CHAPTER ONE

A CELL
A cell is a basic unit of a living organism. It is the building block of a living
organism. A living cell is made up of cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm
make up the protoplasm.

THE BASIC STRUCTUTRE OF A CELL

cell membrane

nucleus

cytoplasm

DETAILED STRUCTURE OF A CELL

 TYPES OF CELLS

There are two types of cells and these are PLANT CELL and ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL

cell wall

cell membrane

nucleus

Cytoplasm
chloroplast vacuole

ANIMAL CELL

Cell membrane

Nucleus

cytoplasm

FUCTIONS

1. Cell wall: this protects s the inner part of a cell. It also gives shape to a
cell. It is made up of cellulose.
2. Cell membrane : this controls the substance s that enters and leave the
cell. It is selectively permeable.
3. Cytoplasm : this is where all chemical activities takes place.
4. Chloroplast: this is where photosynthesis takes place. it contains green
pigments called chlorophyll . Chlorophyll is made up of magnesium
(Mg).
5. Vacuole: this stores cell sap it also controls the amount of water in a
cell.
6. Nucleus: this stores DNA (deoxyribonucleic) and RNA (ribonucleic). It
controls all the chemical activities that take place in a cell.
7. Mitochondrion: this is where respiration takes place. It is also called ``
THE PAWOR HOUSE`` of the cell.
 8. Ribosome: this is where protein is made.
9. Golgi bodies: these transports proteins like enzymes.
10.Endoplasmic reticulum: this transports substances in a cell

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN A PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

 They both have nucleus.

 They both have cytoplasm.
 They both have cell membrane.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

 A plant cell has cell wall while animal cells have no cell wall.
 A plant cell has chloroplast while an animal cell has no chloroplast.
 A plant cell has large vacuole while an animal cell has small or no
vacuole.
 A plant cell has a regular shape while an animal cell has irregular.

CHAPTER 2

OSMOSIS

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from the weak solute to strong
solute.

EFFECTS OF OSMOSIS IN PLANT

Osmosis in plants have two effects called TURGID and PLASMOLYSIS.

(A)TURGID

This is when the cell membrane presses against the cell wall of a plant due to
osmotic gain of water.
(B)PLASMOLYSIS

This is the shrinieling of the protoplasm of a plant cell due to osmotic lose of
water.

EFFECT OF OSMOSIS IN ANIMALS

Osmosis in mammals has two effects called CELLYSIS and cell CRENATION

(A)CELLYSIS

This is the bursting of an animal due to osmotic gain of water.

(B)CELL CRENATION: this is the shrinking of an animal cell due to osmotic

lose of water.

Celllysis
Cell crenations

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of particles from the region of higher concentration

to the region of lower of concentration.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF DIFFUSIN.

 Temperature
 Size of particles
 Diffusion surface area
 Concentration gradient

IMPORNTANCES OF DIFFUSION

 Gaseous exchange in living organisms takes place diffusion.

 Digestive end products are absorbed by diffusions.
  Animals are able to sense danger by diffusion.
 Hormones are secreted by diffusion.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active transport is the movement of particles against concentration. For active

transport to occur there has to be energy and this energy is from A.T.P.

IMPORTANTANCES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT.

 Mineral salts from the soil into roots of plants are absorbed by active
transport .
 Mineral salts in alimentary canal are absorbed by active transport.
 Selective reabsorption in the kidneys is done by active transport.

CHAPTER THREE

ENZYMES

Enzymes are biological catalysts. A catalyst is any substance that speeds up

the chemical reaction without itself being changed by the reaction. The
substance where an enzymes works(catalyse) on its called substrate. Fits of
an enzymes where a substrate fits is called ACTIVE SITE.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES

 They are protein in nature.

 They are catalyst.
 They catalyse both reverse reactions.
 They are specific .
 They are affected by temperature.
 They are sensitive to p.h

EFFECTS OF TEMPARETURE ON THE RATE OF ENZYMES

ACTIVITY

Enzymes are affected by temperature and most enzymes are activated at 25

degrees and destroyed at 40 degrees. Below 25 degrees enzymes are in- active
and above 40degrees they are denature.

The activate of enzymes increases as the temperature increases. Each enzymes

has its optimum temperature.
EFFECT OF P.H ON ENZYMES`S ACTIVITY

 Enzymes are affected by p.h. p.h is the measure of how acidity or

alkalinity the substances is. Some enzymes works on acidic, some
alkalinity and most enzymes works on neutral. The p.h were an enzymes
works best is called OPTIMUM P.H. p.h has the measure using litmus
paper and p.h has the scale (p.h scale) which contains p.h values from 1 -
14. 1 to 6 shows acidity and 8- 14 shows alkalinity. 7 is the p.h value
which indicates neutral p.h.

KEY – LOCK MODEL (THEORY)

This model tries to explain how enzymes are specific. It states that each
enzyme has its own substrate. Just like a key and lock. A key can only open
a lock which has its complementary shape. A key represents a substrate and
a lock represents an enzymes.

ACTIVATORS

Activators are non protein substances that are needed to activate enzymes.
Activator direct substrates in to active site of enzymes.
 CLASSES OF ENZYMES

There are two classes of enzymes and these are intra- cellular and extra
cellular enzymes.

(A) Intra cellular enzymes: these are enzymes which work inside living cells.

(B) Extra cellular: these are enzymes which work outside living cell.

NAMING OF ENZYMES

Digestive enzymes bear the name of substrates and they end with ASE. The
tapple below shows example of enzymes, their substrates and the product.

Enzymes Substrate Product

Amylase Starch Maltose

Protease Proteins Peptides –amino acids
Lipase Lipids(fats) Fat acids and glycerol
Lactase Lactose Glucose and galactose
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Sucrose Sucrose Glucose
Atpase A.D.P ADP and P

USES OF ENZYMES IN INDUSTRIES

 They are used in baking

 They are used in brewing
 They are used in leather tanning
 They are used in formation of degernt paste

CHAPTER FOUR

NUTRIENTS

A nutrients is any substance that provides the body with one or all of the :

 Energy
 Material for growth
 Proper functioning of the body
  Repair of damaged tissues.

