maturity curve.
data to a computer that compares the slab temperature data
to the maturity curve.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• Sensors to measure the temperature of the test specimens based on the maturity of the concrete (TTF). A sample maturity
and of the pavement. curve is shown in figure 9-6.
• Computer software to analyze strength, temperature, and
time data for developing the maturity curve and estimating
the pavement strength.
10 Troubleshooting
Concrete property: strength development (see Maturity Testing, chapter 5, page 121).
Test Methods
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do this Test? Test Method
Concrete strength is critical because it reflects concrete’s • Sample and cast cylinder and beam specimens in accor-
ability to carry intended loads. Flexural and compressive dance with standard procedures.
strength testing are currently the standard methods of
• Cover and protect specimens from evaporation and
3 Materials
evaluating and assessing pay factors for pavement concrete.
damage for 24 hours.
The tests are required for calibrating maturity-based
monitoring systems. • Remove specimens from the molds and transfer to the
curing tanks.
• Cure the specimens in a controlled environment until they
Principle – What is the Theory?
are broken.
4 Hydration
A measured force is applied to concrete samples of consistent • Remove the specimens from the curing tanks. Trim cylin-
cross-sectional area (beams and cylinders) until the samples ders to length, taking care to avoid letting the specimens
fail. The force required to break the sample is used to calculate dry out before they are tested.
the strength based on the cross-sectional area of the sample.
• Place the specimens in the hydraulic testing frame and
apply a force until the specimen breaks.
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? • Record the maximum force applied and the dimensions of
5 Properties
the specimen.
Samples of fresh concrete from the project are cast in
cylinder and/or beam molds. These test specimens are cured
in laboratory conditions until they are broken in accordance
with ASTM C 39 (compression) or ASTM C 78 (flexure). A
consistent and continuously increasing force is applied to the
test specimens by a hydraulic testing machine. The maximum
force required to break the sample and the actual dimensions
6 Mix
of each sample are recorded. Output – How Do I Interpret the Results?
7 Preparation
include specimen identification, specimen dimensions, span
• Cylinder and beam molds for casting strength specimens length (beams), and maximum force applied.
(6-in. diameter x 12-in. height for cylinders and 6-in. width Formulas for concrete strength calculations:
x 6-in. height x 24-in. length for beams). Flexural strength = ([force x span] / [width x depth2])
• Curing tanks to provide consistent curing conditions for Compressive strength = force / (π x radius2)
the specimens.
• Hydraulic testing frame for applying the force.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• Cutoff saw, neoprene cap, and miscellaneous tools for
preparing the specimens.
10 Troubleshooting
Concrete property: strength development (see Strength Testing, chapter 5, page 119).
Test Methods
• Consolidation.
• Curing conditions.
7 Preparation
and workability.
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Test Method
Freeze-thaw resistance of concrete is primarily controlled • Obtain a sample of fresh mortar behind the paver.
by the spacing factor of the air-void system. The air-void • Using a syringe, extract 20 cc of mortar from the sample.
analyzer provides a method of measuring the spacing factor
• Eject the 20-cc sample from the syringe and gently agitate
3 Materials
in fresh concrete, rather than waiting for microscopical
analysis of hardened concrete. A sample of mortar is it for 30 seconds.
taken from the concrete after it has been through the • The bubbles are released from the mortar sample and,
paver and tested immediately, with a result obtained in over time, rise through the separation liquid and through a
about 30 minutes. column of water.
• As the bubbles rise, they are collected underneath a
4 Hydration
submerged bowl.
Principle – What is the Theory? • The buoyancy (mass) of the submerged bowl is measured
over time as the bubbles are collected.
Gently stirring a sample of fresh concrete mortar releases the
• The test is concluded when the mass of the submerged
air bubbles through a viscous fluid and then through a column
bowl remains constant for 3 minutes or at the end of
of water. The air bubbles are captured under a submerged
25 minutes, whichever occurs first.
bowl that is connected to a scale. As the air bubbles collect,
5 Properties
the buoyancy (mass) of the bowl is recorded over time. The • The computer and software collect and analyze the data
distribution of different-sized bubbles is a function of Stoke’s from the scale, which is part of the AVA.
Law (larger bubbles rise faster than smaller bubbles).
6 Mix
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? reports. Values are reported for the following:
A sample of fresh concrete mortar is taken from the slab • Spacing factor: Values less than 0.01 in. are desirable.
behind the paver using a vibrating cage attached to a hand • Specific surface (bubble size): Values greater than 0.04 mm
7 Preparation
drill. A 20-cc portion of the mortar sample is injected into are desirable.
the instrument, which then gently stirs it to release the air
• Air-void content of paste.
bubbles into the fluid.
• Air-void content of concrete.
The measurement continues for 25 minutes or until the
weight of the bowl remains unchanged for 3 minutes. The results may not reflect actual spacing factors, but the
output can be calibrated from trial batches in which the data
Software then processes the scale readings that were taken
have been collected using both the AVA and linear traverse
over time and, using an algorithm, calculates the air bubble
methods.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
spacing factor and bubble size.
Concrete property: air content (see Testing / Air-Void System, chapter 5, page 136).
Test Methods
Entrained air is essential to the long-term durability of • Consolidate the concrete in the measuring bowl using
concrete pavements that are subject to freezing and thawing. a tamping rod or vibrator and mallet.
Air content is a commonly specified parameter in paving
• Strike off the concrete in the measuring bowl so that it
3 Materials
Principle – What is the Theory? • Open the valve between the air chamber and the
measuring bowl.
The fresh concrete is fully consolidated in an airtight
• Tap the measuring bowl with the mallet to ensure
container. Pressure from a fixed-volume cell is applied to
that pressure is equalized.
the sample in the container. Air in the sample is compressed,
and the reduction in pressure in the cell is directly related • Tap the gauge lightly if necessary to stabilize the
to the volume of air in the sample. The air content of the needle indicator.
5 Properties
sample is thus read directly from the gauge of a properly • Record the percentage of air content indicated on
calibrated meter. the gauge.
Air content of the fresh concrete mix is read directly from the
gauge of a calibrated type B pressure meter.
6 Mix
Concrete property: air content (see Testing / Air-Void System, chapter 5, page 136).
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Test Method
Another method of determining the quality of an air-void • Obtain a core from the pavement.
system in concrete is microscopical analysis of hardened • Cut a section of the core.
3 Materials
concrete. This method provides information on the total air
content, as well as the spacing factor and other parameters. • Grind, lap, and polish the core section until it is smooth
and flat.
• Cover the polished face of the core section with black ink
from a stamp pad.
• Heat the core to 54°C (130°F) and coat the ink-covered
Principle – What is the Theory?
4 Hydration
core section with a zinc paste.
The air-void structure of concrete can be measured and • Allow the core section to cool, and scrape the zinc paste
characterized by examining a section of a core with a off the surface. The melted zinc paste will remain in the
microscope. The linear traverse method consists of measur- air voids of the surface, providing a white contrast to the
ing the air voids as a polished concrete sample travels under black ink surface of the core section.
a microscope in regularly spaced lines. The length of travel
• Mount the prepared core section in the image analysis
across air voids is compared to the length of travel across
5 Properties
apparatus.
paste and aggregate, and the data are used to calculate the
air content, spacing factor, and specific surface of the air • Start the image analysis apparatus.
voids in the concrete sample. • The image analysis hardware and software automatically
traverse the section and record the data.
6 Mix
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? The software produces a tabular report showing air content,
spacing factor, and specific surface area of the air voids. A
The method is described in ASTM C 457. A core from the slab
digital image of the core section can also be viewed or printed.
7 Preparation
is sectioned and polished. The apparatus is used to move a
core sample under a microscope (or vice versa) in straight The air content is expressed as a percent of volume of the
lines. The total length traversed and the length traversed concrete sample.
across air voids are recorded. Spacing factor is the average distance from any point to the
nearest air void, or the maximum length measured from the
cement paste to the edge of an air void.
Specific surface area is the surface area of the air voids
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
divided by the air voids’ volume.
Test Apparatus
Concrete property: air content (see Testing / Air-Void System, chapter 5, page 136).
Test Methods
The ability of concrete to resist the transportation of • Completely saturate the core section with water.
chlorides is an important factor in its potential durability. If
• Place the saturated core section in the sealed cell con-
chlorides can be prevented from reaching any steel in the
taining the two different sodium solutions on either side of
3 Materials
concrete.
