General Science

GEN.ED SCIENŒ

General Science: Life Sciences

Biology
- From two Greek words "bios”and "logos"
- Literally means the "study of life"
Branches of Biology

1. Anatomy- the study of body parts and their location

2. Physiology- the study of functions of the body parts
3. Biochemistry- the study of chemical processes and transformations in living organisms
4. Cytology- the study of cells- The cell is the basic unit of life (fundamental or simplest unit of life)
- Atom
- Molecule
- Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
System
Organism
5. Ecology- study of ecosystem- (interaction between an organism and its environment)
6. Genetics- the study of gènes and heredity
7. Microbiology- the study of microorganisms
8. Mycology- study of fungi
9. Phycology- study of algae
10. Parasitology- the study of parasites and their hosts
11. Taxonomy- the science of classification and naming of organisms
12. Botany- study of plants
13. Zoology- study of animals
- Ethology- animal behavior
- IchthyoIogy- fishes
- Ornithology- birds
- Entomology- insects

The Cellular Basis of Life GEN.ED

SCIENŒ
1. Robert Hooke (1665)
- Discovered cell from a cork made from bark of an oak tree
- Coined the term cell (cellulae), meaning small room
2. Robert Brown (1831)
- Discovered the cell's nucleus

Chemical Bases of Life

"The cell consists of entirely chemical substances”
Of the 118 known elements today, only 4 elements constitute about 98% of living matter: C, H, O, N
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 • Oxygen is most abundant element in the cell

Macromolecules
1. Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
2. Nucleic acids
3. Proteins (Polypeptides)
4. Lipids

LH Un .Vonosa hahdes:
@lUCOSû, lfUMOS/
Dietaw ener ; D6acchard s
Carbohydrates stofage; plant lauose,sucose;
structure PoyscArides:
slachceluose

N -›H
Monosaccharide

Genetic make-up
Lautase
Proteins (an enzyme);

O (a transport protein)
N C‘

SxJe

Aminn acid

Long-tcrm

Lipids
estrogen)

Lipids
- Hydrophobic
- Non-polar (NO CHARGE)

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 Cell
Cytology- the study of cells
Two types of cells make up every organism
- Prokaryotic (Bacteria and Archaebacteria)
- Eukaryotic (Protist, Fungi, Plant, Animal)
Prokaryotic cells
- Do not contain a nucleus
- Have their DNA located in a region called the
nucleoid
Eukaryotic cells
- Contain a true nucleus
Cellular parts
1. The plasma membrane
- Functions as a selective barrier (Semipermeable)
- Control the passage of nutrients and waste
- Boundary between the inside of the cell and its external environment
2. The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell
- Contains most of the gènes (DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid) in the
eukaryotic cell (command center of the cell)
- Largest organelle in an animal cell
3. The Cytoplasm (Cytosol)
- Jelly like fluid
- Where organelles are located
- Compose of water, salts, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and other chemicals
4. Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell
- Carry out protein synthesis (protein factories)
5. The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
- ls continuous with the nuclear envelope
- Folded membranes that serves as channels through which materials are transported in the cell
6. The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
- Manufacture, process, and package of certain macromolecules
- Packaging factories of the cell
7. Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
- Powerhouse of the cell
- Converts food molecules into energy (ATP) through Cellular Respiration
- Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy from food
- ”ATP-Adenosine Triphosphate: Energy currency of the cell
- The waste products of cellular respiration are water and carbon dioxide gas (CO2)
8. Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments - Garbage collector
- ls a membranous sac of strong hydrolytic enzymes
- Digest bacteria, other foreign substances, and worn out cell parts
9. Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
- Contain chlorophyll (green pigment)
- Found in plants NOT in animals,
- Are the sites of photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis- the entire process of capturing light energy to produce food- energy rich organic molecules (plants, algae, and other
chlorophyll-bearing organisms) from carbon dioxide
- Needed material: Sunlight, Water, Carbon dioxide
- Waste product: Oxygen
- End Product: Sugar (Glucose)
10. The Cell Wall
- located outside the cell membrane, protective layer of the cell
- Plant cell wall: made up of cellulose
- Fungal cell wall: made up of chitin
11. Central vacuoles
- Are found in plants
- Hold reserves of important organic compounds and water
- Can take up to 30 %- 90 % of cell's volume

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 12. Cytoskeleton- Mechanical support, network of fibers
*Microfilaments (Actin filaments) are the thin structures essential for cytokinesis, amoeboid movement and changes in cell shape.
13. Cilium- hair-like structure
example: cilia in paramecium, fallopian tube (oviduct), lungs
14. Flagellum- whip-like structure
example: flagellum in sperm cell, eng/eno, bacteria
Cellular transport
There are two types of cellular transport
1. Passive transport
2. Active transport

A. Passive transport
- A diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment
- CO2, H2O, and 02 easily diffuse across plasma membranes
- Move from high to low concentration (concentration gradient)
- Can be diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis

