GUÍA DE BIOLOGÍA

UNIT 1 .
Biology as a science
Science (1) the study of something that can be proved or tested.
(2) Science is asking questions and them testing them to build knowledge
Natural sciences: biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy.
Biology (1) the study of living organisms (and everything that interacts or contributes to their
environment, use energy or reproduce)

Branches of biology:
● Cellular Biology: studies the functions and structures of cells
● Biochemistry: studies molecules and how they interact with each other on a chemical level
● Molecular biology: studies the processes that occur inside cells
● Environmental biology: studies the effect humans have on the environment
● Structural biology: studies how the biological molecules are built
Other branches: biophysics, genetics, quantum biology, biomathematics, anatomy, pharmacology,
paleontology, neuroscience, physiology, taxonomy, entomology, genomics. (y todas las que empiezan
en bio).

Scientific method:
1. Question: Develop a question from an observation
2. Background research: previous investigation of the topic in study. Information needed before
experimenting
3. Hypothesis: prediction / educated guess of what will happen
4. Method and material: resources that you need and a plan of steps that you will follow
5. Experimentation and results: show the results of the experiment
6. Analysis of results: interpretation of your results and analyze the outcome
7. Conclusion: accept or deny hypothesis, write a synthesis of experiment and communicate the
answers

Characteristics of biological systems

Living things have 7 characteristics:
“RARE HOG”

Characteristics Definition Example

R Response to Stimuli Ability to respond or sense external or Internal: when feeling

internal stimuli (things). hungry (contractions)

A Adaptation Scientific theory states that modern Snakes lost their legs
organisms descended with to fit in underground
modification from pre-existing life spaces
forms

R Reproduction process in which an organism can Cell reproduction

make more of its own. Sexual or
asexual.
 E Energy Processing The way an organism takes in Photosynthesis
materials from the environment to Metabolism
process this energy and then use it

H Homeostasis Automatic process by which an Humans maintaining

organism try to stay in a certain their temperature
condition

O Organized by cells Cells perform all abilities required for Any living thing is
life organized by cells

G Growth and When a living organism reaches a Puberty

development certain age, its body changes in
aspects like shape and size

Levels of organization
UNIT 2 .
Evolution
Evolution: descendance with change.
process that takes generations

The difference between evolution and development is that evolution

is a process that takes generations for the species to change, while
development means that an organism grows and changes shapes and
sizes at a certain age.

Cell theory
Theodore Schwaan (by observing animal cells) and Mathias Schleiden (by observing plant cells) are
credited of producing the cell theory (independently) - 1839

This theory states that all organisms are composed of similar units or organizations called cells.
1. Every single cell comes from a preexisting cell
2. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells
3. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life

Microscope History
Janssen invented the first compound microscope - 1595
Robert Hooke improved Janseen’s microscope - 1633
● He observed cork, and developed the word cell derived from latin “cellula” that means small
compartment
Van Leeuwenhoek used his own single lens microscope
● Was the first to observe bacteria and protozoa
● He called Bacteria “ANIMACULES”
Franco Redi proved that microorganisms do not spontaneously generate
● He experimented with meat in 3 different jars to see if the flies
appeared in the jars that were closed
Pasteur proved that microorganisms do not not spontaneously generate
● His experiment was the swan’s neck experiment

Molecules present in cells

Carbon is the central element of life and in organic chemistry:
● All biomolecules have a carbon chain
● 4 outer shell electrons, good bonding capacity
● Covalent bonds (they are hard to break because they are stables)
● Linkages: single chains or rings

MONOMERS: small molecules considered as units

POLYMERS: groups of monomers
Dehydration reactions: MONOMERS are made into POLYMERS
Hydrolysis reactions: POLYMERS are broken down into MONOMERS

Elements present Functional groups Food example Image

 Carbohydrates CHO Carboxyl group Bread
carbon, hydrogen and Hydroxyl group
oxygen

Lipids CHO Carboxyl group Cheese

carbon, hydrogen and Hydroxyl group
oxygen

Proteins CHONS Amino Group Beans

carbon, hydrogen, Carboxyl group
oxygen, nitrogen and Hydroxyl group
sometimes sulfur

Nucleic acids CHONP Phosphate group Lettuce

carbon, hydrogen, Amino Group
oxygen, nitrogen and Carboxyl group
sulfur Hydroxyl group

CARBOHYDRATES
● Monosaccharides: glucose and galactose
● Disaccharides: sucrose and lactose
● Polysaccharides: starch, cellulose and glycogen

LIPIDS
● Non-polar molecules (not soluble in water)
● Fatty acids exhibit a high number of C-H
bonds and they store energy
● Help organize the interior of cells by
phospholipids
 ● Phospholipids: building structure of the cell membrane

Phospholipid molecules are arranged in a bilayer.