CLASESS OF NUTRIENTS

There are seven classes of nutrients and these are: carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, water, mineral salts, vitamins and roughage.

A. CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are nutrients that are made up carbon (c) hydrogen (H)
And oxygen (o) elements.
They provide the body with energy. There are three main classes of
carbohydrates and these are MONOSACHARIDE, DISACCHARIDE S
and POLYSACHARIDES.

(i) MONOSACHARDES

These are building blocks of carbohydrates. They are reducing sugars and have
sweet tastes. Examples of monosaccharide s are glucose(found in honey),
galactose (found in milk) and fructose (found in fruits)

(ii) DISSACHARIDES

These are made up of two monosaccharide’s chemically combined. They are

non- reducing sugars except maltose. Examples of these sugars are:

 Lactose = glucose and galactose (found in milk)

 Maltose =glucose (found in germinating seeds)
 Sucrose = glucose + fructose (found in sugar cane)
(iii) POLYSACCHARIDE S

These are made up of more than two monosaccharide’s chemically combined.

They are insoluble in water. Examples of polysaccharides are: starch (found in
grains ) glycogen (found in liver) and cellulose (found in plants)

(b) PROTEINS

Proteins are nutrients that are made up of carbon (c) hydrogen(H) oxygen(o)
and nitrogen(N) elements.

Some proteins contain sulphur (S) or phosphorus (P) instead of nitrogen.

USES OF PROTEINS

 They are used in formation of cell membrane.

  They are used in formation of enzymes, hormones .anti bodies, antitoxins
e.t.c.
 They are used in formation of ATP,DNA,RNA haemoglobin etc
 They provides the body with energy.

SOURCE OF PROTEINS
 Beans
 Vegetables
 Eggs
 Milk
 Soya beans
 Caterpillars
 Fish
 Amino acids are building blocks of proteins.

(c) FATS (LIPIDS)

Fats are nutrients that are made up of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen than
carbohydrates.

USES OF FATS

 They used in water proofing .

 They insulate the body against heat lose.
 They are used in formation of cell membrane
 They are source of energy.

SOURCE OF FATS ARE:

 Cooking oil
 Fish
 Vegetables
 Groundnuts
 Soya beans e.tc

(d) WATER

Water is the in- organic substance which is made up of hydrogen and

oxygen(H2O).

USES OF WATER

 It is the medium for metabolism

 It used in formation of body fluids like tears, saliva, mucus etc
 It is the main composition of cytoplasm.
  It transports heat in the body of animals.

SOURCES OF WATER
 Water is found in vegetable s ,fresh fruits, and all drinks including
traditional drinks like umukoyo.

(e) VITAMINS

Vitamins are chemical substances which are needed by the body in small
amount.

Vitamins Source Functions Chemical name

A Fruits/vegetables Used in formation Retinol
of eye pigments
B1 Wheat/bread Ned in Tula mine
carbohydrates
metabolism
B2 Wheat/rice/bread Need in hair ,nail, Riboflavin
formation
B12 Milk, eggs, liver Need in formation Cgnocabalamin
of haemoglobin
C Fruits/vegetables Used in formation Ascorbic(acid)
of connective
tissues
D Egg yolk, milk Needed in Calciferol
calcium
metabolism
E Vegetables ,milk Increases the Tocopherol
immune system

(f) MINERAL ELEMENTS

These are in – organic substances that are needed by the body in small amount.
They are taken in form of mineral salts.

Mineral elements Function Source

Calcium Used in formation of Milk, meat
bones and teeth
Iron Used in formation of Beans, meat, eggs
haemoglobin
Iodine Needed in formation of Sea food, water, salts
thyroxin
Phosphorus Needed in formation of Meat, vegetables
ATP
Fluorine Prevents tooth decay Tooth paste, water
 (g)ROUGHAGE

These are rough substances that cannot be digested but are needed by
alimentary canal.

 Roughage are found in all cereals , and vegetables

USES OF ROUGHAGE

 They add buck to faeces

 They prevent constipation
 They clean the alimentary canal

NUTRITIONAL DISEASES

Nutritional diseases are commonly known as MALNUTRITION. Example s of

these diseases are:
(i)KWASHIORKOR :this disease is caused by the lack of carbohydrates.
(ii)MARASMUS: this is caused due to lack of proteins and carbohydrates.
(iii)RICHEST: this is caused by the lack of vitamin D and calcium.

(iv) SCURVY: this is caused due to the lack of vitamin C.

(vi) ANAEMIA: due to lack of iron and vitamin B12

DIGESTION

This is the breaking down of complex food substances into small and soluble
molecules. It is an example of holozoic nutrition. Digestion takes place in a tube
called alimentary canal. There two types of digestion namely physical
(mechanical) and chemical digestion.

PHYSICAL DIGESTION : is the breaking down of complex food substances

into smaller particles.

CHEMICAL DIGESTION: is the breaking down of smaller particles into

simplest soluble molecules.

THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

This tube starts from the mouth and end to the anus
DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH

After ingestion food is broken down into smaller pieces by the chewing action
of the teeth. This action is called MASTICATION .while mastication is taking
place food particles are mixed with saliva. Saliva is secreted by two salivary
glands called SUBLINGUAL, SUBMADIMBULAR and PAROTID.
Saliva also lubricates the food for easy swallowing .saliva contains salivary
amylase which hydrolyses boiled starch to maltose and this same saliva sets the
ALKALINE P.H in the mouth. The rolling action of the tongue makes the food
to be in a bolus form for easy swallowing and PERISTALSIS.

PERISTALSIS

After swallowing food moves from the mouth to the stomach via oesophagus by
PERISTALSIS .peristalsis is the wave like motion of food in the alimentary
canal. Epiglottis prevents food or liquids from entering the wind pipe (trachea)

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH

When food reaches the stomach digestion of starch ends because amylase does
not work on acidic p.h. the OXYNTIC CELLS secretes hydrochloric acid which
destroys most bacteria and germs, sets the acidic p.h and activates pepsin. The
pepsin tic cell (chief cell) secretes gastric juice which contains pepsin and
rennin enzymes. Pepsin breaks down proteins to peptides. Rennin converts
caseinogens to casein and cords which are on broken down by pepsin to
peptides. The goblet cells secrete mucus which prevents the walls of the
stomach from being damaged. The muscles of the stomach contracts and relax
to break down foods into CHYME. The process is called CHURNING.