Diffusion
- Is the tendency for molecules of any substance to spread out evenly into the available space Facilitated
diffusion
- It is a type of Passive Transport Aided by transport proteins
- Transport proteins speed the movement of molecules across the plasma membrane
3. Osmosis
- Is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane (diffusion of water)
- Is affected by the concentration gradient of dissolved substances called the solution's tonicity

a. Hypotonic Solution
- The concentration of solutes outside the cell is lower than the inside the cell
- Water comes inside the cell
- Clue: Turgid (Turgur Pressure- the pressure exerting on the plasma membrane against the cell wall), Swell,
Burst, Lysed
b. lsotonic Solution
- The concentration of solutes outside the cell is the same as it is inside the cell
- There will be NO NET movement of WATER
c. Hypertonic Solution
- The concentration of solutes outside the cell is greater than the inside the cell
- Water goes outside the cell
- Clue: Plasmolysis, Shrink, Shivel, Dehydrated
B. Active transport
- Uses energy to move solutes against their concentration gradients
- Requires energy, usually in the form of ATP
- Examples: Ion pumps, cotransport, bulk transport (exocytosis, endocytosis)

Taxonomy

8 Levels of Taxonomic classification (Dear King Philip Come Over For Good Spaghetti)
- Domain
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species

Carolus Linnaeus
- Father of modern Taxonomy
- Proposed the binomial nomenclature

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 Kingdoms and Domains
Virus
- Not living, inert chemicals
- Has capsid- protein shell that protects the virus’ DNA or RNA.

A. DOMAIN ARCHAEA:
1. KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA
- They live in various places, some even in the most severe environments.
- Methanogens, Halophiles and Thermophiles are examples of archaebacterial

B. DOMAIN BACTERIA:
1. KINGDOM EUBACTERIA (Monera)
- They are referred to as the true bacteria and are usually called the “bacteria” group.
- Ex. Streptococcus

DOMAIN EUKARYA:
1. KINGDOM PROTISTA
- Protozoans, diatoms, various types of algae (green, golden, brown, red algae),
- Ex. Entamoeba histolytica (Amoebiasis)
2. KINGDOM FUNGI
- All are heterotrophic
- Fungi, molds, mushroom, yeasts, microsporidia
3. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
- Animals consist of two major groups, the invertebrates and vertebrates. Invertebrates lack backbone which is present in
vertebrates
- All are heterotrophic or consumer (it means cannot produce their own food)

a. PORIFERA (phylum Porifera) — pore-bearing, simplest animal; body of calcium carbonate Example:
sponges

b. CNIDARIA (phylum Cnidaria)— have stinging cells (nematocyst)

Example: jellyfish, coral, hydra

c. ARTHROPODA (Phylum Arthropoda) — jointed legs; segmented bodies Example:

Insects- mosquito, butterflies
Crustaceans- crab, shrimps, lobsters
Arachnid- spiders
Centipede
Milipede
* Molting or Ecdysis- insects shed off their old cuticle to grow in size

d. NEMATODA (Phylum Nematoda)- roundworms; unsegmented

Example: pinworm, Ascaris, hookworm, filarial worm

e. PLATYHELMINTHES —flatworms: worms have soft tissues; unsegmented

Example: flukes, tapeworms, planaria

f. ANNELIDA (Phylum Annelida) — segmented worms

Example: leech, earthworms

g. MOLLUSCA (Phylum Mollusca) — with soft bodies (usually with shells)

Example: squids, clams, snails, octopi

h. ECHINODERMATA (Phylum Echinodermata) — spiny body

Example: sea star, sea urchin, sand dollars, sea cucumber, brittle star

i. CHORDATA (Phylum Chordata)-

- FISH (Pisces)— scales, gills and fins: shark, lampreys
- AMPHIBIANS (Amphibia)— part of their life cycle in water: frogs, caecillians, salamanders
- REPTILES (Reptilia) — eggs, scaly bodies: crocodile, snake

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 - BIRDS (Aves)— 2 scaly legs, wings, feathers: penguin, ostrich, duck
- MAMMALS (Mammalia) — mammary glands, hairs, milk: human, platypus, marsupials
- Walrus- Marine mammals that have long ivory tusks and lives in arctic environment

4. KINGDOM PLANTAE
- They are autotrophic or producer (it means they can make their own food).
- Plants consist of two big groups: those which do not have tissues to transport water and food (nonvascular) and those that have this
transport system (vascular)

Nonvascular Plants
- No vascular or conducting tissues
- Found in moist places
- Ex. Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
Vascular Plants
Vascular plants can be:
A. Seedless vascular plants
B. Seed vascular plants
i. Angiosperms
- Monocot
- Dicot
ii. Gymnosperms

- Vascular plants have xylem and phloem

a. Xylem
- Conducts most of the water and minerals
b. Phloem
- Distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products

A. Seedless vascular plants

- Including club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts
- including ferns
- including whisk ferns
- including horsetail
B. Seed Vascular Plants
1. Angiosperms
- Most abundant and widely distributed plants
- Flowering plants
- Flowers contain reproductive cells
- Bears fruit to protect the seed

Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms Flower-

reproductive organ of flowering plant

- Pollination- transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the flower
a. Cross pollination- from one plant to the other plant
b. Self-pollination- pollination from same flower Anther
Stamen
The Flower ilament
- Sepals, collectively called the calyx, protect the flower bud before it opens
- Petals, collectively called the corolla
- The petals often attract a particular pollinator
- Stamen, male part
- anther, a saclike container Petal
(petale= Receptacle
- filament, a slender stalk corolla)
0v0Ie
- Pollen grains develop from microspores produced in the anther
- Carpet (Pistil), female part Sepal
- Stigma
- Style (sepals = calyx)
- Ovary

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 - Ovule
* Ovule becomes the seed
* Ovary becomes the fruit
- Fruit is instrumental in the distribution of seeds

Seed Vascular Plants: Gymnosperms

2. Gymnosperms
- Cone bearing plants
- Gymnosperms have “naked seeds”
- Seeds are not enclosed by fruit
- The four groups of living gymnosperms are conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetopfiytes

Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms

PemaJe
cane

Male cane

Plant Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction Asexual

Reproduction- vegetative reproduction

Runners- Horizontal stems, new roots and shoots develop at the node. Also known as stolon
- strawberry, bermuda grass, bamboo grass
Tubers- Underground stems that store food for the plant, the “eyes” are the stern's nodes, and each eye contains a cluster
of buds
- Potato
Rhizomes- they grow as horizontal underground stern from plant to plant. Some rhizomes are compressed and fleshy.
- Ginger
Bulbs- which are shortened, compressed underground stems surrounded by fleshy scales (leaves) that envelop a central bud at the tip of the
stern
- Onion, Garlic
Corms- another kind of underground stern, are shaped like bulbs, do not contain fleshy scale, solid, swollen stern with dry, scale-like leaves
- Taro (Colocasia),
Underground roots- Carrots, Sweet potatoes (camote) and cassava

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 Animal Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction

Earthworm
- Hermaphroditic - both male and female organs are found in the same worm
- Clitellum- contains egg
- During copulation, one worm passes its sperms into the seminal vesicle of another, at the same time receives sperms into its own
receptacle
Frog
- The eggs are fertilized in the water
Chicken
- The rooster (male) places the opening of his reproductive organ against the opening of the hen's (female)
- The hen drops the fertilized egg (surrounded by yolk) out of her body and incubates it

Asexual Reproduction in other organisms

Budding
- The parent organism produces offspring by growing a replica in the form of an outgrowth called bud
- e.g. Hydra, Sponges, Yeast
Fragmentation
- Separated pieces of the parent organism can develop into an individual
- e.g. Sea star, Flatworms
Binary Fission
- in bacteria

Human Systems

1. Digestive System
- Physical digestion: mouth and stomach
- Peristalsis- Wave-like muscle contractions that move food
- Chemical digestion: breakdown of large food molecules by enzymes
- Mouth
- Pharynx
- Throat
- Esophagus
- Peristalsis occurs
- Stomach
- Chyme (mixed food and gastric juices)
- Small intestine — final place of digestion
- Large intestine
- Colon, water absorption, production of Vit. K, ends in rectum
- Anus
- Passageway in defecation
- Accessory Organs:
- Salivary gland
- Liver- largest internal organ in the body, creates bile (emulsification of fats)
- Gall bladder- stores the bile
- Pancreas- secrete pancreatic amylase for final digestion of starch

2. Circulatory System
- Transport blood from the heart to the lungs to oxygenate blood then to other parts of the body
- Vein- blood back to heart
- Artery- blood away to heart
- Heart- pumps blood
- Blood- contains of blood cells (RBC, WBC, Platelets), plasma
- RBC (red corpuscles) is red because of hemoglobin
- Fibrinogen- protein found in the plasma is responsible for blood clotting
- Vitamin K- vitamin needed for blood clotting
- Calcium- mineral needed for blood clotting
- Vitamin B12- vitamin needed for RBC production

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3. Respiratory System
- Supplies body with oxygen, and release CO2as waste
Inspiration- Inhale, takes oxygen in
Expiration- Exhale, releases CO2out
- Nose- warms and moisten air, traps dirt
- Pharynx(throat)- passageway for both air and food
- Epiglottis- prevents the entrance of food to trachea
- Larynx- voice box
- vocal cords are found inside the larynx (voice box)
- Adam's apple in males
- Trachea- (Windpipe) cartilaginous, traps and sweeps out dirt through cilia
- Lungs- the main organ of respiratory system
- Diaphragm- dome-shaped muscle beneath the lungs
- Inhale-contracts
- Exhale-relaxes
4. Endocrine System
- Regulates body temperature, metabolism, development, homeostasis through hormones
- Regulates other organ
- Example: Pancreas releases insulin

Reproductive System
- Male: Penis, Testes, Vas deferens, Epididymis, Scrotum, Prostate glands, Seminal vesicles, Bulbourethral gland
- Female: Ovaries, Oviduct, Uterus, Cervix, Vagina, Labia
- Fertilization- union of sex cells (gametes)- union of sperm and egg (ovum)
- In vitro fertilization- Sperm and ovum meet inside the test tube
- In vivo fertilization- Sperm and ovum meet inside the body