Fatty acids are hydrophobic (non polar) and the phosphate group is hydrophilic (polar)
Organelles made up of phospholipids are: cell membrane, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus

PROTEINS
Composed of chains of 20 amino acids (central carbon, amine group, carboxyl group and R group)
20 amino acids exist
The link between 2 amino acids are named peptide bonds

4 levels of proteins

Functions of proteins
● Enzyme catalysts
● Defense - antibody proteins
● Support - keratin (hair), fibrin, collagen
● Motion - actin / myosin
● Regulation - some hormones, regulatory proteins of DNA
● Storage - Ca and Fe attached to storage proteins

NUCLEIC ACIDS
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid: polymer chain
RNA - Ribonucleic acid: single strand chain
Each chain is made of nucleotides which are the monomers of DNA and RNA

Nucleotides are composed of:

1. Five - carbon sugar named
Deoxyribose for DNA
Ribose for RNA
2. Phosphate group
3. Nitrogen base that can be:
a. Adenine (A)
b. Guanine (G)
c. Cytosine (C)
d. Thymine (T) / Uracil (U)
Two types of organic nitrogenous bases.

Purines: double ring Corresponding Pyrimidines: single ring

Adenine (A) for DNA and RNA Thymine (T) for DNA
Guanine (G) for DNA and RNA Cytosine (C) for DNA and RNA
Uracil (U) for RNA

● The thymine is the DNA nitrogenous base that is replaced by uracil in the RNA
● ATP is a nucleotide and is the molecule of high energy
● Cholesterol gives strength and flexibility, less fluidity and permeability to soluble substances to
the boundary of cells.
● Triglycerides have a central core of glycerol bonded to 3 fatty acids
● Phospholipids have 2 tails that are hydrophobic

Nucleotides are linked to each other by making a backbone. The bond links the sugar of one of the
nucleotides with the phosphate group of the next nucleotide.

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures

Organism Difference Number of cells Example

Eukaryotic DNA is located in the one or more human

nucleus unicellular or
multicellular

Prokaryotic DNA is located in the one bacteria

cell cytoplasm unicellular

● Prokaryotes are 10 times smaller than eukaryotic

 ● All cells eukaryotic and prokaryotic have a cell membrane, DNA, cytoplasm and ribosomes.
● Only bacteria cells have nucleoid, plasmid, pili/fimbrae and flagella
● The function of the flagella and the cilia is the cell movement

Animal and Plant cells

Organelle Function

Nucleus Storage of genetic material

Cytoplasm “the soup” where organelles reside

Ribosomes Packets of RNA and proteins where protein synthesis occurs

Cell membrane Bilayer of phospholipids

Cell wall Protective wall to maintain the shape of plant cells

Lysosomes Kill bacteria

Chloroplast Where photosynthesis happens

Mitochondria The powerhouse of the cell

Vacuole Release of cellular waste products

*Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplast while animal cells don’t

Cell Transport

Passive Transport: does not need energy Energy consuming transport: requires ATP

Simple diffusion: movement of molecules in the Active transport: process of the transport of
solution from a high concentration to a low molecules across a cellular membrane through
concentration of that molecule until equilibrium the use of cellular energy
is reached.

Facilitated diffusion: diffusion of solutes through Exocytosis: takes out energy

transport proteins in the plasma membrane. Cells extrude or secrete molecule materials, they
 envelop them in the plasma membrane and then
release it

Osmosis: movement with direction of water Endocytosis: takes in energy

through a semipermeable membrane
● Isotonic: equal movement of water
● Hypertonic: water movement out of cells
● Hypotonic: water movement into cells
Plasma membrane extends outward and
envelopes molecules or complete organisms
● Phagocytosis
● Pinocytosis

OSMOSIS:
● If a solution around a cell contains less solute dissolved than the fluid inside the cell, then the
surrounding solution is hypotonic
● If a solution around the cell contains more solute dissolved than the fluid inside the cell then
the solution is hypertonic. In this case, the water in the cell will go inside the cell and the cell
will expand.
● Blood serum is isotonic solution since it has the same concentration that blood cells.