DIGESTION IN SMALL INTESTINES

 Small intestines are divided into duodenum ,jejunum and ileum. They are the
longest part of the alimentary canal. When food (chime) reaches the duodenum ,
the walls of duodenum secrete the hormones called SECRETIN . secretin is
transported to the LIVER and PANCREASE by blood stream. Liver secretes
bile which contains BILEPIGMENTS and BILE SALT. Bile salts emulsifies
the fats. EMALSIFICATION is the breaking down of fats into fat droplets .bile
pigments have no digestive effects but adds colour and offensive smelling to
faeces. The walls of jejunum and ileum contains the cells called CRYPTS OF
liebericulin which secretes succas enteric as (intestinal juice). This juice
contains enzymes such as sucrose, maltose ,lipase, peptidase which completes
digestion processes.

ABSORPTION

This is the movement of digestive end products from alimentary canal into
blood stream. Alcohol, water, drugs mineral salts are absorbed in the stomach.
Glucose, fat acids, fat glycerol’s, fructose, galactose and amino acids are mostly
absorbed in the ileum. Ileum is adapted in the following ways.

 It is long and folded many times to increase the surface region for digestion
and absorption
 Contains goblets cells which secrets mucus which protects its wall from being
damage by enzymes.
 It has thin epithelium for easy absorption.
 It has figure like projection s called VILLAS which are used in absorption

STRUCTURE OF VILLAS

epithelium

lacteal (fat acids and glycerol)

blood capillaries
(sugars and amino acid)

arteries venal
LARGE INTESTINES

The large intestine is made up of colon and rectum. The main function of colon
is to absorb water from undigested food materials. Colon also forms vitamin K.
Rectum stores faeces .faeces are removed from the body by egestion through
anus.

FUNCTION OF THE LIVER

The liver is the largest internal organ of the vertebrates (including hormones) its
main functions are

 Dominates excess amino acids and produces urea

 Destroy poisons ,alcohol and bacteria
 Breaks down old red blood cells and makes bile
 Makes red blood cells in a baby.
 Stores vitamins and mineral elements
 Produces heat.
 Makes blood proteins e.g. prothrombin and fibrinogen

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN HUMANS

Transport system in humans is made up of blood circulatory systems and

lymphatic system.

BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Blood circulatory system is made up of blood heart and blood vessels.

(a)BLOOD

Blood is the red tissue made up of red blood cells white blood cells, platelets
and plasma.
(i) Red blood cell.

 They are also known as erythrocyte

 They are made in the bone marrow (adults) and liver(baby)
  They transport oxygen in the body.

haemoglobin

 Red blood cells do not have nucleus but haemoglobin.

 Haemoglobin has high infinity to oxygen.
 Haemoglobin + oxygen ______ oxyhaemoglobin(4o2+H6____H608)

(ii) WHITE BLOOD CELLS

They are known as leukocyte. Their function is to defend the body against
diseases. The two common types of leucocytes are phagocyte and lymphocyte.

Phagocyte defends the body against diseases by engulfing foreign

bodies (e.g. bacteria) .
Lymphatic defends the body against diseases by producing antibodies
and antitoxins.

Antibodies are protein s that destroys bacteria germs and viruses. An

antitoxin neutralizes poisons substances secreted by foreign bodies.

Cytoplasm
cell membrane

lobed nucleus
phagocyte lymphocyte large nucleus

(iii) PLATELETS

These are fragments of red blood cells. They are also known as
thrombocytes. Thrombocytes are used in blood clot mechanism.

Blood clot mechanism

 when platelets are exposed to air due to injury they burst and realise an
enzymes called thromboleinaise / thromboplastin
 Thromboplastin activates pro thrombobin in to thrombin.
 Thrombin acts on fibrinogen (soluble) converting it to fibrin (insoluble ).
Which forms a mesh over the wound.
 Mesh tropes blood cells leading to blood clot.
 the clot after sometimes form a scrub which falls and lives a scur.
  The whole process takes place in the presence of vitamin K and calcium
ions.

IMPORTANCES OF BLOOD CLOTT.

 It prevents the entry of foreign bodies into the body.

 It prevents the excess lose of blood.
 It is the first step to the healing of the wound.
 NOTE that the clot within an artery is called thrombius.

BLOOD PLASMA

This is the fluid part of blood which forms about 55% of blood. It is mainly
made up of water and dissolved substances.

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD PLASMA

 To transport s vitamins and mineral salts to all cells of the body.

 It transports heat around the body.
 It transports digestive end products to all cells of the body
 It transports excretory products to excretory organs.
 It contains hormones to their target organs.
 It contains plasma proteins (fibrinogen and prothrombin) used in blood cott.

THE HUMAN HEART

The heart is the muscular organ which pumps blood to all parts of the body. The
heart is made up of cardiac muscles. The heart is self stimulating and does not
fatigue. It supplies itself with nutrients and oxygen using coronary artery. Waste
substances are removed from the heart by coronary vein. The heart is double
pump and contains four chambers. The two sides of the heart are separated by
septum. The right side pumps of deoxygenated blood and the left side pumps
oxygenated blood.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART

 To pump blood to all parts of the body

 To control the pressure of blood (BP)

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEART

 FUNCTION NS OF SOME PARTS OF THE HEARTS

(a) Aorta: This carry oxygenated blood from the heart to all parts of the body. It
has semi- lunar valves before leaving the heart.
(b) Vena cava: carry deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body to the
lungs.
(c) Pulmonary artery: carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs.
(d) Pulmonary vein: carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
(e) Septum: separates oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood. If a baby
is born without septum between the hearts it is said to have ARTERIOLE
SEPTAL DEFECT.
(f) semi- lunar valve: prevents the back flow of blood. They also allow blood
to flow in the right direction. Semi –lunar valves are made up of aortic and
pulmonary valves.
BLOOD VESSELS
Blood vessels are tubes where blood passes through. They are in three types
called arteries, veins and blood capillaries.
(a) ATERIES

These are blood vessels which carry blood from the heart.