6. Nervous System
- Regulates behavior, maintains homeostasis, controls sensory and motor functions
- Memory and emotions
- Spinal cord, brain
- Neurons- the basic unit of nervous system
A. Central nervous system
- Cerebrum: voluntary activities, largest, intelligences, learning, judgement
- Cerebellum: involuntary, balance, coordination
- Brain stem: connects brain and spinal cord, involuntary, life sustaining activities: breathing, heart rate, blood pressure,
swallowing
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
B. Peripheral nervous system
- It consists of the nerves

7. Skeletal System
- Protects and supports body parts
- Framework
- Blood cell production on bone marrows
- Calcium and phosphorous storage
- Bones (206 bones in adult)

Muscular System
- Moves limbs and trunk
- Moves substances through the body

Three types of Muscular Tissue

- Smooth muscle- involuntary, non- striated
- Cardiac muscle- involuntary, striated
- Skeletal muscle- voluntary, striated

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9. Excretory System
- Removes metabolic waste from the body
- Kidney- main excretory organ; produces urine.
- Lungs- releases water vapor and carbon dioxide
- Liver- produces urea
- Skin- produces sweat

10. lntegumentary System

- Body covering
- Protects from loss of internal fluids and from UV rays
- Body temperature regulation
- Nail, skin, hair
”Skin is the largest organ in the human body

Death: Postmortem changes

1. Livor Mortis
- Known as hypostasis
- The blood settles because of gravity
- Skin becomes pinkish, bluish, blotchy

2. Rigor Mortis
- Chemical changes causes muscle mass to become rigid
- After Rigor mortis, chemical breakdown and muscles become flaccid

3. Algor Mortis
- Body cooling from normal internal temperature to the temperature of the environment

Decomposition- is a process of autolysis and putrefaction

- Autolysis, or self-digestion, refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its enzymes
- Putrefaction- Breakdown of tissues and liquefaction of most organ
Genetics

Phenotype
- Observable traits of an organism (Green, Tall, Short, Straight, Kinky) Genotype
- Genetic constitution of an organism with reference to a specific character (Gg, gg, HH, hh)
Homozygous
- Gene combination having identical alleles for a single trait (HH, TT, tt)
Heterozygous
- Gene combination having two different alleles (Hh, Tt)

Mendel's Law of Dominance

Dominant gene (Working genes)
It prevents the expression of the other gene (recessive gene)
Recessive gene (Non-working genes)
- The expression is masked in the presence of a dominant gene
- Will only have phenotypic expression if present as a homozygous genotype

Example:
S- Straight (Dominant) s-
Kinky (Recessive)
*SS- Straight
*Ss- Straight
*ss- Kinky

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 Homologous Structures and Analogous Structures

- Homologous organs are organs having similar structure but different function e.g. Human arm, cat leg, seal flipper, bat wing
- Analogous organs are organs having similar functions but they have different structures e.g. butterfly's wings and and bat's wings.

Biotechnology
Biotechnology
- Modification of biological process through human intervention
- Genetic engineering
- The recipient becomes GMO (genetically modified organism)- transgenic organism
- BI corn
- A variant of maize that is genetically altered to express the bacterial Bt (Bacillus thuringensis) toxin which is poisonous to
corn borer
- Bioremediation- the use of biotechnology to solve environmental problems
- Oil eating bacteria-used in cleaning up oil spills

Ecology
Ecosystem
- Refers to the interaction group of natural elements and the organisms in a given environment
- Relationship between living (biotic) things and non-living (abiotic) things

Biotic Components of Ecosystem

Producers
- Can make their own food
- Example: Plants
- Autotrophs
Consumers
Obtain food from producers
Heterotrophs
- Herbivores- organisms that graze directly on producers
- Carnivores- feed on other animals
- Omnivores- animals that feed on both plants and animals
- Scavengers- feed on decaying and necrotic matter (example: vulture)
Decomposers/Saprophytes
- bacteria, fungi
- Break down dead organisms

Abiotic Components of Ecosystem

1. Sunlight
- Primary source of energy
2. Temperature
- Hotness or coldness
3. Water
- Universal solvent, basis of life
4. Wind
- Movement of air
5. Atmospheric gases

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 Food Chain, Food Web, Energy Pyramid

Food Chain
- A series of organisms feeding on the one preceding it

Food Web
- Network of feeding interactions among species
- feeding connections between all life forms

Energy Pyramid
- 1094 rule

Primary
consumers

producers ”
Biological environment
- Competition
- Predation 1,000,000 J of sunlÏght
- Symbiosis-
- Mutualism (+,+)
- Parasitism (+,-)
- Commensalism (+, neither harmed nor benefited)

General Science: Eanh Science

Solar System: Planets

General characteristics
- All revolve around the sun in the same direction
- Revolves eastward: from west to east (counterclockwise)
- They rotate (spin on the axis) in the same direction (except Venus and Uranus)
- Rotates eastward: from west to east (counterclockwise)

A. Solar System: Inner Planets/ Terrestrial Planets

1. Mercury
- 1 revolution: 88 earth days
- Very little atmosphere because of low gravity
- 315° C- day
- Negative 149° C- night