The test results are expressed in coulombs, and the perme-
ability of the concrete is classified according to table 9-5. Note
that differences within the range of 1,300 to 1,800 coulombs are
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? not significant.
The test is described in ASTM C 1202. A 2-in. thick section
is obtained from a 4-in. diameter pavement core. The core
6 Mix
core and a sodium hydroxide solution on the other side. The 2,000 to 4,000 moderate
1,000 to 2,000 low
electric current is applied and measured for six hours.
100 to 1,000 very low
following:
sample.
• Lower water-cementitious materials ratio will lead to
• Sodium chloride solution.
lower conductivity.
• Sodium hydroxide solution.
• Use of fly ash; ground, granulated blast-furnace slag; and
• Sealed cell: Holds the core specimen with each liquid silica fume will generally reduce conductivity.
solution on opposite sides of the core section and has
Paving process inputs that influence permeability include the
electrical leads for connecting a DC electrical source.
following:
• DC power supply: Provides constant DC power to the test
• Improved consolidation will reduce conductivity.
specimen.
• Premature final finishing when excessive bleed water is
• Voltmeter: Measures and records volts and amps on both
present will increase surface permeability.
sides of the core specimen.
• Proper curing will reduce conductivity.
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
Purpose – Why Do This Test? Test Method
The expansion and contraction of concrete due to • Soak a 4-in. diameter core in water for a minimum of 48
temperature changes can impact the durability of joints and hours.
3 Materials
the risk of cracking in concrete pavements.
• Measure the length of the saturated core using calipers.
• Place the core in the support frame that is submerged in
the water tank.
• Adjust the temperature of the water tank to 10°C (50°F).
• Maintain the temperature until three consecutive LVDT
4 Hydration
Principle – What is the Theory? readings taken every 10 minutes change by less than
0.00025 mm (0.00001 in.). Record the initial LVDT and
Concrete expands and contracts as its temperature changes.
temperature values.
When a saturated cylinder of concrete is exposed to chang-
ing temperature conditions, its change in length can be • Set the temperature of the water tank to 50°C (120°F).
measured by a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). • Maintain the temperature until three consecutive LVDT
readings taken every 10 minutes change by less than
5 Properties
0.00025 mm (0.00001 in.). Record the second LVDT and
temperature values.
• Adjust the temperature of the water tank to 10°C (50°F).
• Maintain the temperature until three consecutive LVDT
Test Procedure – How is the Test Run? readings taken every 10 minutes change by less than
0.00025 mm (0.00001 in.). Record the final LVDT and tem-
6 Mix
A saturated concrete cylinder or core is subjected to tem- perature values.
perature changes from 10 to 50°C (50 to 120°F). The change in
length of the cylinder is measured and recorded at different Output – How Do I Interpret the Results?
temperatures. (The procedure has not been standardized.)
7 Preparation
The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is a function of length
change due to a change in temperature.
CTE = (measured length change / specimen length) /
measured temperature change
The CTE reported is the average of both test values.
Test Apparatus The CTE is reported in microstrain/°F. Typical values for con-
crete can range from 4(10-6) to 7(10-6)°F. CTE is most affected
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
• Caliper to measure the initial length of the core specimen. by aggregate type. Concrete produced with siliceous aggre-
• Water tank: Maintains saturation of the sample and varies gates has a higher CTE than concrete produced with limestone
the temperature of the water from 10 to 50°C (50 to 120°F). aggregates.
• Support frame: Holds the core specimen and the LVDT.
• Thermometer: Measures the water temperature. Construction Issues – What Should I Look For?
• LVDT: Measures the length change of the specimen Thermal expansion/contraction is a factor that should be
(resolution = 0.00025 mm [0.00001 in.]). considered in the design phase. During construction, the
following items should be monitored for conformity with the
plans to avoid the possibly adverse effects of thermal expan-
sion and contraction:
• Joint layout and spacing.
10 Troubleshooting
• Joint width.
Concrete property: thermal movement (see Thermal Expansion/Contraction, chapter 5, page 129).
References
AASHTO standards may be found in Standard Specifications ASTM C 78-02, Standard Test Method for Flexural
for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-
2 Design
AASHTO T 153, Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by dard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed
Air Permeability Apparatus Concrete by the Volumetric Method
AASHTO T 185, Early Stiffening of Portland
ASTM C 204, Standard Test Method for Fineness of
Cement (Mortar Method)
Hydraulic Cement by Air Permeability Apparatus
AASHTO T 196, Standard Method of Test for Air
ASTM C 231-04/AASHTO T 152, Standard Test
Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric
Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by
6 Mix
Method
the Pressure Method
AASHTO T 255, Standard Method of Test for Total
ASTM C 359, Standard Test Method for Early Stiff-
Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying
ening of Hydraulic Cement (Mortar Method)
7 Preparation
ASTM C 70-94(2001), Standard Test Method for Testing Concrete and Concrete Aggregates for Use in
Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate Construction and Criteria for Laboratory Evaluation
ASTM C 1202, Standard Test Method for Electrical Materials. STP 169c. Eds. Paul Klieger and Joseph F.
Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Lamond. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society
2 Design
Penetration for Testing and Material. 421–428.
AASHTO. 1996. Quality Assurance Guide Specifica- Mindess, S., J.F. Young, and D. Darwin. 2003.
tion. Report of the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee Concrete. 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
on Construction. Washington, D.C.: American Asso- Hall.
ciation of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
3 Materials
Seward, K., et al. [please list all authors here].
ACPA. 1999. Database of State DOT Concrete 2004. Oklahoma Department of Transportation Draft
Pavement Practices. Skokie, IL: American Concrete Special Provision. Quality Control and Acceptance
Pavement Association. www.pavement.com. Procedures for Optimized Portland Cement Concrete
———. 1994. Vertical Dowel Location: Tech Tip. Pavements. 414-10QA(a-x) 99. Oklahoma City, OK:
Concrete Pavement Progress 34.3. Oklahoma Department of Transportation.
4 Hydration
Kosmatka, S., B. Kerkhoff, and W.C. Panarese. Steffes, R. and S. Tymkowicz. 1997. Vibrator Trails
2003. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. EB001/ in Slipformed Pavements. Concrete Construction. April.
CD100. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. 361–368.
Landgren, R. 1994. Unit Weight, Specific Grav- Steffes, R. and S. Tymkowicz. 2002. Research Pays
ity, Absorption, and Surface Moisture. Significance of Off: Vibrator Monitors Concrete Paving Technology,
Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete Making Generates Buzz. Transportation Research News. November.
5 Properties
6 Mix
7 Preparation
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
10 Troubleshooting
3 Materials
Table 10-1. Problems Observed Before the Concrete Has Set 275
Table 10-2. Problems Observed in the First Days After Placing 282
Table 10-3. Preventing Problems That Are Observed Some Time After Construction 286
4 Hydration
Table 10-4. Assessing the Extent of Damage in Hardened Concrete 290
Most materials-related problems that occur during Possibilities may include weather changes, a change
paving operations are due to actions taken or con- in material source or quality, and staffing changes.
5 Properties
ditions met during materials selection or concrete Problems are often a combination of factors, including
mixing and placing. To prevent and fix problems, all design and detailing, materials selection and propor-
members of the construction team need to understand tioning, and construction practices. A project may be
the materials they are working with and be prepared proceeding satisfactorily, but a small change in any
to address potential scenarios. one of these factors may tip the balance and result in a
Inappropriate repairs may fail to correct the prob- problem.
6 Mix
lem and may not last. It is essential, therefore, that Not all problems are observed in the early stages.
before changes are made or remedial action taken, the Some become apparent only later. This chapter con-
cause of a problem be understood. This may involve tains tables that recommend actions to be taken when
7 Preparation
investigative work to uncover the mechanisms and problems are observed—before the concrete has set
sources of the distress. When doing this type of inves- (see plastic shrinkage cracks in figure 10-1), during
tigation, it is important to make accurate observations the first few days after placement (see other early-age
and document them. cracks in figure 10-1), or some time after the con-
Begin any investigation by looking for patterns crete has hardened. The tables refer to sections in the
that may connect cause and effect. In particular, look manual where detailed information can be found about
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
for changes that may have led to the problem. the factors that may have contributed to the problem.
