Chapter 14 Biology 11

CHAPTER Plants: Reproduction,
14 Growth, and Sustainability
Specific Expectations
In this chapter, you will learn how to . . .
• F1.2 evaluate, on the basis of research,
ways in which different societies or
cultures have used plants to sustain
human populations while supporting
environmental sustainability (14.3)
• F2.1 use appropriate terminology related

to plants (14.1, 14.2, 14.3)
• F2.2 design and conduct an inquiry to

determine the factors that affect plant
growth (14.2)
• F2.3 identify and draw biological

diagrams of the specialized plant tissues
in roots, stems, and leaves, using a
microscope and models (14.1)
• F2.4 investigate various techniques of

plant propagation (14.2)
• F3.2 compare and contrast monocot and

dicot plants in terms of their structures
and their evolutionary processes (14.1)
• F3.3 explain the reproductive

mechanisms of plants in natural
reproduction and artificial
propagation (14.1)
• F3.4 describe the various factors that

affect plant growth (14.2)
• F3.5 explain the process of ecological

succession, including the role of plants in
maintaining biodiversity and the survival
of organisms after a disturbance to an
ecosystem (14.3)
Farmers and gardeners in developed and developing countries

practise a tradition that dates back to the earliest days when humans
grew plants for food—they save and exchange their seeds. The seeds
of bean and pea plants, as well as those from tomato, cucumber,
and summer squash plants are commonly saved and planted the
following year. Growers save seeds from plants that have desirable
characteristics, such as those that remain disease-free, produce
flavourful fruit, or produce colourful flowers. This tradition helps
preserve the rich genetic legacy of the plants that have helped to
build our civilizations.
580 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Launch Activity
Germinate Some Seeds

Germination is the process by which a seed begins to sprout. How do seeds
change as they germinate?
Safety Precautions
• Wear latex (or vinyl) gloves when handling the seeds, since some seeds
are coated with a fungicide to preserve them.
Materials
• paper towels • water
• spray bottle • 2 petri dishes
• seeds (10 each of at least one monocot and one dicot)
Procedure
1. Use the spray bottle to moisten two pieces of paper towel so that they
are damp but not sopping.
2. Place each paper towel in a petri dish.
3. Place 10 monocot seeds in one petri dish and 10 dicot seeds in the
other. Make sure the seeds are spaced so they are separated as much
as possible from one another.
4. Place the petri dishes in a warm location. Observe the seeds each day
for up to one week. Moisten the seeds each day with the spray bottle.
5. Make notes and drawings to record your observations each day. You
could do this in the form of journal entries or an observation table.
Questions
1. How did the seeds change over the period during which you observed
them? Identify any differences between the monocots and dicots.
2. Seeds need water to germinate (begin to sprout), but water is not a
source of nutrition or energy for the seeds. What do you think is the
source of energy for the growth of the seeds?
3. What will happen to the germinated seeds if they are not placed or
planted in a location where they are exposed to sunlight? Explain why.
4. What factors affect the germination of seeds? Suggest a way to modify
this procedure to compare these factors. Include a hypothesis that
serves as the basis for your modified procedure.
Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 581

SECTION
Plant Reproduction
14.1
Key Terms In the plant kingdom, both sexual and asexual reproduction occur. Botanists (plant
scientists) define groups of plants by the way they carry out sexual reproduction.
pollination
(Asexual reproduction will be discussed later in this section.)
sepal
Recall from Chapter 3 that plants reproduce sexually by sporic reproduction,
petal which is also called alternation of generations. As shown in Figure 14.1, both a haploid
stamen gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte are stages in the reproductive cycle of plants.
pistil Haploid cells have one copy of each chromosome (1n), while diploid cells have two
seed coat copies of each chromosome (2n). The gametophyte (1n) produces gametes (1n), while
germination the sporophyte (2n) produces spores (1n). The male and female gametes unite to form
radicle a sporophyte (1n + 1n = 2n). Through mitosis, the male and female spores grow into
hypocotyl male and female gametophytes. Sexual reproduction occurs when the male gamete
artificial propagation (a sperm cell) unites with the female gamete (an egg cell). This union of male and
female gametes is called fertilization.
Sporophyte
Cell divisions Cell divisions
occur occur
Diploid cells
Fertilization forms (2n) Reproductive
zygote (2n) cells develop
Male gamete Female gamete

(sperm) (egg)
Meiosis forms
Haploid cells spores (n)
(n)
Cell divisions
Cell divisions
occur
occur
Mature
gametophyte
Figure 14.1 All plants have a life cycle involving alternation of generations. The cycle varies
among species. The variation is mostly due to the type of structure that releases the spores.
Sexual Reproduction in Seedless Plants

Seedless plants include the non-vascular mosses and the vascular ferns. In seedless
plants, fertilization requires the sperm to swim from the male gametophyte to the egg,
which is in the female gametophyte. Therefore, water must be present, and the sperm
must have a flagellum to enable it to move in the water.
In non-vascular plants, the gametophyte is the dominant generation, so the
Figure 14.2 Peat,
gametophyte plant is larger and longer-lived. The smaller sporophyte depends on the
or sphagnum, moss gametophyte for food and support. Figure 14.2 shows peat moss, which is a typical
commonly grows in boggy non-vascular plant. The visible part of the plant is the gametophyte generation.
areas. Its antibacterial and In vascular plants, the sporophyte is the dominant generation, and the gametophyte
absorbent properties led
is smaller and shorter-lived. In ferns, for example, the large, leafy part is the sporophyte,
to its historic use, by some
Aboriginal peoples, as while the gametophyte is a small, barely visible structure. In both groups of seedless
dressing for wounds. plants, however, the gametophyte is a free-living plant, independent of the sporophyte.