UNIT 3
.
Cell cycle: mitosis
Mitosis: produces two cells that are identical copies of each other
Reproduction
Reproduction: ability to produce an offspring
Asexual reproduction: is when an organism reproduces offspring on its own.
There is only 1 parent and the offspring will inherit all of its genes
The parent and the offspring will be genetically identical
Both plants and animals can make asexual reproduction
​

Types of asexual Description

reproduction

Binary fission Genetic material is duplicated and the cell splits in two

Mitosis Copying the genetic material and the division of the cell (splitting of
the nucleus)

Budding The organism develops a bud which is identical and eventually

detaches from the parent

Vegetative reproduction Cut a plant and take a part, cultivate it, and if it has the right
conditions, there will be a genetically identical plant

Fragmentation When an organism loses a part of its body, and then this part grows
on its own

Parthenogenesis When an organism at some condition develops an ovum with

complete genetic material creating an individual identical to the
mother.
 Advantages Disadvantages

Sexual reproduction Genetic variation in the Energy consuming and you

offspring, allows genetic need 2 parents
evolution

Asexual reproduction You only need 1 parent, you Diseases can be transmitted
don’t spend any additional and if there is a change in
energy looking for a mate conditions, it can affect the
organism

Sexual reproduction: production of an organism by the combination of genetic information of two

individuals of different sexes.
2 gametes are needed: sperm and ovum
Gamet: cell that is used for reproduction and that has half of the genetic material
Somatic cells: every single cell that is not a reproductive cell, they have complete genetic material
Somatic cells turn into gametes by the process of Meiosis

Meiosis
The same process that occurs in mitosis, happens in meiosis, the difference is that there are some
phases that happen twice.
Mendelevian inheritance
Gregor Mendel was a biologist, meteorologist and mathematician known for creating the science of
genetics. His main contribution is the discovery of the principles that rule hereditary and how traits are
inherited.

Mendel’s Laws
● The law of Segregation establishes that a parent contributes only one of its alleles for a trait to
each offspring.
● The law of independent assortment establishes that alleles of one gene are passed to
offspring independently of the alleles of other genes.

DEFINITIONS

Gametes Reproductive cells produced by sexual reproducing organisms.

Male gametes = sperm
Female gametes = eggs/ovules

Fertilization Fusion of egg and sperm

Self-fertilized: fusion of sperm and egg from same plant
Cross fertilized: fusion of egg and sperm from two different plants

During external fertilization, the eggs are fertilized in an environment outside

of the female body. And during internal fertilization, it takes place inside the
female

Genes Hereditary information that determines a single trait

Alleles Alternate forms of a gene in an specific area of a chromosome

● If an organism inherits two identical alleles for a trait, the organism is
homozygous for the trait
● If an organism inherits two different alleles for a trait, the organism is
heterozygous for the trait

Genotype Genetic composition of an individual, determined by the alleles for each trait

Phenotype Physical appearance of a trait, it is the expression of the genotype

Dominant allele Allele that is expressed whenever is present in capital letters

Recessive allele Alelle that is masked whenever the dominant allele is present
Dominant and recessive alleles influence an organism phenotype
In absence of dominant allele, the recessive can be manifested.

Based on Mendel’s principles, if two heterozygous hamsters of a first generation (F1) are crossed, they
are obtained phenotipically 75% of hamsters with dominant traits

Chromosome theory
This theory establishes that genes were part of chromosomes, and could be located within specific
locations, into a chromosome called locus

● The karyotype of a Down Syndrome person is 47 chromosomes

● A locus is the location of a gene on a chromosome
● A mutation leads to changes in an individual’s genotype and generated visible changes in his
phenotype
 ● The genotype is the information that comes in genes, and the phenotype refers to the physical
traits. The dominant alleles will be expressed in the physical traits and the recessive alleles will
be masked.

PUNNET SQUARES: Cross of complete dominance

Traits are:
W = white
w = brown
T = Long tail
t = short tail

Phenotypes chart: (se clasifican por como se dividen las características, si el trait empieza con
mayúscula es el dominante)

WT Wt wT wt

WT WWTT WWTt WwTT WwTt

White and long tail White and long tail White and long tail White and long tail

Wt WWTt WWtt WwTt Wwtt

White and long tail White and short tail White and long tail White and long tail

wT WwTT WwTt wwTT wwTt

White and long tail White and long tail Brown and long tail Brown and long tail

wt WwTt Wwtt wwTt wwtt

White and long tail White and short tail Brown and long tail Brown and short tail

WT = 9/16
Wt = 3/16
wT = 3/16
wt = 1/16

Genotype chart: (se clasifica por la repetición de letras)

WT Wt wT wt

WT WWTT WWTt WwTT WwTt

Wt WWTt WWtt WwTt Wwtt

wT WwTT WwTt wwTT wwTt

wt WwTt Wwtt wwTt wwtt

WWTT = 1/16
WWTt = 2/16
WWtt = 1/16
WwTT = 2/16
WwTt = 4/16
Wwtt = 2/16
wwTT = 1/16
wwTt = 2/16
wwtt = 1/16