10 Troubleshooting
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 10-1. Early-age cracking
insufficient air in the concrete, can be fixed immedi- Table 10-2. Problems Observed in the First
ately if they are observed early enough. In such cases, Days after Placing
admixture dosages might be adjusted if allowed by the Strength
specification and good practice. Others, such as rapid 18. Strength gain is slow.
stiffening, may be observed only after the concrete has 19. Strength is too low.
4 Hydration
Joint Issues
Table 10-1. Problems Observed Before the
21. Raveling along joints.
Concrete Has Set
5 Properties
may be possible (and required), and steps should be 4. Concrete quality in pavement.
taken to prevent their recurrence. Finally, some prob- 5. Overlay debonding and separation.
lems are observed only after the pavement has been 6. Concrete strength.
2 Design
1. Slump is Out of Specification
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
3 Materials
Change in water content or aggregate grading Check aggregate moisture contents and absorptions. 44, 47, 183, 206,
Check for segregation in the stockpile. 207, 211
Make sure the batch water is adjusted for aggregate
moisture content.
Conduct batch plant uniformity tests.
Check whether water was added at the site.
4 Hydration
Mix proportions Check batch equipment for calibration. 207
Admixture dosage Check delivery ticket for correct admixture dosage. 207
Concrete temperature too high or too low Adjust the concrete placement temperature. 127
Haul time Check the batch time on the concrete delivery ticket. 209
Haul times should not be excessive.
5 Properties
2. Loss of Workability/Slump Loss/Early Stiffening
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Dry coarse aggregates Make sure the aggregate stockpile is kept consistently at 206
saturated surface-dry (SSD) (use soaker hoses if necessary).
Ambient temperature increases Do not add water. 179, 182, 183, 206,
6 Mix
Chill the mix water or add ice. 210, 226
Sprinkle the aggregate stockpiles.
Use a water reducer or retarder.
7 Preparation
Do not increase the water/cement ratio to a value
greater than the maximum approved mix design.
Use a mix design that includes slag or fly ash.
Transport time too long Reject the load if greater than specified. 183, 209
Use retarder in the mixture.
Use an agitator rather than dump trucks.
Mix proportions have changed Check/monitor the moisture contents of the aggregate 206, 207, 246
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
stockpiles.
Check the batch weigh scales.
Verify that aggregate gradations are correct.
False setting (temporary) Check for changes in cementitious materials. 58, 209, 211
Reduce Class C fly ash replacement.
Change the type of water reducer.
Try restoring plasticity with additional mixing.
Contact the cement supplier.
Incompatibility Check for changes in the cementitious materials. 97, 246, 247
Reduce Class C fly ash replacement.
10 Troubleshooting
3. Mixture is Sticky
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Sand too fine Change the sand grading. 44, 109
3 Materials
Mix too sandy Check the sand and combined aggregate grading. 180
Cementitious materials Check the cementitious materials contents. 31, 109, 179, 214
(Mixtures containing GGBF slag and fly ash appear
sticky but finish well and respond well to vibration energy.)
Lower the vibration energy to avoid segregation.
Adjust the mix proportioning.
4 Hydration
4. Mixture Segregates
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
5 Properties
Inconsistent concrete material—batching, Check aggregate gradation; poorly graded mixtures may 176, 206, 207, 208,
mixing, placing tend to segregate. 213, 215, 246
Verify batching/mixing procedures so that the mixture is
adequately mixed.
Check aggregate stockpile, storage, and loading procedures
to prevent aggregate segregation.
Place concrete as close to final position as possible to
6 Mix
2 Design
6. Air Content is Too Low or Too High
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Temperature changes The air-entraining admixture dosage may need to be 186
3 Materials
adjusted during hot/cold weather.
Materials have changed Check for uniformity of materials.
Mix proportions have changed Altering other admixture dosages may impact the 176, 180, 246
effectiveness of the air-entraining admixture.
Check slump; it is easier to entrain air with increasing
concrete workability.
4 Hydration
Check/monitor the moisture contents of the aggregate
stockpiles.
Check the batch weigh scales.
Verify that aggregate gradations are correct.
Verify sand quantity.
Short or inadequate mixing Check the charging sequence. 209
5 Properties
Increase mixing time.
Check if the blades of the mixer are missing or dirty.
6 Mix
Incorrect or incompatible admixture types Change types or brands of admixtures. 186, 248
Try to work within one manufacturer’s family of admixtures
if air-entraining agent is being combined with other admixtures.
7 Preparation
Admixture dosage Check the batching equipment for calibration and settings. 207, 248
Change the sequence of batching.
Mix proportions have varied or changed Check/monitor the moisture contents of the aggregate 176, 183, 206, 248
stockpiles.
Check the batch weigh scales.
Verify that aggregate gradations are correct.
Cementitious materials Check for changes in cementitious materials, particularly the 34
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
loss-on-ignition (LOI) content of fly ash.
Poor plant configuration Introduce aggregates together on the plant’s belt feed 207
(requires a multiple weigh hopper).
Poor aggregate grading Use a more well-graded coarse and fine aggregate mixture. 176
Check variation in the amount of materials retained on the
#30 through #100 sieves.
Temperature changes Air-entraining admixture dosage may need to be adjusted 56, 133, 247
during hot/cold weather.
Altering other admixture dosages may impact the
effectiveness of the air-entraining admixture; air-entraining
admixtures work more efficiently with increasing workability.
Variable mixing Ensure that each batch is handled consistently in the plant. 207
10 Troubleshooting
Use mix designs that include GGBF slag or fly ash. 226, 246
Use a retarder.
Reduce haul time if possible.
Reduce the placement temperature of the concrete.
In hot weather, use a hot weather mix design.
5 Properties
9. Delayed Set
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
6 Mix
Excessive retarder dosage Verify the proper batch proportions. 56, 183, 207, 246
Check the batching equipment.
Reduce the dosage of the retarder.
7 Preparation
Excessive water reducer dosage Verify the proper batch proportions. 56, 183, 207
Reduce the dosage of the water reducer.
Retarder not dispersed well Improve mixing to disperse the retarder. 209
Supplementary cementitious materials Reduce GGBF slag content; GGBF slag in excess of 31
interference 25 percent can cause a dramatic increase in set time.
Eliminate/reduce fly ash content in the mix.
Cold placement temperature Follow cold-weather concreting practices if appropriate. 228
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Organic contamination Verify the proper batch proportions. 39, 52, 207
Check for contamination of water and aggregates.
10 Troubleshooting
2 Design
10. Supplier Breakdown, Demand Change, Raw Material Changes
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Cement Refer to backup lab mixes if conditions were anticipated. 28, 171, 211
3 Materials
Switch sources, batch new mix designs, and develop new
laboratory strength gain and maturity information. (This action
may require a project delay. To avoid unacceptable delays,
a contractual agreement should be arranged prior to paving,
which allows for unforeseen material supply changes, burden
of delay costs, and risk of paving during batch revision testing.
If paving activity is continued during testing, compare early-age
strengths (1- and 3-day) and maturity data to confirm that the
4 Hydration
new mix will perform adequately.)
Supplementary cementitious materials See cement supply change. 31
Switch sources and compare early-age strengths (1- and 3-day)
and maturity data to confirm that the mix will perform adequately.
Aggregates See cement supply change. 39
Switch sources and compare early-age strengths
5 Properties
(1- and 3-day) and maturity data to confirm that the mix will
perform adequately.
Chemical admixtures See cement supply change. 55
Switch admixture sources and compare early-age strengths
(1- and 3-day) and maturity data to confirm that the mix will
perform adequately.
6 Mix
Edge and Surface Issues
7 Preparation
11. Fiber Balls Appear in Mixture
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Fibers not thoroughly dispersed in mix If added in bags, check the timing of addition and subsequent 62
mixing.
Some mixes do not break down bags as easily as others
(i.e., smaller sized rounded coarse aggregate mixes); check
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
compatibility.
Use a blower for synthetic fibers or a belt placer for steel fibers
instead of bags.
10 Troubleshooting
a spreader.
The concrete is stiffening in the grout box Check for premature concrete stiffening (admixture 97
compatibility).
(See no. 2: Loss of workability/slump loss/early stiffening.)
The fine/coarse aggregate volume or paste Check mixture proportions, particularly aggregate gradations. 171, 176
volume is too low Check the uniformity of aggregate materials/supplies.
4 Hydration
The finishing pan angle needs adjustment Adjust the pan angle.