Sexual Reproduction in Seed Plants
Seed plants include gymnosperms and angiosperms. In seed plants, the gametophytes
pollination the
are not free-living plants. The male gametophytes, called microspores, are small transfer of the male
structures that develop into pollen grains that, in turn, produce sperm cells. The female gametophyte (pollen
gametophytes, called macrospores, produce egg cells. In seed plants, the whole male grain) to the female
gametophyte—not just the sperm—travels to the female gametophyte. Pollination reproductive structure
(pistil)
occurs when the pollen (male gametophyte) lands on the female reproductive structure
of another plant of the same species. The pollen grain encases the cells that develop into
the sperm and protects them from drying out as they travel to the female gametophyte.
Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms

Pollination does not require water to transport sperm to a female gametophyte. As a
result, the sperm that develop from pollen grains do not have flagella. Instead, transfer
of sperm to the egg occurs by means of a pollen tube. This structure is an extension of a
pollen grain that grows toward the egg cell. Sperm develop in the pollen tube and move
toward the egg. Fertilization occurs when a sperm unites with an egg to form a zygote.
After fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo. The embryo, together with
a small supply of stored food, is covered by a tough, waterproof coat to form a seed.
Seeds remain on the plant, within the female reproductive structure, until they are
mature. This can take from several months to three years. The seeds are then released
and carried away from the parent plant by the wind or by animals. At their new
locations, they may grow into new sporophyte plants when conditions are suitable.
The structure of pollen, the development of the pollen tube, and the structure of seeds
allow gymnosperms to reproduce in a dry environment. These same elements of the life
cycle are present in angiosperms, which are discussed next. The differences in sexual
reproduction between non-vascular plants, seedless vascular plants, gymnosperms, and
angiosperms are summarized in Figure 14.3.
Plant Reproduction
Sexual Asexual
r sporic reproduction (alternation

of generations)
Seedless Seed Natural Vegetative Artificial

Plants Plants Propagation Propagation
r adapted for reproduction in r adapted for reproduction in r growth from roots, stems, r for example, dividing,
wet environment dry environment or leaves grafting, cuttings, layering,
r swimming sperm r non-motile sperm tissue culturing)
r independent gametophyte plant r dominant sporophyte generation
r unprotected zygote, embryo, r dependent gametophyte generation
and gametophyte r protected zygote embryo
Non-vascular Vascular Gymnosperms Angiosperms
r dominant r dominant r Unprotected r Protected seeds

gametophyte sporophyte plant seeds develop develop within Figure 14.3 This concept map compares
plant on upper surface ovary wall and summarizes modes of reproduction
of reproductive r Wind, insect, in non-vascular and vascular plants.
structures or animal
r Wind pollination pollination
r Single r Double
fertilization fertilization

Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
Angiosperms are the most diverse and widespread plants on Earth. The most
sepal a non-fertile
part of the flower that important factor in this success is the structure that contains their reproductive
protects the flower bud organs—the flower.
petal a non-fertile In general flowers have four organs, as shown in Figure 14.4: sepals, petals, stamens,
part of the flower that and one or more pistils. Sepals protect the flower bud and can look like small leaves
attracts pollinators or even resemble the flower’s petals. Petals are usually colourful structures that attract
stamen the male pollinating insects and provide them with a platform on which to land.
reproductive part of the
Most flowers have several stamens, which are male reproductive organs. A stamen
flower
is composed of a filament and the anther. The filament supports the anther, which
pistil the female
reproductive part of the contains cells that undergo meiosis and mitotic cells divisions to form pollen grains.
flower Two sperm eventually form inside each pollen grain.
The female reproductive structure of a flower is the pistil. In the centre of a flower
is one or more pistils. A pistil usually has a stigma, a style, and an ovary. The stigma is
the tip of the pistil and is the place where pollination takes place. The style connects
the stigma to the ovary, which contains one or more ovules. A female gametophyte
develops in each ovule, and an egg forms inside each female gametophyte.
stamen pistil
male reproductive organ female reproductive organ
anther stigma
where pollen is sticky “lip” of the carpel that
produced and stored captures pollen grains
pollen style
cases that contain stalk that supports the stigma
male gametes
ovary
swollen base of the carpel that
filament stalk contains ovules
that supports the anther
ovules
sacs that contain female
gametes
petals sepals
colourful structures surround and
that attract pollinators protect the flower bud
Figure 14.4 The reproductive structures in angiosperms are located in their flowers.
Compare and contrast the functions of the filament stalk and the style.
Learning Check
1. In gymnosperms, gametes that develop from pollen 5. A plant experiences a mutation that prevents the
grains do not have flagella. Why do the gametes not sperm from being encased inside pollen grains
require flagella? before they are released. Predict what will happen
2. What two characteristics of a seed give the plant to the frequency of pollination in this species, and
embryo the best possible chance of developing into explain your prediction.
a seedling? 6. Angiosperms always produce two sperm cells in
3. Identify the male and female reproductive organs of each pollen grain. Refer to Figure 14.1 to identify
flowers. which process is responsible for the pairing of
sperm cells.
4. Describe two functions of flower petals.

Variations among Flowers
Most flowers have all four of the organs described on the previous page. However, SuggestedInvestigation
many flowers have modifications to one or more organs. Botanists categorize flowers
Inquiry Investigation 14-A,
using these modifications.
Comparing Flowers and
Their Structures
Structural Differences
Flowers with sepals, petals, stamens, and one or more pistils are called complete flowers.
Examples of complete flowers are roses, tulips, and lilacs. If a flower is missing one or
more of these organs, it is an incomplete flower. For example, flowers of wild ginger
(Asarum canadense) are incomplete, because they have no petals. The same is true of
most grasses.
Flowers that have both pistils and stamens are called perfect flowers. Flowers that
contain either pistils or stamens, but not both, are called imperfect flowers. In some
species, such as corn plants and oak trees, individual flowers are imperfect but the
plant bears both male and female flowers. These are called monoecious plants, because
all reproductive structures appear on one (mono-) plant. (The -ecious portion of the
word comes from the Greek word oikos, meaning house. This is the same Greek word
that gives us the word ecology.) Other plants carry either male or female flowers, but
not both. These are called dioecious plants, because the reproductive structures are
divided between two (di-) plants. For example, willow and ginkgo trees are dioecious.
The number of organs that each flower has varies from species to species. However,
the number of flower organs distinguishes monocots from dicots, as shown in
Figure 14.5. When the petal number for a flower is a multiple of four or five, the plant
is likely a dicot. The number of sepals, pistils, and stamens is often the same multiple
of four or five. For example, the meadow beauty (Rhexia virginica) is a common
Ontario flower that has four petals and eight stamens. A five-petalled example is
the sulfur cinquefoil (Potentilla recta). Monocots, on the other hand, have organs
in multiples of three. For example, Ontario’s provincial flower, the white trillium
(Trillium grandiflorum) has three sepals, three petals, and six stamens.
A B C
Figure 14.5 The meadow beauty (A) and sulfur cinquefoil (B) are dicots. The white trillium (C) is a monocot.