2. Venus
- The brightest planet in our solar system
- Evening star (March and April)
- Morning star (September and October)
- 243 earth days= revolution
- Up to 480° C
- Twin planet of Earth
- Hottest planet
- Earth's closest neighboring planet

3. Earth
- Blue planet
- 365 days
- Tilted axis 23.5”
- located in the habitable zone
- The only planet with life
- Its rapid rotation on its axis (equatorial bulge). This makes the shape of the earth an oblate spheroid

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4. Mars
- Red planet
- 2 Earth years= 1 revolution
- Two small moons: Phobos and Deimos

Asteroid belt
- Located between Mars and Jupiter
- Failed to become a planet
- Grained sized up to hundreds of kilometers in diameter
- Ceres- largest asteroid
- Hermes- closest asteroid to the Earth

B. Solar System: Jovian Planets/ Gas Planets / Outer Plantes

5. Jupiter
- Largest planet
- Ringed planet
- 67 moons
- 4 Galilean moons: lo, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto

6. Saturn
- The ringed planet (made of ice, rocks, dusts)
- 4 major rings and hundreds of ringlets
- Has 62 moons

7. Uranus
- Has at least 27 moons
- 13 known rings

8. Neptune
- Has at least 8 moons
- Ringed planet
- Fourth largest planet
- Colored blue due to methane

* Pluto (Dwarf planet)

- 1930- 2006
- Found in the Kuiper belt (Oort Cloud)
- 5 moons: Charon, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, Styx
- Highly elliptical orbit

Solar System: Earth's Moon

The Moon
- 1/6 of the Earth's gravity
- X of the Earth's size
- Rotation: 27 1/3 days
- Revolution: 27 1/3 days
- The rotational rate matches the rate of revolution thus, the same side of the moon is always facing the Earth- Tidal
lock
Phases of the Moon — repeats every 29.5 days
- Has 8 phases
1. New moon- not seen in the night sky
2. Waxing crescent
3. First quarter
4. Waxing gibbous
5. Full moon

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 6. Waning gibbous
7. Last quarter
8. Waning crescent
Lunar Eclipse
- Earth's shadow fall on the Moon
- S-E-M
Solar Eclipse
- Moon's shadow fall on the Earth
- S-M-E
Spring tide
- Highest tide and lowest tide
Neap tides
- Have lower high tides and higher low tides.
Perigee- moon closest to the Earth Apogee-
moon farthest from the Earth

Lunar missions
- Laika- first animal sent in space
- Apollo 11, first successful manned mission to the moon
- Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin- first men on moon (July 16, 1969, 8:18 PM)- Apollo 11 mission

Solar System: The Sun

The Sun
- Yellow star (Average Star)
- Nuclear fusion- H + H = He + energy

Photosphere: visible surface of the sun, what we see, the diameter of the sun is taken Chromosphere: color sphere, thin
layer of red light during eclipse
Corona: outermost region, a crown of light, during a total eclipse, it becomes visible to earth Sunspots: created by
strong magnetic fields, cooler and darker portion on the Sun's surface

Perihelion- Sun is closest to the Earth

Aphelion- Sun is farthest from the Earth

Other objects in the Universe

Asteroid--> Meteoroid—> Meteor—> Meteorite

- Meteoroid- small debris chipped off from an asteroid
- Meteor- when it enters the atmosphere
- Meteorite- when it hits the land

Comets
- Means long-haired
- Small body of rock, iron, ice, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide that orbit the sun elliptically
- Nucleus called coma
- The tail points away from the sun in a slightly curve manner due to solar winds
- Halley's comet appears every 76 years

Star
- A ball of hydrogen and helium
- Blue- Hottest star color
- Blue-white
- White
- Yellow-white
- Yellow
- Red-orange
- Red- coolest star color

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 - Constellation: group of stars forming recognizable pattern. Example: Ursa minor, Orion
- Proxima centauri- nearest star
- Sirius- brightest star
- UY Scuti of Scutum - Largest known star
- Northern Star- Polaris of the Ursa Minor (Little Bear)

Philippine Satellite

Diwata 1 (PHL-Microsat-1)
- First Philippine microsatellite built and designed by Filipinos
- Launched date: March 23, 2016
- Mission type: Earth's observation (non-military) Maya-1
(cubesat)
- First Philippine nanosatellite built and designed by Filipinos
- Launched date: June 29, 2018
Diwata 2 (Diwata-2B)
- Second Philippine microsatellite built and designed by Filipinos
- Third Philippine satellite
- Launched date: October 29, 2018
- Mission type: Earth's observation (non-military)

The Earth's History

Geologic Time Scale

Eon — Era — Period — Epoch

Mesozoic Era- Middle/ Medieval life

1. Triassic Period
- 248- 213 mya
- Appearance of first dinosaurs and mammals

2. Jurassic Period
- 213- 145 mya
- Jura mountains (between France and Switzerland) where rocks of this age were first studies
- Age of Dinosaur