 They carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery.

 They have no valves.
 They carry blood at high pressure.
 They have muscular elasticted walls.
 They are located deep under the skin
 (b) Veins: these are blood vessels which carry blood towards the heart.
 They carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein
 They have valve
 They have thin elasticted muscular walls and wide lumen.
 They carry blood at low pressure.
 They are near to the surface of the skin

BLOOD CAPPILLARIES

These are minute blood vessels which forms a link between arteries and veins.

 They surround each tissues cell.

 There walls are one- thicker.
 They lower blood pressure.
 They are the site for exchange of materials between blood tissue cells.

BLOOD CIRCULATION

This is the movement of blood around the body. There are three types of blood
circulation and these are:

(i)pulmonary circulation: this involves the movement of blood from the heart
to the lungs and from lungs to the heart using pulmonary artery and vein.
(ii) Double circulation: this is the movement of blood into the heart twice
before going to all parts of the body.

(iii) Systematic circulation his is the movement of blood from the/ heart to all
parts of the body and from all parts of the body to the heart.

RESPIRATION AND GASEOUS EXCHANGE

1. RESPORATION
This is release of energy from food substances. It is place inside the living
cells and it is called tissue respiration. Respiration takes place in organelles
called mitochondria(singular mitochondrion)

 These are two types of respiration called aerobic and anaerobic

respiration.
(a) AEROBIC RESPIRATION
in this type of respiration oxygen is used to break down glucose completely
to release energy.

Chemical and word equation of aerobic respiration

C6 H12 O + 6O2 6 CO2 + 6H2O +2880KG

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy.

(b) ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

This is the type of respiration which takes place in the absences of oxygen .it is
also called [FERMENTAION]. In animals it is called lactic acid fermentation.
In plants it is called alcohol (ethanol) fermentation.

LACTIC ACID FERMATATION

When animals respires an aerobically they produce lactic acid. This acid causes
fatigue and fainting in humans.

C6 H12 O6 2CH3 CH(OH) COOH +180 KG

glucose lactic acid +energy

ALCOHOL FERMATATION

This takes place in plants when they respires an aerobically.

C6 H2 2C 2 HSOH

glucose ethanol + carbon diode + energy

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
AEROBIC AND AN ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Substances involved Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Glucose used Used
Carbon diode used Produced in plants
Oxygen Produced in plants and Not produced
animal
Energy more is liberated Less is liberated
Lactic acid not produced Produced in animal s
Alcohol not produced Produce in plants

PRODUCTION OF A.T.P

Energy from respiration is not direct used by living cells but stored in a
chemical substance called ATP.

 ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is made up of adenosine

(adenine and ribose sugars) to which three phosphates groups are
attached. When the body needs energy ATP is broken down to ADP and
phosphorus to release energy ADP stands for adenosine diphosphate.

ATP+P hydrolysis ADP

Atpase
ATP+P hydrolysis ADP +P+ENERGY
Atpase

IMPORTANCES OF ATP

 It transports energy to sites where it is needed.

 Stores energy for convenient used.
 It is not stable so as to quickly release energy.

APPLICATION OF RESPIRATION IN INDUSTRIES

Respiration is used in industries in the following ways

1. Baking (by using yeast which ferments)

2. Production of bear(by using yeast which ferments)
3. Yoghurt(by using zennin , zyamas and milk)
4. Cheese production ( by using streptocous)
 5. Sewage treatment (by the use of bacteria which respires aerobically and
an aerobically.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE

This is concerned with how an organism obtains oxygen and gives out carbon
diode. This process occurs by diffusion. Diffusion gradients are always
maintained between the environments and the organisms. The cell membrane
has high surface area and is moist so that oxygen dissolves in it.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN INSECTS

Most insects are terrestrials meaning they live on dry land. Insect have high
chambers of losing water to the environment to prevent this insects are
covered by a fat layer called wax cuticle. Wax cuticle is impermeable to water
and air this causes gaseous exchange to be difficulty in insect. However, air
enters insects through tiny poles called spiracles. Spiracles are joined by affine
tube called trachea which subdivides in to trichioles. Each trichioles takes air
to the tissue cells. Since tissue cell undergoes respiration ,they have high
concentration of carbon dioxide and low concentration of oxygen .
gaseous exchange in insects takes place between trichioles and tissue cells
prevents it from .

spiracles tracheae trichioles tissue cell

STRUCTURE OF INSECT RESPIRATION SYSTEM

tissue cell
trichioles trachea spiracle
 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN FISH

Fish obtain dissolved oxygen from water.

 The fish opens its mouth and closes its gill cover when taking water in .
its closes its mouth and opens the gill covers when taking water out . water
which enters the fish has more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than that which
leaves the fish.
 Gaseous exchange in fish takes place in gills

THE STRUCTURE OF GILLS

FUNCTIONS

1. Gill bar: this supports and provides the attachment to the gill rankers
and gill filaments.
2. Gill rankers :this traps soil particles from water to prevent gills from
being damaged.
3. Gill filament :this is where gaseous exchange takes places. They are
numerous to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange. They
contain tiny blood vessels called blood cappirralies

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS

In human gaseous exchange takes place in lungs. Lungs are enclosed in a

structure called thoracic cavity. They contains numerous air sacks called
alveoli(singular alveolus). Each alveolus deoxygenated blood. Alveoli are the
specific structure adapted to gaseous exchange.

BREATHING MECHANISM IN HUMANS

Breathing involves inspiration and expiration. Breathing in humans is the
movement of air into and out of the lungs. It is done by the help of the ribs,
intercostals muscle, diaphragm and the sternum.