Pollination Mechanisms
Recall that pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male anther to the female
stigma. Flowers show great variations in size, shape, colour, petal arrangement, and
scent. Many of these variations are pollination-related adaptations.
Self-pollination and Cross-pollination

Self-pollinating plants can pollinate themselves or another flower on the same plant,
but this can lead to inbreeding and loss of genetic variation. Most angiosperms are
cross-pollinating plants, meaning that they receive pollen from another plant, ensuring
genetic diversity. In dioecious trees, such as the holly (Ilex verticillata) shown in
Figure 14.6, the male and female plants must be close enough to each other for the
male to pollinate the female.
Figure 14.6 The cross-
pollinating Ilex verticillata is
a resident of swampy and
marshy areas of Ontario.
It displays plump berries
even in the midst of winter
leading to its common
name, winterberry.
Animal Pollination
Many animal-pollinated flowers are brightly coloured, have strong scents, or produce a
sweet liquid called nectar. When insects and other small animals move from flower to
flower searching for nectar, they can carry pollen from one flower to another, as shown
in Figure 14.7. Other insects collect pollen for food. The bright colours and sweet scents
of peonies, roses, and lilacs, for example, attract insects such as bees, butterflies, and
beetles. White or pale yellow flowers are more visible at dusk and at night, and attract
nocturnal animals, such as moths and bats. The fruity smell of some flowers attracts
fruit-eating bats that act as the flowers’ pollinators. Bird-pollinated flowers often give
off little or no aroma. (Birds generally have a poor sense of smell, so they tend to locate
flowers by sight.)
Wind Pollination
Plants that are pollinated by the wind usually lack colourful or fragrant flowers. They
Figure 14.7 Pollen grains
do, however, produce great quantities of light pollen grains that can be carried by the
stick to the body hair of a bee
as it collects pollen or nectar wind. The large volume of pollen increases the chances of some pollen landing on the
from an apple blossom. correct flower. Also, the stigma of the plant often extends beyond the petals, exposing it
to the wind directly.
Learning Check
7. Use a paragraph or a table to differentiate between 11. A newly discovered flower has 9 petals and both
monoecious and dioecious plants. male and female structures. An aspiring botanist
8. Poison ivy has long been identified through the proclaims that it is a “monoecious monocot!”
rhyme, “Leaves of three, let it be.” Does this mean Do you agree with this description? Explain.
that poison ivy is a monocot? Explain. 12. A genetic mutation is discovered that prevents the
9. What is the benefit of cross-pollination over flowers of a plant species from opening completely.
self-pollination? Over time this mutation is found in a large portion
of the population. What conclusion can be made
10. Which features of a wind-pollinated flower increase
about this plant’s pollination mechanism?
the probability of cross-pollination?

The Life Cycle of Flowering Plants
The development of male and female gametophytes begins in an undeveloped flower.
Inside the flower’s ovary, an ovule containing the embryo sac begins to grow. Inside the
ovule, meiosis results in four haploid megaspores. Usually, three of the four megaspores
disintegrate, leaving one female gametophyte. Mitosis occurs in the remaining
megaspore three times, until the one megaspore contains eight haploid nuclei divided
into seven cells. One of the cells contains two nuclei, which are called polar nuclei.
In the anther, specialized cells undergo meiosis to produce microspores. Each
microspore undergoes mitosis to form a tube cell and a generative cell. A thick,
protective cell wall forms around a microspore. At this point, the microspore is an
immature male gametophyte, which is called a pollen grain.
When the pollen grain lands on a stigma of the correct species, the tube cell forms
a pollen tube. As the pollen tube grows, the generative cell undergoes mitosis, forming
two sperm cells. The pollen grain is now a mature male gametophyte. When the pollen
tube reaches the ovule, it releases the two sperm cells. One fuses with the egg, forming
the zygote—the new sporophyte. The other fuses with the polar nuclei, forming a
triploid (3n) cell that divides to form a nutrient-rich tissue called endosperm. The
endosperm nourishes the embryo as it grows.
The fertilization of an angiosperm egg is called double fertilization, because two
fertilizations occur. After fertilization, the ovule develops into the seed, and the ovary
develops into the fruit. Figure 14.8 summarizes the life cycle of a flowering plant.
Life Cycle of a Flowering Plant

Figure 14.8 The life cycle
young
sporophyte
of a flowering plant, such
ovary develops into as the peach shown here,
Germination
fruit; ovule develops sporophyte
into seed includes gametophyte and
sporophyte generations.
seed coat The male and female
gametophytes are
fruit
surrounded by sporophyte
zygote
develops tissue.
embryo
into
embryo Meiosis
ovule
microspores
3n endosperm
embryo
anther
pollen Meiosis
Fertilization pollination
grain
pollen tube
sperm
generative
nucleus
tube nucleus
four
egg tube megaspores
nucleus female
gametophyte
mature male
gametophyte
three megaspores
degenerate
three nuclear
divisions of the
micropyle remaining megaspore haploid (n)
nucleus take place diploid (2n)

Results of Reproduction
Fertilization is only the beginning of a long process that finally ends with the formation
of a seed. In angiosperms, a seed is part of a fruit that develops from the ovary, and
sometimes from other flower organs.
Seed and Fruit Development

The sporophyte begins as a zygote, or a 2n cell. Numerous cell divisions produce a
cluster of cells that eventually develops into an elongated embryo with one cotyledon
in monocots or two cotyledons in dicots. The 3n cell formed as a result of double
fertilization develops into the endosperm. In some monocots, such as coconuts, the
endosperm is the major component of the seed and makes up most of its mass. In dicots,
the cotyledons absorb most of the endosperm tissue as the seed matures, and they provide
much of the nourishment for the embryo. Figure 14.9 compares monocot and dicot seeds.
Figure 14.9 Seeds Monocot Dicot
of monocots differ in
structure and function seed coat seed coat
endosperm
from those of dicots.
Identify the embryo’s cotyledon
food source in each seed. embryo
embryo
cotyledon
As the endosperm matures, the outside layers of the ovule harden and form a
seed coat the hard
outer layers of the ovule protective tissue called the seed coat. You might notice the seed coats of beans or peas
that form a protective when you eat them. The seed coat is the thin, outer covering that often comes off or
coat around the seed loosens as seeds are cooked. Depending on the plant, the ovary can contain one ovule
or hundreds. As the ovule develops into a seed, changes occur in the ovary that lead to
the formation of a fruit.
A fruit forms mainly from the ovary wall. In some cases, the fruit consists of the
ovary wall and other flower organs. For example, the seeds of the apple are in the core,
which develops from the ovary. The juicy tissue that we eat develops from other flower
parts. Other fleshy fruits include peaches and oranges. In contrast, some fruits are dry
and hard, such as walnuts and grains.
Activity 14.1 Comparing Seeds
In this activity, you will examine the structures of monocot Procedure

and dicot seeds. 1. Obtain a pre-soaked and split bean seed and corn seed
from your teacher.
Safety Precautions
2. Observe each seed with the hand lens, and gently use
the forceps to examine the structures you see.
• Wear latex (or vinyl) gloves when handling the seeds, since
3. Draw and label the structures you see, including the seed
some seeds are coated with a fungicide to preserve them.
coat, endosperm, cotyledon, and embryo. If necessary,
use Figure 14.9 to help you.
Materials
• bean seed and corn seed that have been soaking in water Question
and cut lengthwise
Use a graphic organizer to compare and contrast the
• hand lens
structures of the corn seed with the bean seed.
• forceps