The paver speed is too high or vibrators Slow the paver. 215, 248
need to be adjusted Lower the vibrator frequencies or use vibrators with greater
force.
Adjust the location of the vibrators; raise them closer to the
surface.
5 Properties
Angular fine aggregate (manufactured sand) Replace a portion of the manufactured sand with natural sand. 39
Paver speed too high Slow the paver.
Coarse aggregate is segregated Check the stockpile. 109, 206
Coarse aggregate is gap-graded Check the combined aggregate grading. 109, 176
Blend the aggregate with intermediate aggregates to achieve
a uniform combined grading.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Poor combined aggregate grading Check the combined aggregate grading. 176
2 Design
15. Slab Edge Slump
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Poor and/or nonuniform Verify the mix design and batching procedures. 176, 246
3 Materials
concrete—gap-graded aggregate, Check the aggregate grading—use a well-graded combined
high water/cement ratio, etc. aggregate gradation.
Inadequate operation of equipment Check the construction procedures. 212
Adjust the outside vibrator frequency.
Adjust the side form batter.
Improper equipment setup Adjust the overbuild. 212
4 Hydration
Check the track speed (same on both sides).
Check the pan profile.
5 Properties
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Hot weather may induce premature stiffening Follow hot-weather concreting practices if appropriate. 226
See no. 2: Loss of workability/slump loss/early stiffening.
Inadequate vibration Check that all vibrators are working properly, at the right 248
frequency and amplitude; the paver speed should not be too high.
Add an additional vibrator near the slipformed edge.
6 Mix
Poor workability Check for changes in the aggregate grading. 176
7 Preparation
17. Plastic Shrinkage Cracks (figures 5-30, 5-31, 10-1)
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
High evaporation rate (excessive loss of Apply the curing compound as soon as possible to protect 158, 176, 191, 206,
moisture from surface of fresh concrete; the concrete from loss of moisture. 224, 226
i.e., evaporation rate > bleed rate)
Use additional curing measures: fogging, evaporation retarder,
windbreaks, shading, plastic sheets, or wet coverings.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Make sure the absorptive aggregates are kept moist; a dry
concrete mixture from concrete aggregates that are not
saturated tends to surface dry at mixing. This is problematic if
not accounted for.
Use a well-graded combined aggregate (gap gradation requires
more paste and causes more shrinkage).
Refer to hot-weather concreting practices if appropriate.
Pave at night.
Chill the mixing water.
Dampen the subgrade.
Avoid paving on hot, windy days.
Consider adding fibers to the mix.
10 Troubleshooting
Verify that batch weights are consistent with the mix design.
changed.
Contamination with organics Contamination of one of the ingredients with organics can also
effect a sudden change in the required dosage of air-entraining
admixture; try to isolate the source.
Inadequate or variable mixing Examine the mixer and mixing procedures. 207, 208
Check for worn mixer blades.
Check for mixer overloading.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Avoid retempering.
Increase the mixing time.
Cracking
2 Design
20. Early-Age Cracking (figures 5-32, 5-33, 5-34, 5-35, and 10-1)
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Concrete mixture Check the combined aggregate grading. 31, 39, 55, 88, 97, 148,
3 Materials
Examine the fine aggregates; fine aggregates may be too fine 176, 228, 235
and angularity may cause harsh finishing (i.e., manufactured
sands).
Reduce the paste content (minimize shrinkage potential).
Materials incompatibility may lead to delayed set and/or higher
concrete shrinkage; consider mixture component adjustments.
4 Hydration
Eliminate or reduce the content of fly ash or GGBF slag in
cool-weather conditions.
Consider using an accelerator in cold weather.
Sawing Saw as early as possible but avoid excessive raveling. 231, 233
Saw in the direction of the wind.
Check that the diamond saw blade is appropriate for concrete
5 Properties
aggregate hardness, fines, etc.
Use early-entry dry sawing.
Use HIPERPAV to model stress versus strength gain for
conditions to determine the optimum sawing time.
Curing Improve/extend curing. 224
Apply the curing compound at a higher rate.
6 Mix
Apply the curing compound sooner.
Use blankets between placing and saw-cutting.
Insufficient joint depth Check the saws for depth setting. 231, 233
7 Preparation
Check the saw blade for wear (carbide blades).
Check that saw operators are not pushing saws too fast,
causing them to ride up.
Look for base bonding or mortar penetration into the
open-graded base-altered effective section; increase the saw
depth to create an effective weakened plane.
Check the slab thickness.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Excessive joint spacing Reduce spacing between the joints.
Slabs are too wide in relation to thickness and length; add
intermediate joints.
Maintain a reasonable length-width ratio.
Warping (slab curvature due to moisture Check the moisture state of base. 150, 224
gradient; the term “curling,” however, Improve or extend curing.
is commonly used in the industry to cover
Minimize the shrinkage potential of the concrete mixture.
both moisture- and temperature-related
slab distortion) Cover the slab, particularly when night/day temperatures
vary widely.
(continued on the following page)
10 Troubleshooting
Cracking, continued
2 Design
Slab/base bonding or high frictional restraint Moisten the base course prior to paving (reduce the base 191
temperature by evaporative cooling).
Use a bond-breaking medium (see reflective cracks).
If the base is open graded, use a choker stone to prevent the
penetration of concrete into the base’s surface voids.
Misaligned dowel bars Investigate whether the joints surrounding the crack have 218
activated and are functioning; misaligned or bonded dowels
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Joint Issues
2 Design
21. Raveling Along Joints
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Sawing too soon Wait longer to saw. 233
3 Materials
Use formed joints.
Blank out transverse tining at transverse contraction joints.
Saw equipment problem Blade selection for the concrete (coarse aggregate type) 233
may be inadequate.
A bent arbor on the saw causes the blade to wobble.
The second saw cut can go back and forth; consider a
4 Hydration
single-cut design.
Sawing too fast Slow down. 233
5 Properties
Excessive hand finishing Check for mixture problems that would necessitate 220
overfinishing.
Improve construction practice.
Trying to fix edge slump of low spots Check for mixture problems that would cause edge slump. 217
by hand manipulating concrete Improve construction practice.
Mortar penetration into transverse joints Mortar penetration occurs when paving against an existing
6 Mix
(after hardening mortar prevents joint closure) previously placed lane; apply duct tape or other means to
block the penetration of mortar into the transverse joints of
the existing lane.
Collateral damage from equipment, Protect the edges of the slab from damage using gravel or
7 Preparation
slipform paver tracks, screeds, etc. dirt ramps.
Delay placement of the next phase of construction until the
concrete gains sufficient strength.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Movement in dowel basket assemblies Cover the dowel baskets with concrete ahead of the paver. 218, 248
Use stakes to secure the baskets to the granular base.
Increase the length and number of stakes.
Use nailing clips on both sides of basket to secure the
basket to the stabilized base.
Dumping directly on dowel baskets Deposit the concrete a few feet from the dowel basket to 212
allow the concrete to flow around the dowel bars.
Poor aggregate gradation Dowel insertion into mixtures with gap-graded aggregates 176
does not work well; improve the aggregate grading.
10 Troubleshooting
Table 10-3. Preventing Problems That Are Observed at Some Time after Construction
Edge and Surface Issues
2 Design
• Haul trucks tracking clay and Keep end-loader buckets a minimum of 2 ft off the ground.
mud to stockpiles Do not stockpile aggregates on soft foundations.
• Loader operator digging into dirt Stabilize the haul road at the plant site to avoid tracking
• Dirt coming from the quarry contaminants.
Use belt placers at stockpiles rather than end loaders.
Check the aggregate producer’s stockpiles.
4 Hydration
25. Popouts
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Unsound aggregates Use only aggregates that have been tested for chert, shale, 45, 48
and/or other undesirable fine particles.
Reduce vibration to minimize the flotation of particles.
Alkali-silica reactions Use non-alkali silica reactive aggregates. 31, 48, 141
6 Mix
2 Design
28. Concrete Blisters
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Premature closing of surface Check for bleed water trapping. 220, 221
Consider using a double burlap drag to open the surface.
3 Materials
Extremely high/variable air content Check for the consistency of the air content. 186
Vibrators too low Check the vibrator depth. 215
Vibrator frequency too high Reduce the vibrator frequency. 215
Over-sanded mixes Increase the coarse aggregate. 176
Poor combined aggregate grading Check the combined aggregate grading. 176
4 Hydration
(gap grading)
5 Properties
Check the string line tension and profile.