The Earth

The earth is divided into the following spheres: lithosphere, atmosphere,

hydrosphere, and biosphere

A. Lithosphère: The Earth's layer

1. Crust gt
1. Crust- Earth's surface, outermost layer of the Earth LAhasphere
- Oceanic crust
- Continental crust

2. Mantle- rocky, made up of Si, 0, Fe, Mg, Ca, denser than crust
- Asthenosphere — partially molten rocks 2. Mantle
- Upper boundary: Moho or Mohorovicic
discontinuity (Andrija Mohorovicic)

” Lithosphère = crust + uppermost mantle

3. Core- innermost, central part of the Earth

- The liquid outer core is primarily made up of iron and nickel

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 - The inner core is primarily made up of iron and is solid
Changes in the lithosphère

- Continental drift theory (Alfred Wegener)

- Pangaea- super continent
- Evidence by jigsaw-like shapes of South America and Africa

Earthquake- any movement of the ground due to volcanic eruption or tectonic plate movement
- Foreshock
- Mainshock
- Aftershock
- Focus- the point of origin where the movement of fault happens
- Epicenter- the place above the focus

- Magnitude: measurement of energy released, Richter Scale (by Charles Richter)

- Intensity: the damage produced and the reaction of people, Mercalli Intensity Scale

Minerals and Rocks

Mineral- defined as a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid element or compound composed of an ordered arrangement of atoms with a
specific chemical composition

- Physical Properties of Minerals

- Hardness- it means resistance to scratch Moh's
Scale of Hardness
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
S. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond

- Ore- mineral deposit

1. Pitchblende- Ore of Uranium
2. Magnetite- Ore of Iron
3. Galena- One of Lead
4. Chromite- Ore of Chrome

Rock is a naturally formed solid made up of one or more kinds of minerals

Rocks can be classified based on their origin into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
1. Igneous rock is formed by the process of crystallization. It is formed from hardened magma or lava.
2. Sedimentary rock
- Formed by the process of lithification
- Involves compaction of sediments that settle at the bottom due to the pressure exerted by the layers of sediment above
- Involves cementation that involves the action of chemicals that bind these sediments together
- Coal
- Peat- decayed vegetation
- Lignite- soft brown coal (lowest rank of coal)
- Bituminous- black coal
- Anthracite- dark, black coal, having highest-heat value among the four
3. Metamorphic rock
- Formed from previously existing rock such as igneous and sedimentary rocks
- Subjected to heat and pressure, metamorphism
- Example: Marble

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 Weathering and Erosion

Weathering- breaking of rocks, soil and their minerals through direct contact with the Earth's atmosphere, waters, or living things

Erosion- removal of solids (sediment, soil, rock, and other particles) is the natural environment, usually occurs due to transport by wind and
water.

B. Hydrosphere

Water facts
- Three-quarters (7594) of the Earth's surface is submerged in water
- The abundance of water is the main reason the Earth is habitable Hydrologic/
Water cycle

i. Evaporation- when liquid turns to gas from bodies of water

ii. Condensation- gas returns to liquid in the form of clouds
*Clouds are classified based on their shape and altitude
*Cumulonimbus- clouds that bring thunderstorms
iii. Precipitation- when heavy clouds pour liquid water or solid ice
iv. Run-off- when the ground is saturated with water and water flows back to bodies of water

Oceans (PAISA)

1. Pacific Ocean
2. Atlantic Ocean
3. lndian Ocean
4. Southern Ocean (Antarctic)
5. Arctic Ocean

C. Atmosphère

Meteorology
- Deals with the study of the atmosphere and the elements that produce weather and climate.

Layers ofthe Atmosphère

1. Troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere that extends from ground level up to an altitude of about 16 km

2. Stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere. It extends from the topmost boundary of the troposphere up to an
altitude of 50 km
- Ozone (O3)- protects us against UV rays
- Destroyed by CFC's (Chlorofluorocarbons)
- CFC's are replaced by alternative chemicals called HFC's (Hydrofluorocarbons)
3. Mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that is above the stratosphere. Meteors burnt up here, coldest layer

4. Thermosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that has temperature that can be as high as 2000’C.
- Auroras are observed here (australis-southern, borealis-northern)

5. Exosphere- outermost layer of the atmosphere that extends beyond the topmost boundary of the thermosphere and gradually spreads out
into the outer space

* Magnetosphere
- The Earth's Magnetic Field, protects the Earth from dangerous charged particles (solar flares and solar winds)

Wind and Climate System

- Typhoon- Pacific Ocean
- Cyclone- Indian Ocean

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 FALCULAN TWItdS’ REVIEW ŒMTER

GEN.ED SCIENŒ

- Hurricane- Atlantic Ocean

Monsoons and Wind Systems

- Amihan- Northeast Monsoon, September to June (cold and dry)

- Habagat- Southwest Monsoon, July to August (warm and humid)

- Easterlies- Hanging Silangan, from Pacific Ocean

PAG-ASA- Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration

Storm warning signal Storm Classification

Atmosphère: Climate Change

Thermal blanket
Accumulation of r ga st trapping of radiation from the sun- increase temperature

Global wa
Caused cre CO2in the atmos
Res temperature

Human Effe
poll
Causes land t

Example: Acid Rain- y NO, and SOx

3. Water pollution

i. Point Source Pollution- through pipelines from large factories and water waste treatment plants, directly poured into bodies of water

ii. Non-point Source Pollution- from many sources, coming from agri lands, homes, subdivisions, septic tanks
- Eutrophication- when algae bloom (algal bloom), oxygen concentration is reduced in a water system

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GEN.ED SCIENŒ

General Science: Basic Chemistry

CHEMISTRY
4 The study of the composition and structure of the changes in matter.