Seed Dispersal
As well as protecting seeds, fruits help disperse them. Dispersal of seeds away
from the parent plant increases the survival rate of offspring. This is important
when many plants compete for resources such as light, water, and soil nutrients.
Fruits that are attractive to animals can be transported great distances
away from the parent plant. Animals that gather and bury or otherwise
store fruits usually do not recover all of them, so the seeds might sprout.
Some animals, such as deer, bears, and birds, consume fruits. The seeds
pass through their digestive tracts undamaged and are deposited on
the ground along with the animals’ wastes. Some seeds have structural
modifications that enable them to be transported by water, animals, or
wind, as shown in Figure 14.10. Figure 14.10 Seeds of
different species are
adapted to be dispersed
in different ways.
Infer the characteristics
of each seed shown here
that suits it for its method
A water dispersal B animal dispersal C wind
i d dispersal of dispersal.
Seed Germination
Once the seeds have been dispersed and land in an area that provides sufficient water,
germination the
warmth, and oxygen, they may begin to grow into seedlings or may remain dormant. process by which
As a seed matures, it loses water and enters dormancy, a state in which its metabolic growth resumes in a
processes slow down dramatically. Some seeds can remain dormant for hundreds seed after a period of
or thousands of years. The process of resuming growth after being dormant is called being dormant
germination. It begins when a seed absorbs water, which causes it to swell and breaks radicle a structure
created by the division
open the seed coat. The stored food in the endospore or cotyledons begins to break down, and lengthening of
and nutrients are made available to the embryo. The food and the presence of oxygen embryonic root cells
allow cellular respiration to occur, which provides energy to the embryo for growth. inside a germinating
The first part of the embryo to appear outside the seed is a structure called the seed; it develops into the
primary root of the plant
radicle, which starts absorbing water and nutrients from its environment. The radicle
hypocotyl a hook-
develops into the plant’s roots, as shown in Figure 14.11. The hypocotyl is the region of
shaped structure in
the stem nearest the seed. In many plants, it is the first part of the seedling to appear dicots that eventually
above the soil. In some dicots, as the hypocotyl grows it pulls the cotyledons and the emerges above the
embryonic leaves out of the soil. Photosynthesis begins as soon as the seedling’s cells ground as the primary
that contain chloroplasts are above the ground and exposed to light. In monocots, the root grows down into
the soil
cotyledon usually stays in the ground when the stem emerges from the soil.
first leaves
cotyledons cotyledons
seed coat seed coat first leaf
radicle radicle
monocot dicot monocot dicot monocot dicot
Figure 14.11 As shown here, seed germination differs in monocots and dicots.

Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
SuggestedInvestigation In asexual reproduction, a parent plant produces offspring that are genetically identical
Inquiry Investigation 14-B, to it and to each other. Thus, they are clones. Asexual reproduction can be an advantage
Techniques of Artificial when environmental conditions are stable and an organism is well-adapted to its
Propagation environment. The genetically identical offspring will also be adapted to that environment.
Table 14.1 Common Techniques of Artificial Propagation

Type of Plants Propagated
Vegetative Propagation What It Looks Like Purpose or Advantage Using This Method
Division (Splitting) • simplest, fastest, and most • bulbs such as tulips and
A plant is split into two or more inexpensive method of daffodils
pieces, each containing intact vegetative propagation • plants that have more than
shoots and roots. Daughter • often used to thin out one stem, such as peonies,
plants are repotted or planted in plants that have spread hostas, geraniums, phlox,
a new location, where they grow over a large area irises, chrysanthemums,
independent of the parent. and day lilies
Grafting • can be used to produce • fruit trees such as apple

A bud, portion of the stem, or a plant or tree with and pear
section of the root is cut from characteristics from two or • nut trees such as walnut
one plant and joined to another more individuals and almond
by placing the vascular cambium • can be used to repair • grapevines
tissue of the two pieces in contact damaged trees • ornamental shrubs
with each other. In cleft grafting • can significantly shorten • cacti
the roots of one plant, called the the amount of time needed
rootstock, are split and the stem before a tree will bear fruit,
section of another plant, the scion, since the tree does not have
is inserted into it. The graft is to grow from a seedling
covered to prevent water loss
from the cut tissue.
Leaf Cutting • provides genetically • African violets
A leaf, or part of a leaf, is cut from identical copies of a parent • begonias
a plant and placed in a growth plant • geraniums
medium, such as potting soil or • a simple and inexpensive • snake plants (Sansevieria
vermiculite. Cells near the cut method to produce a new species)
surface form undifferentiated plant faster than it can be • succulents such as jade and
meristematic tissue, which grown from seed aloe vera
develops into roots or shoots. Shoot • can be used to “rescue”
buds grow from the base of the leaf leaves that have broken off
cutting. The newly developed roots a parent plant
supply water and nutrients to the • can be taken in any season
developing shoots, and each shoot
bud forms an independent plant.
Stem Cutting • provides genetically • herbs such as basil, oregano,
A shoot tip or part of a stem is cut identical copies of a parent rosemary, sage, thyme
from a parent plant and placed in a plant • many gymnosperm trees
growth medium, where it develops • produces a new plant faster such as gingko, pine, and
roots. The stem cutting forms an than it can be grown from spruce
independent plant. seed • many angiosperm trees such
• is simple and inexpensive as poplar, willow, and elm
• depending on the plant, • grapevines
stem cuttings can be taken • flowering bushes such as
at different times of year rose, lilac, rhododendron,
and at various stages of and jasmine
development, from new • chrysanthemums
growth in spring to mature • carnations
stems at the end of the • spider plants
growing season

Artificial Propagation
In asexual reproduction in plants, also called vegetative propagation, new individuals
artificial propagation
are grown from a portion of the roots, stems, or leaves of the existing plant. Artificial the cloning of a plant
propagation involves using plants’ natural ability to reproduce vegetatively. This from a portion of its
process enables farmers and gardeners to select the parent plants for specific traits. roots, stems, or leaves
Table 14.1 shows some common artificial propagation techniques.
Type of Plants Propagated