THE DIAPHRAGM AND BREATHING

When we breathe in the diaphragm muscle contracts, pulling the sheet down.
The intercostals muscles in between the ribs also contract which pulls the whole
ribcage upwards and outwards. These together increase the volume of the chest.
Air is drawn into the lungs because the pressure inside them is lowered as the
chest volume is increased.
When we breathe out the diaphragm relaxes as does the intercostals muscles.
This decreases the volume of the chest, increasing the pressure. This forces air
out of the lungs. So it is the changing volume of the chest which causes air to
enter and leave the lungs. The lungs themselves are just like balloons which are
inflated

THE DIFFERENCES IN INSPIRED AIR AND EXPIRED AIR

 EXCRETION

Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste substances from the body.

IMPORTANCE OF EXCRETION

Every organism needs to remove waste substances from the body. Substance
from its internal environments. Waste substances may change the p.h of the
internal environment; they can also be very poisonous. To prevent this waste
substance s are removed by execration. This allows the enzymes to have a
favourable environment.

EXCRETORY ORGANISMS

Excretory organism is organisms which removes waste substances from the

body and expel them to the external body. In humans these organs are lungs,
liver, kidneys and skin. However skin is not considered as excretory organs like
lungs and kidneys because it only secrete sweat when there a rise in
temperature. Excretory products are substances which are excreted as wastes.

Excretory organism Excretory products Incidental losses

Kidneys Urea, waste,salts,ahocol
Lungs Carbon dioxide Waste
Liver Bile(bilirubin)
Skin Urea, salts , waste

THE KIDNEY AND EXCRETION

Kidneys are the most organisms which are used in excretion salts, used up
hormones, phosphorus ions, alcohol, and toxic substances from the body in
form of urine.
 THE URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system is used in formation of urine.

FUNCTIONS

1. Aorta: carry oxygenated blood from the heart to all parts of the body.
2. Vena cava: carry deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body to the
heart.
3. Renal artery: carry deoxygenated blood from the aorta to the kidneys.
4. Renal vein: carries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the vena
cava.
5. Kidneys: this is where urine is formed.
6. Ureter: carry urine from kidneys to the bladder.
7. Bladder: stores urine temporary.
8. Sphincter muscles: controls the movement of urine from the bladder.
9. Urethra: carry urine from the bladder to the exterior part of the body.
 CROSS SECTION OF THE KIDNEY

FUNCTIONS

1. Medulla: this is between the cortex and pelvis. It is where manly the
loops of Henle and collecting duct are found.
2. Cortex: this is the outer part of the kidney. It contains blood vessels like
the arterioles and capillaries.
3. Pelvis: this contains the pyramids which collects urines.

THE FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF THE KIDNEY

Functional units of the kidneys are called nephrone.

 THE NEPHRONE

Nephrone is used in formation of urine. It involves for processes during urine

formation. These processes are pressure or ultra filtration, osmoregulation,
selective reabsorption and secretion.

blood capillaries

The glamorous contains blood which it at high pressure, this causes blood to be
squized against the walls of the capillaries. This cause tiny molecule like urea,
glucose, salts, water etc to pass through the walls of capillaries into the
Bowman’s capsule. This is called pressure filtration. The solution taken the
bowman`s capsule is called glomerula filtrations. This glomerula filtrate is
taken to the renal tubule where important substances are reabsorbed back to the
blood. This called selective reabsorption. Important materials which are
reabsorbed are glucose , water, salts, calcium ion, etc. In loops of Henle their
is mains osmoregulation which occurs under the influence of ADH. More ADH
are present in kidney when the body is in need of water and vice versa. Urine
moves from loops Henle to the common collecting duct by secretion.

KIDNEY FAITURE

This is the condition where the kidneys stops functioning properly. The causes
of kidney failure are:

1. Cigarette smoking.
2. Heart failure
3. Low blood pressure
4. Infectious diseases like gonorrhoea
5. Accidents
 TREATMENTS (REMEDIES) OF KIDNEY FAILURE
kidney failure can be treated by kidney transplant or a dialysis machine.

KIDNEY TRANSPLANT

This is the transplanting of a kidney from the heath person to the person with
kidney failure. The person who donates the kidney is called ADONOR
and the one who receives kidney is called recipient.

THE DISADVANTAGES OF KIDNEY TRANSPLANT

 It is expensive
 It may lend to death due to excessive lose of blood.
 It is difficult to the donor whose blood group is compatible to the
recipient.
 It is difficult to find the donor whose tissue cell type is compatible to the
recipient.

ADVANTAGE ES

 It is the most permanent treatment of kidney failure.

 It does not need the patient to spend more time after time.
 It allows the persons to live a normal life.

THE DIALYSIS MACHINE

This is a machine which is used to remove urea and other waste substances it
works in places of the kidney. Blood from the patient is taken to the kidney
dialysis machine to be cleaned. This blood which is cleaned is taken back to the
patient. The process is called dialysis tubule and the dialysis fluid (dialyster).
Dialysis tubule is selectively permeable to allow tiny molecules to diffuse out of
the blood into the dialysis fluid. Dialysis tubule is coiled many times to increase
the surface area for diffusions of urea. Dialysis fluid contains salts , and sugars
which equal concentration in blood. This to prevent glucose and salts from
diffusing out of blood. The temperature of the dialysis fluid is relatively similar
to that of the blood.
 THE STRUCTURE OF DIALYSIS MACHINE

HOMEOSTASIS

Homoesistasis is the constant mentanaince of the body internal environment .

organs which are used in hormeostaisis are called organs of homoestasis.
Organs of homeostasis in humans are kidneys ,liver and skin. The body mainly
mentions body temperature ,salts , sugar, water , amino acids etc constantly .

THERMOREGULATION

This is the constat mentainace of the bodys internal temperature .

Different living organisms respond s to tempareture in different ways. Their are

mainly two types of animals when it comes to thermoregulation. These animal
are poikilo thermic and homolothermic animals.

1. Poikilo thermic animals: these are animals whose body tempareture is

determined by their external environment. They are also called cold blood
animals. Example s of poikilotherms are fish, lizard, snake crocodile etc.
2. Homolothermic animals :this are animals whose body tempareture is
not determinated by their exterternal envronment. They are commonly
known as warm blood animals. Example of homolothermic animals are
humans , dogs, birds, cow etc.
 THERMOREGURATION IN HUMANS

Humans are homolotherms meaning they are warm blood animals is about
and should always be mentained constantly.