Historical Development of the Atomic Structure

Atom
- Smallest possible unit into which matter can be divided, while still maintaining its properties
- Building blocks of Matter
- Has protons (+), neutrons (0), and electrons (-)
Democritus was a Greek philosopher who first introduced the concept toms. He believed that matter is
comprised of tiny indivisible particles known as atomos.

Antoine Lavoisier- Father of modern chemistry

The discovery of the different sub-atomic particles:

J. J. Thompson discovered electron using a cathode Ernest
Rutherford discovered the nucleus through h Eugen
Goldstein discovered the prot is expe tube.
James Chadwick discovered the n

The Atomic and Mass numbers

Atomic number of an ele o th it has.
Mass number of an ele
neutrons it has.

lsotopes refer to ato The emen are atomic number but different mass numbers. itium.
three isotope protium, de

6. Placements o
bered into n=1, n=2,. ........ , so on
el or
a. s- shar
p- princip
c. d- diffuse
f- fundam
orbitals- can hold a maximum of two electrons, thus:
1. s has one orbital- a maximum of 2 electrons p has 3
orbitals- a maximum of 6 electrons d has 5
orbitals- a maximum of 10 electrons f has 7
orbitals- a maximum of 14 electrons

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 GEN.ED
SCIENŒ

NON-MATTER
4 does not occupy a space and does not have a ma ss
MATTER
4 anything that occupies space (volume) and has mass

*Therefore, anything that occupies space and has mass is matter.

MATTER

M IXTURES

PURE SUBSTANCE
4 substances that exhibit definite properties and composition

1. Element
- Substances that are made up of only one type of atom.
- Pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical processes into simpler substances.
# Protons Element Abbr.
Examples:
1 Hyarogen H
* oxygen gas
* hydrogen gas 2 Helium He
* sodium metal 3 Lithium Li
* iodine crystals 4 Beryllium Be
* pure gold s Boron B
6 Carbon C
7 Nitrogen N
The 1I8th Element: Oganesson (Og)
8 Oxygen O
Classification of Elements 9 Fluorine F
Metal
10 Neon Ne
4 usually solid and is a good conductor of heat and electricity, e.g. copper or iron
4 metals exist as solid with the exception of mercury and gallium

Ferromagnetic substances
are those substances
which are strongly
attracted by a magnet.

Non-metal
4 a chemical element that are poor conductors of heat and electricity
4 it includes oxygen gas, which supports life; carbon, bromine and sulfur.

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 GEN.ED SCIENŒ

Metalloid
4 intermediate in properties between the metals and the nonmetals, are sometimes considered a separate class and
sometimes known as the borderline elements

2. Compound
- A substance formed by the chemical combination of elements in fixed proportions
- Water (H2O), which is made of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, is one of the most abundant compounds found
in our planet
- Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas, table sugar (C 2H22Oh) and table salt (NaCI)
- Alcohol is a class of organic compound characterized by a hydroxyl bonded to an alkyl group
- Nicotine- an example of alkaloid

1. Chemical Bonding: Covalent Bonds

- Sharing of electrons of two or more non-metals o
Examples: H2O, CH4, CO2

2. Chemical Bonding: Ionic Bonds

- Bonding between metals and non-metals
- Metal loses electrons, non-metal receives electrons
o NaCI (Sodium Chloride), NaF (Sodium Fluoride)

MIXTURE
4 a substance consisting of two or more substances that have been combined without chemical bonding
taking place, therefore physical combination
1. Homogenous Mixture
4 a homogeneous mixture has only a single phase
4 it cannot be separated by filtration

Example: water + sugar= sugar solution water + salt

=

2. Heterogenous Mixture
4 components of the mixture are visually distinguished
4 it can be separated by physical means like filtration, evaporation, sublimation, crystallization,
distillation

Example: salad, gravel, macaroni, soup, cake, plastics, fog, paints

*Colloid- Contains particles that do not settle

Example: milk, gelatin, cloud, plastic, foams, emulsions and sols

Tyndall effect is the scattering of light, experienced by colloids.