Vegetative Propagation What It Looks Like Purpose or Advantage Using This Method
Root Cutting • provides genetically • cattails
A small section of a root is cut identical copies of a parent • irises
from a parent plant and placed in plant • goldenrods
a growth medium. Root cuttings • produces a new plant faster • trilliums
are placed vertically in the growth than it can be grown from • hostas
medium, with the bottom end— seed, or from leaf or stem • periwinkle
the end of the cutting that was cuttings • mint
closest to the root tip—pointing • simple and inexpensive • rhubarb
downward. Root cuttings • provides a way to propagate • ginger
from smaller plants are placed plant material when it is in • fennel
horizontally on a bed of soil and its dormant stage, in late • oregano
covered by a thin layer of compost. autumn or early spring • thyme
The bottom end of the cutting • provides an alternative • sage
develops into a new root system, form of vegetative
while the top end develops into propagation for plants that
the shoot system. The root cutting do not easily form roots
forms an independent plant. from stem or leaf cuttings
Simple Layering • produces a plant that is • climbing roses
In plants with long vine-type stems genetically identical to the • grapevines
or low-hanging branches, a parent • rhododendrons
section of stem is bent to touch the • a large, mature daughter • honeysuckle
ground. Then it is cut to promote plant can be produced • junipers
the growth of roots. The wounded faster than it can be grown • willows
part of the stem, still attached to from seed • rosemary
the parent plant, is then buried • water and nutrients from • hibiscus
in the ground. Once a new root the parent plant support • hydrangeas
system has developed, the stem is root growth, which speeds
cut away from the parent plant and up the rooting process
can grow independently.
Air Layering • produces a plant that is • tropical plants such
A strip of outer bark is removed genetically identical to the as rubber trees (Ficus
from a woody stem. Moist parent species) and dumb canes
sphagnum moss is packed around • a large, mature daughter (Dieffenbachia species)
the wounded part of the stem. plant can be produced • magnolias
Plastic is wrapped around the faster than it can be grown • rhododendrons
moss and secured tightly to the from seed • azaleas
stem to prevent water loss. Once • can be performed on • holly
a new root system has developed, woody plants or small trees • lilacs
the stem is cut away from the that cannot be propagated • fruit trees such as apple,
parent plant and planted in soil, using simple layering or pear, and orange
forming an independent plant. cuttings • nut trees such as pecan
Cell Culturing (Tissue Culturing) • used to produce large • a huge variety of
An individual cell or a small piece numbers of genetically bryophytes, ferns,
of plant tissue is placed in or on identical plants; a small gymnosperms, and
a sterile nutrient medium that piece of parent tissue can angiosperms
contains chemicals that promote yield a million plantlets in • some species cannot be
shoot and root growth. Tiny a year propagated using this
plantlets develop from the parent • can be used to generate method due to lack of
plant tissue, and these are planted plants from genetically knowledge about the
in soil or another solid growth modified plant cells nutrient medium that will
medium to mature. • used to establish collections support the tissue culture
of endangered plants

Section 14.1 RE V IE W
Section Summary
• Flowers are the reproductive structures of plants, and • Plant seeds disperse away from their parent plant
they include four main organs: sepals, petals, stamens, through the action of wind or animals such as insects
and pistils. and mammals.
• There are three key stages in the haploid part of the plant • Plants can propagate sexually through seeds or asexually
life cycle: development of pollen cells, development of by vegetative propagation. In vegetative propagation, also
eggs, and fertilization. called artificial propagation, new individual plants are
• Fertilization ends when a seed is formed. Seeds are grown from a portion of the roots, stems, or leaves of an
usually contained in a mature ovary called a fruit and existing plant.
surrounded by a protective seed coat.
Review Questions
1. K/U Why is water required for seedless plant 9. A Various flavours of honey are specific to certain
fertilization? geographic regions around the world. Suggest one
2. T/I A species of flower is genetically engineered to reason why honey is not consistent in taste.
grow without sepals. Make a prediction about the 10. K/U Describe three methods of fruit seed dispersal.
ability of this new plant to reproduce. 11. C Copy the Venn diagram below into your
3. C Make a sketch of the germinating seed shown notebook to compare and contrast germination in
below and label the radicle and hypocotyl. Name the monocots and dicots.
structure, which is hidden from view in this photo, that
will play a crucial role in the plant’s early life.
Monocot Both Dicot
12. K/U In monocots and dicots germination occurs in

the absence of light. For the first few days the seed
relies on its own energy stores. In which structures of
the plants are these energy stores found?
13. T/I When plant cuttings are taken the sample is
4. K/U Make a labelled sketch to show the process of placed in a growth medium. In addition to water, what
double fertilization in angiosperms. substances might this medium contain?
5. K/U In monocots the endosperm is a large portion 14. A Study the diagram below.
of the seed, while in dicots this structure is virtually a. Identify the vegetative propagation technique
absent. Explain the absence of the endosperm in shown.
dicots. b. What feature will make the resulting plant unique?
6. C Construct a table that lists animals associated
with pollination and the plant features that assist in the
attraction.
7. K/U An organism that has both male and female
reproductive organs is called a hermaphrodite. In
humans and many other animal species, this is quite
rare, but in the plant kingdom the opposite is true.
What structures are associated with these
hermaphroditic plants, and what general term is used
for these plants? 15. K/U Table 14.1 summarizes vegetative propagation
8. K/U Describe the role of meiosis in the reproduction techniques. What advantages do these techniques offer
of angiosperms. over traditional farming?

SECTION
Plant Growth and Development
14.2
When a seed germinates, the further development of the plant depends on the activities Key Terms
of the meristematic tissues, which interact with the environment. The shoot and root
hormone
apical meristems differentiate into all the other cells of the adult plant. But what makes
apical dominance
one cell of a plant embryo develop to become a conducting cell and another develop
to become an epidermal cell? It depends on which genes are turned on or off in the nastic response
embryo cell. Plant hormones play a role in determining cellular differentiation and, tropism
therefore, in which genes are expressed in any given cell. phototropism
gravitropism
Plant Hormones thigmotropism
Plants produce chemical compounds, called hormones, that act as chemical signals
between cells and tissues in different parts of the plant. Some hormones stimulate
growth activity in the plant, while others inhibit growth activity. Because they regulate
growth, plant hormones are often called plant growth regulators.
The five main plant hormones are auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene,
hormone a chemical
and abscisic acid. Table 14.2 outlines their main functions. Additional information compound produced
about each of these hormones is provided on the next pages. Keep in mind that plant in one part of the plant
hormones rarely act independently of one another. In fact, they usually interact in that controls growth
various complex ways to regulate the differentiation of plant cells and the responses of activity in another part
of that plant
plants to a given stimulus, such as light level, gravity, and touch.
Table 14.2 Some Key Functions of Major Plant Hormones
Hormone Selected Key Functions Where Produced or Found in Plant
Stimulatory Hormones
Auxins • stimulate cell division and • developing leaves and seeds
elongation in stems and roots • shoot tips
• regulate cell expansion in plant
responses to light and gravity
Cytokinins • stimulate cell division • root tips
• prevent ageing of leaves
Gibberellins • stimulate cell elongation • young shoots
• stimulate seed germination • developing seeds
Inhibitory Hormones
Ethylene • promotes ripening of fruit • all parts, especially when under
stress, ageing, or ripening, as
shown below in Figure 14.12
Abscisic acid • induces and maintains seed • mature leaves
dormancy • plants under stress
• inhibits shoot growth
• closes stomata
Figure 14.12 Bananas
and other fruits ripen due
to ethylene.