1. The body respond s to heart by

(a) shievering: bthis is the rapid contraction and relaxation of the of the
muscle to genearate heat.
(b)vasoconstriction:this is the narrowing of the blood vessels to reduce
the flow of blood in them.
(c) liver increases its metabolic activities so that it produces more heat.
(d)the skin hair stands uprigght trapping cold air , there by preventing
them from entering the skin.

The body responds to heat by :

1. Sweating : this is the realise of sweat from sweat glands. It brings about
heat lose.
2. Vasodilation :this is the wideming of blood vessels to increase the flow of
blood vessels to increase the flow of blood in them. This causes the
cooling of the body.
3. The liver reduces its metabolic activities so that it produces less heat.
4. The skin hair falls to allow cold air to enter the skin, this causes heat lose.

WATER BALANCE ( osmoregulatiom)

During osmoregulation pituitory gland , hypothalamus , kidneys and skin are

used. Hypothalamus detects the concetration of water in blood , pituitory glands
secretes ADH,kidney regulates the volume of urine and skin secretes sweat.

 When blood has high water potential the hypothalamus causes the
pituitory glands to secretes less antiduiretic hormones (ADH). This
cause the loops of henle and collecting duct to be less permeable. This
allows more water to be lost in urine.
 When blood has less water potential , the hypothalamus stimulates the
pittuitary glands to secretes more ADH. This ADH causes the loops of
henle and collecting duct to be more permeable to water. This causes
water to be reabsorbed back to blood stream and less water to be found in
uribne.
 SUGAR REGULATION

The blood sugar is commonly known as glucose. Glucose is mentained

constantly by two hormones called insulin and glucagon. When sugar in blood
is high the pancrease secretes insulin which stimulates the liver to convert
excess glucose to glycogen. Glycogen is stored in the liver. When blood has low
sugar , the pancrease secrets glucagon back glucose.

Insulin and glucagon are hormones which works antagonistically. After a meal
of carbohydrates blood sugar rises causing hyperglycaemia. When insulin is
not suffient glucose may be found in urine causing the condition called
glycosuria. Glucosuria leads to a disease called diabetes melitos.

THE REGULATION OF AMINO ACIDS

Amino acids are very important to all living organisms. Liver and the rest of the
body has no capacity to store excess amino acids. When the body has high
concetration of amino acids the liver deaminates access amino acids to glycogen
and ammonia is a very poisoneous substance and is reduced to urea. Urea is
excreted by kidneys.

COORDINATION

Coordination is the process by which internal organs of the body works together
efficiently. Endocrine and nervous system are used in coodination.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system is made up ductless gland which secretes hormones.

Hormones are chemical messagers. Hormones may be made up of proteins or
lipids (steroid). In large animals like humans hormones are transported by blood
from endocrine glands and affects targets organs.

HUMAN ENDOCRINE GLANDS

There are about six endocrine glands in humans and these are:

(i) Pituitary glands

(ii) Thryroid glands
(iii) Parathyroid gland
(iv) Adrenal gland
(v) Islets of langerhanse (in pancrease).
(vi) Gonades(testes and ovaries)
 PITUITORY GLANDS
 It is located at the base of the brian.
 It is called the master glands.
 It is made up of two lobes which are anterior(inner) and posterior
(outer).

HORMONES SECRETED BY PITUITORY GLANDS

 Thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH)

 Follicle stimulating hormones(FSH)
 Luteinizing hormone(LH)
 Interstitial cell stimulating hormones(ICSH)
 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone(ACTH)
 Growth hormones(GH)
 Gonadotropnic hormone(GTH)
 Antidiuretic hormone(ADH)
 Oxytocin
 Polactin
 Note that: TSH, FSH, LH, ICSH, ACTH, GTH, are secreted by
anterior pituitory. But ADH , oxytocin and polactin are secreted by
posterior pituitory glands.

THYROID GLAND

This glands is located at the neck. It produces and secretes thyroxin. Thyroxin is
produced in the presence of IODINE. Lack of iodine may lead to goitre.

PARATHYROID GLAND

This glands is also located at the neck and is attached to thyroid gland. It
produces and secretes parathyroxin or parathormone.

ADRENAL GLANDS

These glands are located on top of each kidney. They are made up of cortex
(outer) and medulla (inner ) parts. Cortex secretes cortisol and medulla secretes
adrenalline.

ISLETS OF LANGERHENS

These are endocrine cell found in the pancrease. They are beta and alphacells.
Beta cells secretes insulin and alpha cells secretes glucagon.

GONADES

These endocrine glands are testes (in males)and ovaries (in females). Tests
secretes TESTOSTERONE and ovaries secretes OESTROGEN and
projesterone.
FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

HORMONES FUNCTIONS
FSH Stimulates the production of ova in
ovaries. It also causes the ovaries to
producesoestrogen
LH It brings about ovulation
ICSH It causes the testes to produce
testosterone.
GH It causes growth
ACTH It causes the adrinal glands to secretes
cortisol and adrenaline
GTH It affects the testes and ovaries .
ADH Controls the absorption of water in the
loops of henle and collecting duct.
OXYTOCIN It brings about rhythmical contraction
of uterus during child birth.
Polactin It stimulates the reproduction of milk
Thyroxin It controls the basal metabolic rate
(BMR)
ADRENALINE It prepares the body for action.
Cortisol It depresses autolysis.
Insulin It stimulates the liver to
convertglucose to glycogen
Glucagon Causes the convertion of glycogen –
glucose
Testosterone Stimulates pubert in men
Projesterone Rebuilds the lining of uterus
Oestrogen Brings about causes pituitary glands to
secretes LH.

HORMONES

(i) THYROXIN

This hormones is secreted by thyroid gland. It is made in the presence of iodine.

It controls BMR which is the rate metabolic activites. Under secretion of
thyroxin leads to low BMR over secretion of thyroxin leads to high BMR.