Maintain a consistent quantity of concrete in front of the paver.
Maintain a consistent forward motion; avoid a stop-and-go
operation.
Check the paver tracks.
Check that the machine is level.
6 Mix
Check the sensors on the paver.
Verify that the paver electronics/hydraulics are functioning
properly.
7 Preparation
Nonuniform concrete Check the batching, mixing, and transport procedures for 176, 206, 207
consistency.
Check the aggregate grading and moisture contents for
variations that might lead to wet and dry batches.
Damming or rebound from dowel baskets Lack of consolidation to achieve a uniform concrete density 215, 218, 248
within the dowel basket area may create a rough surface
because the concrete may settle or slough over the dowels.
Check that the dowel baskets are secured.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
The basket assembly deflects and rebounds after the slipform
paver profile pan passes overhead and the extrusion pressure
is released. The result is a slight hump in the concrete surface
just ahead of the basket. Spring-back is more apt to occur on
steeper grades and when there is too much draft in the pan;
do not cut the basket spacer wires to prevent the basket from
springing under the paver’s extrusion pressure.
Do not overvibrate the concrete at the baskets in an effort to
prevent basket movement.
(continued on the following page)
10 Troubleshooting
Adjust the staking interval; closely follow the grade and staking
calculations for these circumstances to reduce the semi-chord
effect enough to produce a smooth surface.
Cracking
2 Design
31. Cracking
Potential Cause(s) Actions to Consider/Avoid See Page
Applied loads Keep construction traffic away from the slab edges; early 152, 157
loading by traffic or equipment causes higher edge stresses.
3 Materials
Keep public traffic away from the slab edges.
Loss of support Ensure that the subgrade and base have been properly 151, 157, 192, 237
prepared.
Ensure that the joints are properly filled and sealed where
appropriate.
Reflective cracks from stabilized bases Isolate the slab from cracks in the base course by using bond 198
4 Hydration
breakers. (Acceptable bond breakers include two coats of
wax-based curing compound, dusting of sand, bladed fines,
asphalt emulsion, polyethylene sheets, and tar paper. Sheet
goods are difficult to handle in windy or other harsh conditions.)
Joint the base course to match the joints in the pavement.
Slab/base bonding or high frictional restraint Moisten the base course prior to paving (reduce the base 198
temperature by evaporative cooling).
5 Properties
Use a bond-breaking medium (see “Reflective cracks from
stabilized bases,” immediately above)
If the base is open-graded, use a choker stone to prevent the
penetration of concrete into the base’s surface voids.
Mortar penetration into transverse joints Mortar penetration occurs when paving against an existing
(after hardening mortar prevents joint closure) previously placed lane; apply duct tape or other means to
block the penetration of mortar into the transverse joints of
6 Mix
the existing lane.
Differential support condition created by frost Check base compaction, particularly above utility, culvert, 192, 196
heaving, soil settling, or expansive soils and other trenches.
Proof roll the base.
7 Preparation
Stabilize the subgrade soil.
Use selective grading techniques; cross-haul the soils to
create smooth transitions between cut and fill sections and
soil transitions.
Misaligned dowel bars Investigate whether the joints surrounding the crack have 218
cracked and are functioning; misaligned or bonded dowels
may prevent joint functioning, causing cracks.
8 Construction 9 QA/QC
Designate personnel to ensure dowel alignment.
Alkali-silica reactions Avoid using reactive aggregates if possible. 31, 48, 141, 157, 179
Use appropriate amounts of SCMs.
Use blended cements or SCMs proven to control ASR.
Use a low w/cm ratio.
Chemical attack Use a low w/cm ratio, maximum 0.45. 28, 157, 179
Use an appropriate cementitious system for the environment.
Frost related Ensure that the air-void system of the in-place concrete is 49, 135, 136, 157, 179
adequate.
Use a low w/cm ratio.
Use frost-resistant aggregates.
10 Troubleshooting
5. Overlay debonding and separation: Hammer sounding
a) Traditional Chain drag
b) Advanced techniques Impulse response
Impact-echo, radar
6 Mix
2 Design
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A
AASHTO Aggregate Blending
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials The process of intermixing two or more aggregates to produce a
different set of properties, generally, but not exclusively, to improve
Absolute Specific Gravity grading.
The ratio of the weight referred to in a vacuum of a given volume of
material at a stated temperature to the weight referred to a vacuum of Aggregate Gradation
an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the same temperature. The distribution of particles of granular material among various
sizes, usually expressed in terms of cumulative percentages larger
Absolute Volume (of ingredients of concrete or mortar) or smaller than each of a series of sizes (sieve openings) or the
The displacement volume of an ingredient of concrete or mortar; in percentages between certain ranges of sizes (sieve openings). See
the case of solids, the volume of the particles themselves, including also Grading.
their permeable or impermeable voids but excluding space between
particles; in the case of fluids, the volume which they occupy. Aggregate Interlock
The projection of aggregate particles or portion of aggregate
Absorbed Moisture particles from one side of a joint or crack in concrete into recesses
The moisture held in a material and having physical properties not in the other side of the joint or crack so as to effect load transfer in
substantially different from those of ordinary water at the same tem- compression and shear and maintain mutual alignment.
perature and pressure.
Aggregate, Angular
Absorbed Water Aggregate particles that possess well-defined edges formed at the
Water held on surfaces of a material by physical and chemical intersection of roughly planar faces.
forces, and having physical properties substantially different from
those of absorbed water or chemically combined water at the same Aggregate, Coarse
temperature and pressure. See Coarse Aggregate
Beam Test deteriorated existing concrete pavement with steps taken to prepare
A method of measuring the flexural strength (modulus of rupture) old surface to promote adherence of new concrete.
of concrete by testing a standard unreinforced beam.
Bonding Agent
Binder A substance applied to an existing surface to create a bond between
See Cement Paste it and a succeeding layer, as between a bonded overlay and existing
concrete pavement.
Blast-Furnace Slag
The non-metallic byproduct, consisting essentially of silicates and Broom
aluminosilicates of lime and other bases, which is produced in The surface texture obtained by stroking a broom over freshly placed
a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace. concrete. A sandy texture obtained by brushing the surface of freshly
placed or slightly hardened concrete with a stiff broom.
Bleeding
The self-generated flow of mixing water within, or its emergence Bulk Cement
from, freshly placed concrete or mortar. Cement that is transported and delivered in bulk (usually in specially
constructed vehicles) instead of in bags.
Bleeding Rate
The rate at which water is released from a paste or mortar by bleeding, Bulk Density
usually expressed as cubic centimeters of water released each second The mass of a material (including solid particles and any contained
from each square centimeter of surface. water) per unit volume, including voids.
Blended Cement Bulk Specific Gravity
See Cement, Blended The ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of a permeable
material (including both permeable and impermeable voids
Blended Hydraulic Cement
normal to the material) at a stated temperature to the weight in
See Cement, Blended
air of an equal volume of distilled water at the same temperature.
Blistering
The irregular rising of a thin layer of placed mortar or concrete at the Bulking Factor
surface during or soon after completion of the finished operation. Ratio of the volume of moist sand to the volume of the sand when dry.
other during mixing, handling, and placing operations; the “stick- freshly mixed concrete or mortar during placement by the reduction
togetherness” of the concrete at a given slump. of voids, usually by vibration, centrifugation, tamping, or some
combination of these actions; also applicable to similar manipulation
Combined Aggregate Grading of other cementitious mixtures, soils, aggregates, or the like. See
Particle size distribution of a mixture of fine and coarse aggregate. also Compaction.
Compacting Factor Construction Joint
The ratio obtained by dividing the observed weight of concrete The junction of two successive placements of concrete, typically with
which fills a container of standard size and shape when allowed to a keyway or reinforcement across the joint.
fall into it under standard conditions of test, by the weight of fully
compacted concrete which fills the same container. Continuously Reinforced Pavement
A pavement with continuous longitudinal steel reinforcement and
Compaction no intermediate transverse expansion or contraction joints.