Auxins
The term auxins (from a Greek word that means “to increase”) refers to a group of
compounds that stimulate the elongation of plant cells. One of the most commonly
occurring auxins is indoleacetic acid (IAA), which is produced in apical meristems,
buds, young leaves, and other tissues that grow rapidly. Many popular weed killers
contain a synthetic auxin that is very similar to IAA, called 2,4-D. The synthetic
compound works by accelerating growth so much that a plant quickly uses up its food
reserves and effectively starves to death.
Auxins produced by the apical meristem create an effect called apical dominance,
apical dominance a
condition of a plant in which plant growth is mostly upward with few or no side branches. Removing the
stem in which growth apical meristem decreases the amount of auxin present, which promotes the growth of
is mainly upward, with side branches, as shown in Figure 14.13.
little growth laterally The effect of auxins in a plant varies depending on its concentration and location.
from side branches
In some plants the concentration of auxin that promotes stem growth can inhibit root
growth. Low concentrations of auxin usually stimulate cell elongation, but at higher
concentrations, auxin can have the reverse effect.
A Apical meristem intact B Apical meristem removed

Figure 14.13 (A) Auxin
stimulates apical meristem
growth and inhibits the
growth of side branches.
(B) Removing the apical
meristem decreases the
amount of auxin. As a result,
side branches grow.
side branch
Cytokinins
Cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation. Cytokinins promote cell division
by stimulating the production of the proteins needed for mitosis and cytokinesis.
Cytokinins also delay the ageing of leaves and fruit. The presence of other hormones,
especially auxins, influences the effects of cytokinins. For example, IAA alone stimulates
cell elongation. When IAA is combined with a cytokinin, it promotes rapid cell division
and, thus, rapid growth.
Gibberellins
Like auxins, gibberellins are produced in the apical meristem, and there are many
different kinds. Gibberellins are transported in the vascular tissue. They stimulate plant
growth by changing the plant’s cell walls, stop dormancy in seeds, and can reverse
genetic dwarfism in plants.
Gibberellins promote the growth of taller, stronger plants and plants that flower
early. They are used in commercial crops all over the world to increase fruit size and
to increase cluster size in grapes. Finding ways to increase fruit yield means that more
food can be produced with a similar amount of effort. However, increasing yield can
also create problems. Grapes, for example, require extra care because the vines do not
naturally support such heavy fruit.

Ethylene
Ethylene, which is the only known gaseous hormone, is in the tissues of ripening fruits,
dying leaves, and flowers. Since ethylene is a gas, it can diffuse through the spaces
between cells. It is also transported within the phloem. Although ethylene can affect other
parts of plants, it mainly affects the ripening of fruits. Ethylene weakens the cell walls of
unripe fruit and breaks down complex carbohydrates (such as starches) into simple sugars
(such as sucrose and fructose). Because ripe fruits and vegetables are bruised easily during
shipping, growers often pick and ship unripe fruits and vegetables. Once they reach their
destinations, a treatment with ethylene is used to speed up the ripening process.
Abscisic Acid
Synthesized in mature green leaves, fruits, and root caps, abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant
hormone that generally inhibits growth. ABA inhibits the growth of buds in plant
stems and blocks the intake of carbon dioxide by controlling the opening and closing of
leaf stomata. Abscisic acid also blocks the action of growth-promoting hormones.
Learning Check
13. What is the main function of plant hormones? 18. A group of students plants bean seeds. One plant
14. What are two functions of abscisic acid? grows rapidly, and within three weeks it is twice the
height of all the others. The students conclude that
15. What role do hormones have in early plant
this plant has a genetic variation causing excessive
development?
auxin production. List five questions you would
16. Identify two hormones farmers rely on to improve ask about the scientific validity of these results and
crop yield and quicken the ripening process. conclusion.
17. Explain why cutting or trimming a plant often
causes it to become bushier.
Plants Responses to Environmental Stimuli

The leaves of house plants grow toward light-bringing windows, vines climb trellises,
nastic response a
and roots grow downward and around obstructions. These are examples of how plants plant’s movement in
respond to stimuli in their environment. A stimulus can cause a plant to grow toward response to a stimulus
it or away from it. This kind of plant growth is called a tropism or a tropic response. that is not associated
Tropisms are discussed on the next page. with the direction of the
stimulus
Alternatively, a plant’s response to a stimulus may be independent of the direction
of the stimulus. Such a response, called a nastic response, is not a growth response, is
reversible, and can be repeated. An example is the opening of flower petals during the day
and the closing of petals at night to conserve heat. Figure 14.14 (B) shows another example.
Before After
Figure 14.14 Nastic movements in the leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) are caused
by changes in water pressure in the leaf cells. When the stimulus ends, the leaves return to their
original orientation.