(II) ADRENALINE

This causes the body to be more aware of the external environment. It is

commonely know as the fight or flight hormones. Some cell it emergence
hormones. It is responsible for anger, laughter, stress etc.
(iii) INSULIN

This hormones is very important in the regulation of sugar (glucose) in blood. It

stimulates the liver to converts excess glucose to glycogen. Over secretion of
insulin causes more glucose to be converted to glycogen. Under secretion leads
to diabetes melitus.

THE POSITION OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system uses the electric impulses to coducts information. It is the most
complicated and reliable coordination system. Nervous system is made up of the
central nervous system and perpheral nervous system.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM(CNS)

Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. It recives
electric impulse from peripherol nervous system. It is involved in decision
making.

THE BRAIN

The brain is the largst part of the central nervous system (CNS). It is the
expanded part of the spinal cord. The brain is very delicate in that if can easly
be damaged. This brain is protect by cronium (skull) and menings membranes.
Mening membranes contains the fluid called cerebral spinol fluid (CSF)
 STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN

FUNCTIONS

1. CEREBRUM

This is the largest part of the brain.

It is the center for intelligence, thinking, memory, judgement, sensations etc.

It also controls voluntary actions.

2. CEREBELLUM
It is located on the hige brain and it is also called the small brain.
It controls balance by controling the muscular activities and the bones.
It also controls learn activities such as doxing.
3. MEDULLATION OBLONGATOR

Medulla oblongetor is between the brain and spinal cord. It is also called
brain stem.

It controls heart rate ( pulse rate), breathing peristalsis. Etc.

It controls the secretion of digestive juices.

It also controls the involutary actions like swallowing.

4. Hypotharamus

It controls thrist, hunger and some invulutary actions. It is also the center for
hormeostasis.

5. PITUITORY GLANDS

It is also called the master glands. It secretes hormones used in

coordinations.

SPINOL CORD

This is the minor part of the CNS. It is located at the back bone. Spinal cord
is protected by vertebrae bones and mening membranes which containes
cerebral spinol fluid.

FUNCTION OF SPINOL CORD

 It responds to stimulus immediately to prevents excess gamage of the

cells.
 It processes the informations
 It transmites electric impulses from PNS to the brain.

STRUCTURE
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

peripheral nervous system is made up of neorones, receptors and effectors.

This ststem recieves stimulus and take it to CNS and they also responds to
stimulus. Stimulus is any thing that causes an organism to go into actions.
Stimulus also referes to any local change to in the external or internal
environment.

RECEPTORS

Receptors are structures which receieves stimulus and convert it into ectertric
impulse. They contains sensory cell.

EFFECTORS

These are structures which responds to stimulus directy or idirectly. Examples

of effectors are musles and endocrine glands.

NEURONES

These are nerves cells which transmittes electric impulses. There are three types
of neurones called sensory ,relay and motor neurones.

SENSORY NEURONE

This neurone carry electric impulses from receptors to the CNS.

STRUCTURE OF SENSORY NEURONE

MOTOR NEURONE

This carry electric impulses from CNS to the effectors.

STRUCTURE OF MOTOR NEURONE

RELAY NEURONE(intermediate neurone)

This neurone transmittes electric impulses from sensory to motor neurone. They
are located within the central neurones system (CNS).

STRUCTURE OF RELAY NEURONE

 REPRODUCTION

Reproduction :is the process by which living organisms produces their young
ones.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

There are two types of of reproduction and these are sexual and asexiual
reproduction.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction is the process by which living organisms produces their

young ones by using sex cells. These sex cells fuse to form zygote during
fertilization. fertilization may be external or internal . external fertilization
takes place out side the body of an organisms. Internal fertilization takes inside
thebaby.

REPRODUCTION IN FROG

Frogs reproduce in water. The male frog induces the female frog to lease egss
and the male frog release his sperm over the eggs. This is called external
fertilization. Water prevents the dying out of the egg. The eggs hatch out side
the female`s body into tadpoles. Tadpolles live in water. They have external
gills and eat planktons and small plants particles. Before the water dries up, the
tadpoles changes into frogs, developing lung and losing gils and tail.

DISADVATAGEES OF EXTARNAL FERTILIZATION

 It water current is too strong. It may wash away sperms from eggs.
 It requires much energy.
 Eggs can be easy destroyed by predators.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Humans reproductions sexualy and undergoes internal reproductionn . it
involvels the fusing of the the sperm and eggs cells inside the body (uretus) of a
woman.
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

FUNCTIONS
Penis:this depoist semens into the vigina.
Urethra: transports urine and sermens.
Sperm duct: this pushes sperm cells into prostrate gland from the epideymis.
Epididymis:stores sperm cells. It is also were sperms cells mature.
Testes:this is where sperms cells are produced and also produces testosterone.
Prostrate gland:it secretes the serminal fluid that aids the transportation of
sperm cells.
Cowper`s glands:produces thick clear mucus that forms part of semen.

THE STRUCTURE OF A SPERM.

The tail of a sperm cell causes it to propuls and move towards an egg.
Mitochondria provides energy to the sperm cell for its movement, acrosome
contains enzymes which neutralizes the acid p.h in the urethra and vagina.
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS IN HUMANS
ovary secretes oestrogen and projestrone. This is where eggs are made. Vagina
is the birth canal, it secretes mucus and receieves semesns. Cervix is the neck of
the uterus it closess during pregnance. Uretus is the structure where the
foetudevelops from.

Biological changes during sexual development

Sexual reproduction in humans can only takes place once an individual reaches
pubert. Pubert is a stage of physical chanes during which a child`s baby body
matures into an adult body. Pubert is caused by ostrogen ( in girls) testosterone
(in boys)
PUBERT IN BOYS
 Selection and muscle grow fast and cause an increase in height.
 Hair grows in private parts amd arm pits.
 Skin nbecames oilier and pimples develop.
 Beards starts to grow and voice gets deeper.
 Shoulders and chest broaden.
 The penis and testles increase in suze.
 Testles begin to make sperm cell.

PUBERT IN GIRLS

 Selection and muscle grow fast and cause an increase in height .

 Hair grows in privet parts and armpits.
 Skin becomes oilier and pimples develop.
 Breasts start to develop and grow.
 Hips widen.
 The vigina grows to produce ova.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

This is the monthly hormonal cycle of ovulating women.