The process whereby the volume of freshly placed mortar or
concrete is reduced to the minimum practical space, usually by Contract
vibration, centrifugation, tamping, or some combination of these; Decrease in length or volume. See also Expansion, Shrinkage,
to mold it within forms or molds and around embedded parts and Swelling.
reinforcement, and to eliminate voids other than entrained air. See
also Consolidation. Contraction Joint
A plane, usually vertical, separating concrete in a structure of
Compression Test pavement, at a designated location such as to prevent formation of
Test made on a specimen of mortar or concrete to determine the objectionable shrinkage cracks elsewhere in the concrete. Reinforcing
compressive strength; in the United States, unless otherwise specified, steel is discontinuous.
compression tests of mortars are made on 50-mm (2-in.) cubes, and
compression tests of concrete are made on cylinders 152 mm (6 in.) Control Joint
in diameter and 305 mm (12 in.) high. See Contraction Joint
Exposed Concrete
E Concrete surfaces formed so as to yield an acceptable texture and
finish for permanent exposure to view. See also Architectural Concrete.
Early Strength
External Vibrator
Strength of concrete developed soon after placement, usually during
See Vibration
the first 72 hours.
Flexible Pavement
G
A pavement structure that maintains intimate contact with and Gap-Graded Concrete
distributes loads to the subgrade and depends on aggregate interlock, Concrete containing a gap-graded aggregate.
particle friction, and cohesion for stability; cementing agents, where
used, are generally bituminous (asphaltic) materials as contrasted to Gradation
portland cement in the case of rigid pavement. See also Rigid Pavement. See Grading
sieve and resulting from natural disintegration and abrasion of rock Heavy-Weight Concrete
or processing of weakly bound conglomerate. Concrete in which heavy aggregate is used to increase the density
of the concrete; unit weights in the range of 165 to 330 lb/ft3 are
Green Concrete attained.
Concrete that has set but not appreciably hardened.
High Range Water-Reducing Admixture
Green Sawing See Water-Reducing Admixture (high range)
The process of controlling random cracking by sawing uniform
joint spacing in early age concrete, without tearing or dislocating High Early-Strength Cement
the aggregate in the mix. See Cement, High Early-Strength
I
due to a deficiency of mortar.
Harshness
Deficient workability and cohesiveness caused by insufficient sand Incentive
or cement, or by improperly graded aggregate. Barely visible cracks in random pattern in an exposed concrete
surface which do not extend to the full depth or thickness of
Header the concrete, and which are due primarily to drying shrinkage.
A transverse construction joint installed at the end of a paving
operation or other placement interruptions. To a contractor, a Inclined-Axis Mixer
header is the location at which paving will resume on the next day. A truck with a revolving drum that rotates about an axis inclined to
the bed of the truck chassis.
Heat of Hydration
Heat evolved by chemical reactions of a substance with water, such Incompressibles
as that evolved during the setting and hardening of portland cement. Small concrete fragments, stones, sand or other hard materials that
enter a joint sealant, joint reservoir, or other concrete pavement
Heavy-Weight Aggregate discontinuity.
An aggregate of very high unit weight, such as barium, boron, or
iron ore, steel shot or punchings, which forms a high density mortar Initial Set
of concrete when bound together with hardened cement paste. A degree of stiffening of a mixture of cement and water less than
final set, generally stated as an empirical value indicating the time Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
in hours and minutes required for cement paste to stiffen sufficiently Pavement containing some joints and embedded steel mesh
to resist to an established degree the penetration of a weighted test reinforcement (sometimes called distributed steel) to control expected
needle; also applicable to concrete or mortar with use of suitable test cracks; steel mesh is discontinued at transverse joint locations.
procedures. See also Final Set.
Isolation Joint
A pavement joint that allows relative movement in three directions L
and avoids formation of cracks elsewhere in the concrete and through
which all or part of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted. Large Laitance
closure movement to prevent development of lateral compression A layer of weak material containing cement and fines from aggregates,
between adjacent concrete slabs; usually used to isolate a bridge. brought to the top of overwet concrete, the amount of which is
generally increased by overworking and over-manipulating concrete
at the surface by improper finishing.
J Layer
See Course
Joint
A plane of weakness to control contraction cracking in concrete Lean Concrete
pavements. A joint can be initiated in plastic concrete or green Concrete of low cement content.
concrete and shaped with later process.
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
Joint Depth The process used to compare projects based on their initial cost, future
The measurement of a saw cut from the top of the slab to the bottom cost and salvage value, which accounts for the time value of money.
of the cut.
Lift
Joint Deterioration
The concrete placed between two consecutive horizontal construction
See Spalling, Compression
joints, usually consisting of several layers or courses.
Joint Filler
Liquid Sealant
Compressible material used to fill a joint to prevent the infiltration
Sealant materials that install in liquid form and cool or cure to their
of debris and to provide support for sealant.
final properties; rely on long-term adhesion to the joint reservoir faces.
Joint Sealant
Compressible material used to minimize water and solid debris Load Transfer Device
infiltration into the sealant reservoir and joint. See Dowel
Over-Sanded
N Containing more sand than would be required for adequate
workability and satisfactory finishing characteristics.
Natural Sand Over-Vibrated
Sand resulting from natural disintegration and abrasion of rock. See Concrete vibrated more than is necessary for good consolidation
also Sand and Aggregate, Fine. and elimination of entrapped air.
NCHRP Over-Wet
National Cooperative Highway Research Program The consistency of concrete when it contains more mixing water and
hence is of greater slump than is necessary for ready consolidation.
NHI
National Highway Institute
Phasing Pneumatic
The sequences used by a contractor to build elements of a project. Moved or worked by air pressure.
Pitting Popout
A localized disintegration taking the form of cavities at the surface Pit or crater in the surface of concrete resulting from cracking of the
of concrete. mortar due to expansive forces associated with a particle of unsound
aggregate or a contaminating material, such as wood or glass.
Placement Porosity
The process of placing and consolidating concrete; a quantity of The ratio, usually expressed as a percentage, of the volume of voids
concrete placed and finished during a continuous operation; also in a material to the total volume of the material, including voids.
inappropriately referred to as “pouring.”
Portland Cement
Placing A commercial product which when mixed with water alone or
The deposition, distribution, and consolidation of freshly mixed
in combination with sand, stone, or similar materials, has the
concrete in the place where it is to harden; also inappropriately
property of combining with water, slowly, to form a hard solid mass.
referred to as “pouring.”
Physically, portland cement is a finely pulverized clinker produced
Plain Bar by burning mixtures containing lime, iron, alumina, and silica at
A reinforcing bar without surface deformations, or one having high temperature and in definite proportions, and then intergrinding
deformations that do not conform to the applicable requirements. gypsum to give the properties desired.
Quality Assurance
in a joint by lateral pressure exerted against the reservoir by the seal
Planned and systematic actions by an owner or his representative
after being compressed during installation.
to provide confidence that a product or facility meet applicable
Preservation standards of good practice. This involves continued evaluation of
The process of maintaining a structure in its present condition and design, plan and specification development, contract advertisement
arresting further deterioration. See also Rehabilitation, Repair, and and award, construction, and maintenance, and the interactions of
Restoration. these activities.
Profile Index
Smoothness qualifying factor determined from profilograph trace.
R
Calculated by dividing the sum of the total counts above the Radius of Relative Stiffness
blanking band for each segment by the sum of the segment length. A character or property of a concrete slab which measures the stiffness
of the slab in relation to that of the subgrade; it is expressed by the
Profile Line equation:
On a profile trace, line drawn by hand on the field trace to average
out spikes and minor deviations caused by rocks, texturing, dirt or
transverse grooving.
Project Scoping
An early planning step in the development of a project where all project Random Crack
requirements are defined and a plan is developed to address them. See Uncontrolled Crack
Raveling
Proportioning
Displacement of aggregate or paste near the slab surface from sawing;
Selection of proportions of ingredients for mortar or concrete to make
normally indicates that concrete strength is too low for sawing.
the most economical use of available materials to produce mortar or
concrete of the required properties. Reactive Aggregate
Aggregate containing certain silica or carbonate compounds that are
PSI
capable of reacting with alkalis in portland cement, in some cases
1) Pounds per square inch; a measure of the compressive, tensile
producing damaging expansion of concrete.
or flexural strength of concrete as determined by appropriate test.
2) In pavements, the Performance Serviceability Index. Ready-Mixed Concrete
Concrete manufactured for delivery to a purchaser in a plastic and
Pumping unhardened state.
The forceful displacement of a mixture of soil and water that occurs
under slab joints, cracks and pavement edges which are depressed Rebar
and released quickly by high-speed heavy vehicle loads; occurs when Abbreviation for “reinforcing bar.” See Reinforcement.
concrete pavements are placed directly on fine-grained, plastic soils
Rebound Hammer
or erodible subbase materials.