Tropic Responses
A tropism is the growth response of a plant to an external stimulus. If the resulting
tropism a plant’s
growth response to plant growth is toward the stimulus, it is called a positive tropism. If the resulting plant
external stimulation growth is away from the stimulus, it is called a negative tropism. Three main types of
coming from one tropism are phototropism, gravitropism, and thigmotropism.
direction in the Phototropism, shown in Figure 14.15, is a growth response to light caused by an
environment
unequal distribution of auxin. There is less auxin on the side of the plant toward the
phototropism a plant’s
growth response to light
light source than there is on the side away from the light source. Because auxin can
cause cell elongation, the cells on the side away from the light elongate, making that
gravitropism a plant’s
growth response to side of the stem longer. As a result, the stem curves in the direction of the light.
gravity Gravitropism is a growth response to gravity. Roots generally show a positive
thigmotropism a gravitropism. The downward growth of roots into soil helps to anchor the plant and
plant’s growth response brings roots in contact with water and minerals. However, a stem exhibits a negative
to touch or contact gravitropism when it grows upward, pushing against gravity. This growth positions
leaves for maximum exposure to light.
Thigmotropism is a growth response to mechanical stimuli, such as contact
with an object, another organism, or even wind. Thigmotropism is evident in vines
that twist around a nearby structure, such as a fence or tree.
Figure 14.15 This plant
is growing toward the
light coming in through
the window.
Activity 14.2 Exploring Gravitropism
Examine what happens to the growing tissue of sprouted 2. Place five seeds on top of the paper towels. Apply a small
seedlings if their orientation to the ground changes. drop of glue to the top of each seed. Press the bag flat to
affix the seeds to the plastic. Allow glue to dry for several
Safety Precautions minutes.
3. Use strong tape to fix the plastic bag to a wall. Leave the
• Handle glue carefully to avoid skin contact. bag unsealed so the seeds are exposed to air.
4. Observe the growth of the seeds over a few days. When
Materials the roots have grown to at least 2 or 3 cm, gently turn
• paper towels the bag and reattach it to the wall at a different angle.
• 5 seeds (such as peas, radish, navy bean)
• resealable plastic bag 5. Predict how the roots and stems will respond to the
• glue change in orientation. After a few days, record your
• tap water observations.
• strong tape (or thumbtacks)
Questions
Procedure 1. Explain how turning the bag affected the direction of
1. Fold several layers of paper towels so they will fit inside root and stem growth.
a plastic bag. Wet them with water so they are moist but
2. Were your predictions accurate? Explain why or why not.
not dripping wet. Place the folded towels inside the bag.

Other Factors That Affect Plant Growth
You have learned that internal regulators (hormones) affect plant growth, as do stimuli SuggestedInvestigation
from the external environment (tropisms). Light energy from the Sun, along with
Plan Your Own Investigation
carbon (from carbon dioxide in the air around the plant) and water are also essential
14-C, Factors That Affect
requirements for plants to produce their own food through photosynthesis. A plant Plant Growth
gets most of the water it needs from the soil in which it grows. Soil water is also a
source of dissolved nutrients, which plants need to carry out growth, reproduction,
and other cellular processes that sustain their lives.
Nutrients
Most plant nutrients are available in the form of dissolved chemical compounds and
ions. Nutrients needed in amounts greater than 1 percent of a plant’s dry weight are
called macronutrients, and they include nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus, and sulfur. Micronutrients, which are needed in much smaller amounts,
are chlorine, iron, boron, manganese, zinc, copper, and molybdenum. Some key
functions of these nutrients are listed in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3 Important Plant Macronutrients and Micronutrients and Their Functions
Plant Nutrient Percent of Plant’s Dry Weight Selected Functions
nitrogen (N) 1.5 Part of chlorophyll, proteins, nucleic acids
potassium (K) 1.0 Controls opening and closing of stomata
calcium (Ca) 0.5 Component of cell walls and membranes
magnesium (Mg) 0.2 Part of chlorophyll; needed to make proteins
phosphorus (P) 0.2 Part of proteins, nucleic acids, and cell
membrane
sulfur (S) 0.1 Part of many proteins
chlorine (Cl) 0.01 Water balance (osmosis)
iron (Fe) 0.01 Part of chlorophyll and some proteins
boron (B) 0.002 Growth of pollen tubes and sugar transport
zinc (Zn) 0.002 Part of many proteins and hormones
manganese (Mn) 0.005 Photosynthesis
copper (Cu) 0.000 6 Part of proteins; helps in formation of
lignin and xylem
molybdenum (Mo) 0.000 01 Helps plant use nitrogen and produce
abscisic acid
Soil pH
Soils typically range from being slightly or somewhat acidic to slightly basic (or
alkaline). Recall that the pH scale is used to identify substances as acidic, basic, or
neutral. The scale ranges from 0 to 14, with the mid-point of the scale, 7, being neutral.
Substances with pH values less than 7 are acidic, with the strength increasing as the
values decrease. Substances with pH values greater than 7 are basic (alkaline), with
strength increasing as the values increase.
Most plants grow well within only a very narrow range of pH values. For example,
most plants thrive in slightly acidic soils ranging from pH 6 to 7. Common examples
include pine, spruce, dogwood, blueberry, hydrangea, magnolia, holly, potatoes,
peanuts, and cranberries. Fewer plant species tolerate basic soils of pH 7 to 8. Examples
include geraniums, petunias, lawn grass, beans, beets, lettuce, pears, and plums.

STSE
BIOLOGY Connections
Plants and Their Defences
When you think of a food chain, you might picture a predator CALLING FOR HELP When some plants are damaged by
stalking and capturing prey. However, plants are sessile—they herbivores, the plant releases chemical signals that attract
cannot move away from herbivores. How do plants defend natural enemies of the herbivores. For example, the cabbage
themselves against their predators? Understanding plant plant in the photograph guides a parasitic wasp (Cotesia
chemical defences helps humans devise strategies to protect glomerata) to the caterpillar (Pieris brassicae) eating the
crops and other vegetation. cabbage leaves.
Chemical labelling studies confirmed that the signalling
DEFEND OR DIE Some plants have evolved adaptations, such
chemicals are not stored in the undamaged plant. Plants
as hairs, spines, prickles, or thorns on the surface of leaves or
develop and release the signals soon after damage begins,
stems, to repel predators. Others, such as horsetail, have silica
and release them most strongly during the time when the
inside their leaves, which makes them tough to eat and wears
natural enemies are most active. Also, different herbivores
down the predator’s teeth.
elicit different signals from a plant. Although advances in
Many plants produce secondary chemical compounds
chemical technology and biotechnology are speeding the
not needed for plant metabolism. These substances might
discovery of natural plant signals that might help protect
taste bitter or be toxic to the predator. Some interfere with
crops, there is evidence that these signals might also help
the predator’s digestion, growth, or reproduction. In 2005,
herbivores locate food.
researchers discovered that the roots of a type of cabbage
produce substances that protect the plant by killing a wide
variety of bacteria in the soil.
Connect to the Environment
INSECT OR NOT Plants can distinguish between an insect Suppose that you have developed a pesticide based on natural
attack and other types of damage, such as pruning. Scientists plant defences. Write a magazine advertisement for your
have learned that some plants respond to certain chemicals in product. Describe how it works and why it is environmentally
insect saliva. For example, a team of biochemists determined friendly. A partner will then write an email to the magazine’s
that when an insect nibbles on a plant’s leaves, a chemical editor in response to your advertisement, pointing out
signal spreads throughout the plant. This signal stimulates potential environmental drawbacks to the product. In a group,
increased toxin production by all the leaves—not just the discuss and evaluate the two points of view.
attacked leaves.
When caterpillars feed on cabbage leaves, the

plant releases chemical compounds into the air
that attract a parasitic wasp. The wasp paralyzes
the caterpillar and then lays eggs on its body.
After the eggs hatch, the wasp

larvae consume the caterpillar.