*Suspension- contains larger particles that eventaully settle out. Particles have to be re-suspended. Example: chocolate
milk, orange juice

STATES OF MATTER

1. Solid- have definite shape and volume, particles are tightly packed, have very little energy, particles vibrate in place

2. Liquid- have definite volume but no definite shape (takes the shape of the container), particles are loosely packed, medium energy
level, particles flow around each other

3. Gas- do not have definite volume and shape, particles move freely and have lots of energy

4. Plasma- A very hot gas of nuclei and electrons, superheated gas, electrically charged, 4’h form of matter

5. BEC (Bose-Einstein Condensate)- super unexcited, super cold at absolute zero

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 GEN.ED SCIENŒ

Changes in the states of matter

1.
Freezing- liquid to solid
2.
Melting- solid to liquid
3.
Evaporation- liquid to gas
4.
Condensation- gas to liquid
5.
Sublimation- solid to gas
6.
Deposition- gas to solid
CHANGES IN MATTER

Physical Change
4 the chemical composition remains the same. It involves only a change in the size or shape or state of
subdivision, as well as changes in state
Example: tearing of paper, chopping of woods, breaking of rocks
Chemical Change
4 a change wherein the chemical composition has been altered or a chemical reaction has taken
place

Example: rusting of iron, metallic iron reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere to form rust

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION

1. Synthesis
4 It is a reaction between two or more simple substances to form a single product A + B4
AB

2. Decomposition
4 A single reactant is broken down to two or more products AB 4
A + B

3. Substitution or Displacement
4 A more active element replaces a less active element in a compounds AB + C 4
AC + B

4. Double Decomposition or Meta thesis

4 Two or more compounds produce two or more new products AB + CD4
AD + CB

A. Endothermic Reaction (needs energy) AB

+ energy4 A+B
A+B + energy4 AB

B. Exothermic Reaction (releases energy) AB4

A + B + energy
A+B4 AB + energy

ACIDS AND BASES

1. Acids have pH value of below 7

2. Bases have pH value of above 7
3.pH value of 7 is neutral
4. Acids are usually distinguished from bases through the use of indicators. o
Litmus is a common indicator.
• Acid turns the color of blue litmus to red
• Base turns red to blue.
• Unlike acids and bases, neutral compounds do not change the color of indicators
General Science: Physics
GEN.ED SCIENŒ

Physics- study of matter and energy and their relationship

Base Units: quantity measured Basic unit syd <

Time Second s
I"1ass Grams g
Distance 22 Meter m
Volume Liter or cubic-meter L or m*
Force Newton N
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

1. Scalar: Quantities signifying magnitude only Example:

mass, charge, length, temperature, speed

2. Vector: Quantities signifying magnitude and direction

Example: weight, displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum

* Mass versus Weight

Mass: quantity of matter in an object; measured in kg Weight: the
pull of gravity; measured in N (Newton)

* Vector Addition: Computing for the resulting or net magnitude of vector quantities Upward
and Right motion indicates positive (+) sign
Downward and Left motion indicates negative (-) sign

MOTION
- A continuous change in position

Newton's Laws of Motion

I. FIRST LAW: Law of Inertia. Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion with constant speed in a
straight line, unless acted upon by unbalanced external forces impressed upon

2. SECOND LAW OF MOTION: Law of Acceleration. When the resultant or net force acting on an object is not
equal to zero, the object will accelerate.

3. THIRD LAW OF MOTION: Action and reaction. To every action there is always an opposed equal
reaction.

Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.

ENERGY
- Property of a system that enables it to do work.

Potential Energy: Energy at rest; Energy that something possesses because of its position Example:
Gravitational energy, Electromagnetic energy, Weak Nuclear Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy: Energy in motion

Example: Mechanical Energy, Thermal energy, Electrical energy, Electromagnetic radiation

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 GEN.ED
SCIENŒ

Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form into another, but total
amount of energy never changes.

THERMODYNAMICS — study of heat and its transformation to different forms of energy.

Heat/ Thermal Energy — Energy produced as heat is transferred from object with higher temperature to that with lower temperature
until it reaches equilibrium.

Methods of Heat Transfer:

1. Conduction: transmission of heat from two objects with DIRECT contact

2. Convection: heat transfer through AIR and water currents (liquid)

3. Radiation: heat transfer through RAYS or WAVES emitted by a very hot object.

Temperature: measure of the average translational kinetic energy per molecule (hotness or coldness) in a substance, measured in degrees
Celsius, degrees Fahrenheit or Kelvin

• Absolute zero: lowest possible temperature that a substance may have

• Thermal Expansion happens when an object is heated, it
expands; otherwise, when it cools, it contracts

Fahrenheit to Celsius = (”F - 32) x

LIGHT AND SOUND Celsius to Kelvin = ”C + 273.15
1. Light
- The speed of light is 3.0 x 108 m/s
- Faster than sound
- Travels fast in a vacuum (airless space), next in gas, next in liquid, next in solid (preferably transparent) Properties of
light

1. Scattering of violet and blue frequencies of sunlight in all directions is what gives the sky its blue color. Scattering of red light during
sun set and dawn.
2. Dispersion is the separation of white light by a prism into bands of colors. (rainbow- ROYGBIV)
3. Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes through an obstruction such as a small slit.
4. Interference is the overlapping of light waves. The beautiful colors of soap bubbles or on thin film of oil are explained by the
interference of light.
5. Reflection is when light bounces off an object.
6. In refraction, a wave changes direction as it passes from one medium to another medium.

*Nearsighted (myopia)
- concave lenses (diverging) correct nearsightedness
*Farsighted (hyperopia)
- convex lenses (converging) correct farsightedness

2. Sound
- A mechanical wave
- Travels fast in solid, next in liquid, next in gas,
- Cannot travel in a vacuum

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