An apparatus that provides a rapid indication of the mechanical
Punchout properties of concrete based on the distance of rebound of a spring-
In continuously reinforced concrete pavement, the area enclosed driven missile.
by two closely spaced transverse cracks, a short longitudinal crack,
Reconstruction
and the edge of the pavement or longitudinal joint, when exhibiting
The process of removing an existing pavement from its grade and
spalling, shattering, or faulting. Also, area between Y cracks exhibiting
replacing it with a completely new pavement.
this same deterioration.
Recycled Concrete
Q
Concrete that has been processed for use, usually as aggregate.
Recycling
QA/QC The act of processing existing pavement material into usable material
See, Quality Assurance and Quality Control for a layer within a new pavement structure.
Reservoir Rodability
The part of a concrete joint that normally holds a sealant material. The susceptibility of fresh concrete or mortar to compaction by
Usually a widening saw cut above the initial saw cut. means of a tamping rod.
Restoration Rodding
The process of reestablishing the materials, form, and appearance Compaction of concrete by means of a tamping rod. See also Rod,
of a structure to those of a particular era of the structure. See also Tamping, and Rodability.
Preservation, Rehabilitation, and Repair.
Resurfacing
The addition of a new material layer onto an existing pavement
surface for the purposes of correcting a functional factor, such as
S
smoothness or texture.
Sack
Retardation See Bag
Reduction in the rate of hardening or strength development of fresh
Sample
concrete, mortar, or grout; i.e., an increase in the time required to
A group of units, or portion of material, taken from a larger collection
reach initial and final set.
of units or quantity of material, which serves to provide information
Retarder that can be used as a basis for action on the larger quantity or on the
An admixture that delays the setting of cement and hence of mixtures production process; the term is also used in the sense of a sample
such as mortar or concrete containing cement. of observations.
Sampling, Intermittent Schmidt Hammer (trade name), Swiss Hammer, or Rebound Hammer
Sampling successively for limited periods of time throughout an A device used to estimate the compressive strength of hardened
operation or for a predetermined period of time. The duration of concrete by measuring surface hardness.
sample periods and of the intervals between are not necessarily
regular and are not specified. Scoping
See Project Scoping
Sand
The fine granular material (usually less than 3/16 inch in diameter) Screed
resulting from the natural disintegration of rock, or from the crushing 1) To strike off concrete lying above the desired plane or shape.
of friable sandstone. 2) A tool for striking off the concrete surface, sometimes referred
to as a Strikeoff.
Sand Grout
Grout mixture containing water, portland cement, and sand. Screed Guide
Firmly established grade strips or side forms for unformed concrete
Sand Streak that will guide the strikeoff in producing the desired plane or shape.
A streak of exposed fine aggregate in the surface of formed concrete
caused by bleeding. Screeding
The operation of forming a surface by the use of screed guides and
Saturated Surface-Dry a strikeoff. See also Strikeoff.
Condition of an aggregate particle or other porous solid when the
permeable voids are filled with water but there is no water on the Sealant
exposed surface. See Joint Sealant and Membrane Curing
Sealing
Saturation
The process of filling the sawed joint with material to minimize
1) In general, the condition of the coexistence in stable equilibrium
intrusion into the joint of water and incompressible materials.
of either a vapor and a liquid or a vapor and solid phase of the same
substance at the same temperature. Sealing Compound
2) As applied to aggregate or concrete, the condition such that no See Joint Sealant and Membrane Curing
more liquid can be held or placed within it.
Secondary Sawing
Saw Blade, Abrasive The sawing that takes place to establish shape in the joint. Many
Concrete sawing medium that uses non-diamond abrasion elements. times this shape is the reservoir of the joint.
These blades do not need water to cool, but water is sometimes used.
Segregation
Saw Blade, Diamond The tendency, as concrete is caused to flow laterally, for coarse
Concrete sawing medium that uses industrial diamonds as the aggregate and drier material to remain behind and for mortar and
primary abrasion element. Blades are cooled with water to protect the wetter material to flow ahead. This also occurs in a vertical direction
host metal from melting and prematurely dislodging the diamonds. when wet concrete is over-vibrated, the mortar and wetter material
rising to the top. In the vertical direction, segregation may also be
Saw Cut called Stratification.
A cut in hardened concrete utilizing diamond or silicone-carbide
blades or discs. Semiautomatic Batcher
A batcher equipped with gates or valves that are separately opened
Sawed Joint manually to allow the material to be weighed but which are closed
A joint cut in hardened concrete, generally not to the full depth of automatically when the designated weight of each material has been
the member, by means of special equipment. reached.
Sawing Separation
Cutting of joints in hardened concrete by means of special equipment The tendency, as concrete is caused to pass from the unconfined ends
utilizing diamond or silicon carbide blades or discs; cut goes only of chutes or conveyor belts, for coarse aggregate to separate from
part way through the slab. the concrete and accumulate at one side; the tendency, as processed
aggregate leaves the ends of conveyor belts, chutes, or similar devices
Scaling with confining sides, for the larger aggregate to separate from the mass
Flaking or peeling away of the near-surface portion of hydraulic and accumulate at one side; the tendency for solids to separate from the
cement concrete or mortar. water by gravitational settlement. See also Bleeding and Segregation.
Set Silicone
The condition reached by a cement paste, mortar, or concrete when A resin, characterized by water-repellent properties, in which the
it has lost plasticity to an arbitrary degree, usually measured in main polymer chain consists of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms,
terms of resistance to penetration or deformation. Initial set refers with carbon-containing side groups; silicones may be used in joint
to first stiffening. Final set refers to attainment of significant rigidity. sealing compounds, caulking or coating compounds, or admixtures
for concrete.
Set-Accelerating Admixture
See Accelerator Silicone Sealant
Liquid joint sealant consisting of silicone-based material.
Set-Retarding Admixture
See Retarder Skid Resistance
A measure of the frictional characteristics of a surface.
Setting of Cement
Development of rigidity of cement paste, mortar, or concrete as a Slipform Paving
result of hydration of the cement. The paste formed when cement is A type of concrete paving process that involves extruding the
mixed with water remains plastic for a short time. During this stage concrete through a machine to provide a uniform dimension of
it is still possible to disturb the material and remix without injury, concrete paving.
but as the reaction between the cement and water continues, the
mass loses its plasticity. This early period in the hardening is called Slipform
the “setting period,” although there is not a well-defined break in A form that is pulled or raised as concrete is placed; may move in
the hardening process. a generally horizontal direction to lay concrete evenly for highway
paving or on slopes and inverts of canals, tunnels, and siphons; or
Setting Time vertically to form walls, bins, or silos.
The time required for a specimen of concrete, mortar or cement
Slump
paste, prepared and tested under standardized conditions, to attain
A measure of consistency of freshly mixed concrete, equal to
a specified degree of rigidity.
the subsidence measured to the nearest 6 mm (¼-in.) of the
Settlement molded specimen immediately after removal of the slump cone.
Sinking of solid particles in grout, mortar, or fresh concrete, after
Slump Cone
placement and before initial set. See also Bleeding.
A mold in the form of the lateral surface of the frustum of a cone with
Settlement Shrinkage a base diameter of 203 mm (8 in.), top diameter 102 mm (4 in.),
A reduction in volume of concrete prior to the final set of cementitious and height 305 mm (12 in.), used to fabricate a specimen of freshly
mixtures; caused by settling of the solids and decreases in volume mixed concrete for the slump test.
due to the chemical combination of water with cement. See Plastic
Slump Loss
Shrinkage.
The amount by which the slump of freshly mixed concrete changes
Shrinkage during a period of time after an initial slump test was made on a
Decrease in length or volume. sample or samples thereof.
Spalling, Sliver called shear stress; when the forces are normal to the plane the stress
Chipping of concrete edge along a joint sealant; usually within is called normal stress; when the normal stress is directed toward
12 mm of the joint edge. the part on which it acts it is called compressive stress; when it is
directed away from the part on which it acts it is called tensile stress.
Spalling, Surface
Cracking, breaking, chipping, or fraying of slab surface; usually Strikeoff
within a confined area less than 0.5 square meters. To remove concrete in excess of that required to fill the form evenly
or bring the surface to grade; performed with a straightedged
Specific Gravity piece of wood or metal by means of a forward sawing movement
The ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of material at a stated or by a power operated tool appropriate for this purpose; also
temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water the name applied to the tool. See also Screed and Screeding.
at the same temperature.