 The function of menstrual cycle is to provide the favourable environment

for developing fuetus if fertilization takes place
 Menstrual cycle last about 28 days, but varies from 25 – 35 days
 The cycle starts on the first day of menstruation.

Ovulation takes place on day 14 and an empty pollicle becomes an endocrine

gland, the corpus luteum.

FERTILIZATION , IMPLITATION AND DEVELOPNG OF THE FOESTUS

Fertilization is the fusion of the male nucleus and female nuleus to form zygote.

Fertilization results in a diploid zygote. it mainly occurs in the fallopian tube.

Immediately after fertilization cell divistion starts. Early cell division is called
cleavage, and increase the number of cells and not the size of the zygote.after 3
days cleavage rsulits in solid mass of cell. This ball of cells moves down the
ovuduct till it raches the uretus. When it raches the uterus it develops into
brystocyst. The next step is the implitation of brystocyst. For the first 8 weeks
the developing individual is called an embryo. The premature break down of
the embryo leads to miscarriage. The outer layer of brystocyst develops into two
embryonic membranes called chorion and the ammino. Chorian forms the
placenta and the ammonion forms the amninic sac. Amnion contains the fluid
known as amniotic fluid.

PLACENTA AND THE UMBILICAL CORD

Placenta provides the site for exchange of the substances between the blood of
the mother and that of the unborn child. Substances, water vitamins, antibodies,
antitoxins etc.

 Umbilical cord consits of umbilical artery and umbilical vein. Umbilical

vein carry oxygen and nutrients from the palcenta to the fuetus. Umbilical
artery carry carbondioxide and waste substances from the foetus to the
placenta.
 BIRTH CONTROL(CONTRACEPTION)
This is the action people takes to prevent pregnancy, without using
contraception. Sexualy actitive women will contunie to get pregnant.
Contraceptive methods are:
 Abstinence
 Rhythm method
 Withdraw
 Doucing
 Condom
 Intrauterine device (IUD)
 Contraceptive pills
 Contraceptive injection
 Vasectory
 Jubal logation
GENETICS
Genetics is the study of inheritance.

TERMINOLOGIES
1. Genes:this is a basic unit of inheritance.
2. Allele: this is an alternative form of a gene located on a chromosome.
3. Dorminant:this is a gene which expresses itself in the presence of the
other gene.
4. Recerssive gene: this is a gene which does not express it self fully in the
presence of the other gene.
5. Genotype:this is the arragement of genes in the nucleus of a cellular
organism.
6. Phenotype: this is the physical appearance of an organism.
7. Homozygous: this is an individual with different genes
8. Heterozygous: this is an individual with different genes.

VARIATION

Individual in population are not identical . varriation is the difference between

phenotypes of individual of the same species. There are two types of variation
called continues variation and discontinues variation.

CONTINUEOUS VARIATION

This is the type of variation which shows a range of measurement s from one
extereme to the other. It is caused by genes and the environment. Examples of
traits or characteristics which shows contineous varition are skin colour ,
height, shoe. Size,weight, hand span. Etc.

DISCONTINEOUS VARITION
This is the type of varition where there are no intermediate forms. It is entirely
genetical influence. Examples of discontineous varition are:blood group, sex,
tongue rolling, fingerprints, dimples. Etc .

IN HERITANCE OF HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS

In living plants and animal cells, the hereditary instructions are encoded on the
genes in DNA.

MONOHYBRID

Monohybrid is a single trait that has two alleles. To under stand this we draw
genetic diagram . in genetic diagram the following are used.

(i) P=represents the parent generation.

(ii) F1=represents the first generation.
(iii) F2= represents the second generation of offspring.

Alleles are represented by capital letters and small letters .

Capital letters represents dorminats genes and small letters represents recessive
genes.

EXAMPLES

This should be practical.

SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS

Sex in humans is determined by sex chromosomes. Their are two types of sex
chromosomes and these are Xand Y chromosomes. Females posses XX and
males posses XY chromosomes. For this females are called homogametic and
males are called heterogamatic. The sperm cell is the one which determines a
child will be male or female.

MUTATION

Mutation is a permanet changes in the DNA, genes and chromosomes of an

organism. Mutation generally usually happen during cell divition. Chromosomal
mutation usually happen fduring meiosis and can lead to extra or fewer
chromosomes gametes. Mutation can occur in cells of the body ( giving rise to
cancer) or in gametes.
 CAUSES OF MUTATION

1. Radiation : this includes nucleon and ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and

gammarays.
2. Tobbaco smoke, alcohol and drugs .

EFFECT OF MUTATION

(a)haemophillia : it is an linked disease. It is recessive disorder. It is

commonly abserved in males cause most females are carries. It is treated
with blood transfussion and the use of anti- haemophilial factor.

(b)sicle cell: this is used by a recessive autosomal mutation and chromosome

11 that result in mutation of HBB gene coding for beta chain of
haemoglobin.

CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION

This type of mutation usually lends to down sydrome. Chromosomes mainly

causes down sydrome. In down sydrome chromosome are more than 23 or
less than 23. Down sydrome cause tunner synsdromic, kleinefter syndrome
and polyploidy.

ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of organisms in relation to their environment. Ecology

is derived from two latin words ECO(home place) and logos(study). The
enviroment where living organisms and non- living organisms, therefore ,
factors in the environment that affect living are biotic and abioti

BIOTIC FACTORS

These are living organisms found in the environment of a certain living

organisms. These biotic factors enables the food chain to occur in a habitant.
Examples of biotic factors are plant, ant, bacteria, etc

A BIOTIC FACTORS

This comparise of all non- living organisms found in a certai habitant.

These also affects the lives of living organisms. Examples of abiotic factors
are: rocks , water, temperature, air (or wind). Etc.

TERMINOLOGIES

1. Habitat : this is a specific where an organismlives.

2. Niche: this is the specific role an organisms plays in the community.
3. Population : this is the group of living organisms of the same species ,
found in a certain habitat and out a particular tim.
4. Community: this consists of all living parts of a havity.
5. Ecosystem: this is the unit of biotic and abiotic factors.