Structural Capacity
Specific Gravity Factor Expression of the ability of a pavement to carry traffic loads;
The ratio of the weight of aggregates (including all moisture), as Expressed as number of equivalent single axle loads in AASHTO
introduced into the mixer, to the effective volume displaced by the design methodology.
aggregates.
Subbase
Split Batch Charging A layer in a pavement system between the subgrade and base course
Method of charging a mixer in which the solid ingredients do not or between the subgrade and a portland cement concrete pavement.
all enter the mixer together; cement, and sometimes different sizes
of aggregate, may be added separately. Subgrade
The soil prepared and compacted to support a structure or a
Spud Vibrator pavement system. Also sometimes called grade.
A vibrator used for consolidating concrete, having a vibrating
casing or head that is used by insertion into freshly placed concrete. Sulfate Attack
Chemical or physical reaction between certain constituents in cement
Standard Deviation and sulfates in the soil or groundwater; sufficient attack may disrupt
The root mean square deviation of individual values from their average. concrete that is susceptible to it.
Static Load
Sulfate Resistance
The weight of a single stationary body or the combined weights of
The ability of aggregate, cement paste, or mixtures thereof to
all stationary bodies in a structure (such as the load of a stationary
withstand chemical attack by sulfate ion in solution.
vehicle on a roadway); during construction, the combined weight
of forms, stringers, joists, reinforcing bars, and the actual concrete Superplasticizer
to be placed. See Water-Reducing Admixture (high range)
Stationary Hopper Supplementary Cementitious Material
A container used to receive and temporarily store freshly mixed concrete. Mineral admixtures consisting of powdered or pulverized materials,
which are added to concrete before or during mixing to improve
Storage Hopper
or change some of the plastic or hardened properties of Portland
See Stationary Hopper
cement concrete. Materials are generally natural or by-products of
Straight-Edging other manufacturing processes.
Process of using a rigid, straight piece of either wood or metal to
Surface Moisture
strike off or screed a concrete surface to proper grade or to check
Water retained on surfaces of aggregates capable of mixing with
the planeness of a finished surface.
portland cement in concrete; distinguished from absorbed moisture,
Stratification which is contained inside the aggregate particles.
The separation of over-wet or over-vibrated concrete into horizontal
layers with increasingly lighter material toward the top; water, Surface Retarder
laitance, mortar, and coarse aggregate will tend to occupy successively A retarder used by application to a form or to the surface of
lower positions (in that order). newly placed concrete to delay setting of the cement to facilitate
construction joint cleanup or to facilitate production of exposed,
Strength aggregate finish.
A generic term for the ability of a material to resist strain or rupture
induced by external forces. See also Compressive Strength, Flexural Surface Tension
Strength, and Tensile Strength. That property, due to molecular forces, that exists in the surface
film of all liquids and tends to prevent the liquid from spreading.
Stress
Intensity of internal force (i.e., force per unit area) exerted by either Surface Texture
of two adjacent parts of a body on the other across an imagined plane Degree of roughness or irregularity of the exterior surfaces of
of separation; when the forces are parallel to the plane, the stress is aggregate particles or hardened concrete.
Time of Setting
T See Initial Setting Time and Final Setting Time.
TMMB
Tamper Truck Mixer Manufacturers’ Bureau; most truck mixers carry TMMB
1) An implement used to consolidate concrete or mortar in molds rating plates.
or forms.
Tongue and Groove
2) A hand-operated device for compacting floor topping or other A joint in which a protruding rib on the edge of one side fits into a
unformed concrete by impact from the dropped device in preparation groove in the edge of the other side, abbreviated “T & G.” See also
for strikeoff and finishing; contact surface often consists of a screen or Keyway.
a grid of bars to force coarse aggregates below the surface to prevent
interference with floating or troweling. Topping
1) A layer of high quality concrete placed to form a floor surface on
Tamping a concrete base.
The operation of compacting freshly placed concrete by repeated
2) A dry-shake application of a special material to produce particular
blows or penetrations with a tamping device.
surface characteristics.
Temper
Transit-mixed Concrete
The addition of water and mixing of concrete or mortar as necessary
Concrete, the mixing of which is wholly or principally accomplished
to bring it initially to the desired consistency. See also Retempering.
in a truck mixer. See Truck-Mixed Concrete.
Tensile Strength
Transverse Broom
Maximum stress that a material is capable of resisting under axial
Surface texture obtained using either a hand broom or mechanical
tensile loading based on the cross-sectional area of the specimen
broom that lightly drags the stiff bristles across the surface.
before loading.
Transverse Crack
Terminal Joint
Crack that develops at a right angle to the long direction of the
Joint used in continuously reinforced concrete pavement (see CRCP)
member.
to transition to another pavement type or to a bridge structure.
Transverse Joint
Texturing
A joint normal to the longitudinal dimension of a structure.
The process of producing a special texture on either unhardened or
hardened concrete. Transverse Reinforcement
See Reinforcement, Transverse.
Thermal Expansion
Expansion caused by increase in temperature. Transverse Tine
Surface texture achieved by a hand held or mechanical device
Thermal Movement equipped with a rake-like tining head that moves laterally across the
Change of dimension of concrete or masonry resulting from change width of the paving surface.
of temperatures. See also Contraction and Expansion.
TRB
Thermal Shock Transportation Research Board
The subjection of newly hardened concrete to a rapid change in
temperature which may be expected to have a potentially deleterious Trial Batch
effect. A batch of concrete used for establishing or checking proportions.
Vibration, Internal
Water-Gain
V See Bleeding
Water-Reducing Admixture (High Range) existing asphalt pavement with no particular steps taken to ensure
A water-reducing admixture capable of producing large water or great bonding or debonding.
flowability without causing undue set retardation or entrainment of
air in mortar or concrete. Whitetopping, Ultra-Thin
See Ultra-Thin Whitetopping
Weathering
Changes in color, texture, strength, chemical composition or other Wire Mesh
properties of a natural or artificial material due to the action of the See Welded Wire Fabric
weather.
Workability
Weight Batching
That property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines
Measuring the constituent materials for mortar or concrete by weight.
the ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed,
Welded-Wire Fabric Reinforcement compacted, and finished.
Welded-wire fabric in either sheets or rolls, used to reinforce concrete.
Working Crack
Well-Graded Aggregate A crack in a concrete pavement slab that undergoes significant
Aggregate having a particle size distribution that will produce deflection and thermal opening and closing movements; Typically
maximum density; i.e., minimum void space. oriented transverse to the pavement centerline and near a non-
functioning transverse contraction joint.
Wet
Covered with visible free moisture; not dry. See also Damp and Moist.
Wet Process Y
In the manufacture of cement, the process in which the raw materials
are ground, blended, mixed, and pumped while mixed with water; the Yield
wet process is chosen where raw materials are extremely wet and sticky, The volume of fresh concrete produced from a known quantity of
which would make drying before crushing and grinding difficult. ingredients; the total weight of ingredients divided by the unit weight
of the freshly mixed concrete.
Whitetopping
Concrete overlay pavement placed on an existing asphalt pavement. Zero-Slump Concrete
Concrete of stiff or extremely dry consistency showing no measurable
Whitetopping, Conventional slump after removal of the slump cone. See also Slump and No-
Overlay of new concrete, greater than 4 inches thick, placed onto Slump Concrete.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2 16 12 22
Basics of Concrete
Pavement Design
Chapter 5 146 135 114 (All) 134, 109, 141, 106 112 (All) 129 109, 127, 135, 133,
Critical Properties 135 118, 144 113 146, 146, 135
of Concrete 133, 148 154
136
Chapter 6 188 183 182 174, 174 189 173, 186 (All) 183 174,
Development 176, 181, 184, 187
of Concrete 180 186 185
Mixtures
Chapter 7 192
Preparation for
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Basics of Concrete
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Chapter 5 118 133 134 133, 152 114, 125, 116, 132, 156 109,
Critical Properties 137 149 135, 139 113-114,
of Concrete 146, 117-118
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Chapter 6 186 (All) 183 186 174, 188 (All)
Development of 187
Concrete Mixtures
Chapter 7 192,
Preparation for 196
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Chapter 7
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Construction
Chapter 9 256, 257 251-
Quality and Testing 259, 260
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