Section Summary
• Plant growth after fertilization begins with the process of • Plant tropisms are growth responses to environmental
germination. stimuli that include light (phototropism), gravity
• Plants manufacture many hormones or growth (gravitropism), and touch or contact (thigmotropism).
regulators, including auxins and gibberellins. Each • In addition to hormones, light, and water, other factors
serves a specific purpose, usually related to growth or that affect plant growth include availability of soil
the inhibition of growth. minerals (nutrients) and soil acidity (pH).
• Plants respond to their environment with nastic
responses, which are reversible, and with tropic
responses, which are irreversible.
Review Questions
1. A Topiary is the art of moulding shrubs into 7. K/U Distinguish between micronutrients and
specific shapes through cutting, trimming, and macronutrients.
pruning. An example is shown below. When a final 8. C Draw a spider map illustrating plant hormones
shape is complete, two hormones can be administered and their functions. Make connections associating each
to the plant to preserve its shape. Which hormones hormone with its respective function(s). For hormones
are best suited for this task? Explain your answer. with an inhibitory effect, use an arrow with an “X” over
it. Use Table 14.2 as your primary data source.
9. A A Niagara grape grower tries to maximize profit.
The grower plants a new species of grape that has been
engineered without thigmotropism. This ensures that
all available energy goes into grape production. Is this
a good investment? Explain fully.
10. T/I What is the long-term outcome of a plant that
demonstrates only negative gravitropism?
11. T/I A researcher has been studying the effects of
gibberellins placed on the roots of bean plants. The
graph below shows the results of placing different
2. A How has knowledge of plant hormones concentrations of gibberelin on the roots. Write a
contributed to the invention of herbicides? suitable inference based on the data in the graph.
3. T/I Suppose that you are doing an investigation
60
Increase in height after
with plants that are unable to produce auxins. You

50
place the plants on a bright windowsill in a dark room.
10 days (mm)
40
Predict what you will see when you make observations 30
after five days. Explain your reasoning. 20
4. K/U The Niagara region of Ontario is famous for its 10
grapes. If grape vines were treated with gibberellins, list 0
0 200 400 600 800
two accommodations that would have to be made to Concentration of gibberellin (ppm)
ensure the effects of the treatment were maximized.
12. K/U How does acid rain affect a pine forest?
5. K/U A student works at a greenhouse that only has
windows facing south. The placement of the plants must 13. A A student is conducting an experiment comparing
be rotated each day. Explain why this is an essential part soil pH and plant growth. To ensure scientific validity,
of the student’s job, and describe the hormone response the student makes a list outlining the independent
in the plants that makes this task necessary. variable, three possible dependent variables, and three
factors that must remain constant between trials. What
6. K/U Describe two situations in which a plant needs
would you expect to see in the list?
to produce abscisic acid.

SECTION
Succession and Sustainability
14.3
Key Terms As you learned in Chapter 13, plants provide many important ecosystem services,
including providing humans with sources of fibre, fuel, pharmaceuticals, and beauty.
ecological succession
As primary producers, plants provide food for many organisms either directly or
primary succession
indirectly, as shown in Figure 14.16. From the canopy created by tall trees in a forest
pioneer species to small pools of water that collect in leaves of plants, plants provide habitat for many
climax community organisms. Through photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere and
secondary succession take up carbon dioxide, serving as a sink for CO2. Plants are also involved in the
cycling of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, through global systems. Plants
detoxify and decompose waste materials, generate and revitalize soil, and purify the
air. The presence of plant roots helps reduce soil erosion. Plants, such as those in the
wetlands shown in Figure 14.16, are natural water filters, removing chemicals and
other pollutants from water. Plants also play a role in establishing and developing
communities, a process known as ecological succession.
Figure 14.16 (A) Herbivores,
such as this deer, depend A B
on plants directly for food.
(B) Other organisms, such
as raccoons, use plants as
a home. (C) Wetlands are
excellent water filters.
Plants as Ecosystem Pioneers

An event that changes the structure of a biological community—sometimes destroying
ecological succession
the change in an all actively growing organisms—is called an ecological disturbance. Examples of
ecosystem that happens ecological disturbances include forest fires, floods, volcanic eruptions, and retreating
when one community glaciers. Following an ecological disturbance, an area may appear barren. Within
replaces another; it months, however, new vegetation may sprout, and then animals may repopulate
results from changes in
abiotic and biotic factors the area. Years later, the same area will likely be thick with life. This process, called
ecological succession, is the sequence of invasion and replacement of species in an
ecosystem over time. Succession is driven by abiotic factors, such as climate, and biotic
factors, such as competition for changing available resources.

Primary Succession
Primary succession is the establishment of a community in an area after an ecological
primary succession the
disturbance has left exposed rock that does not have any topsoil. For example, bare rocks establishment of a
left behind by a retreating glacier and the hardened bed of lava from a volcanic eruption community in an area of
have no topsoil. Plant species play an important role in primary succession. In some exposed rock that does
cases, plants, such as liverworts, are one of the first species to colonize a barren area. The not have any topsoil
first organisms that appear in primary succession are called pioneer species. Pioneer pioneer species the
first organisms to appear
species, which can include bacteria, algae, lichens, and plants, form a pioneer community. in primary succession
The first species in a pioneer community are usually small, opportunistic organisms
that can grow in harsh conditions. Soil starts to form as some of these organisms die.
As the soil builds up, its nutrient content, moisture content, and pH change, as shown
in Figure 14.17 (A). This allows larger species, such as mosses, to grow in the area.
Grasses, annual herbs, shrubs, and trees follow, thus expanding the diversity of species,
as shown in Figure 14.17 (B).
Changes in Soil Nitrogen Changes in Number of Plant Figure 14.17 Scientists

A B measured changes in the
during Primary Succession Species during Primary Succession
nitrogen content and the
50
Nitrogen Concentration
number of plant species

Number of Plant Species
300
(g/m2 of surface)
250
40 during primary succession
200
in Glacier Bay, Alaska.
30
150 Describe how the nitrogen
100 20 concentration in soil
50 changed over time.
10
0
0 50 100 150
Time Years
(A) When primary succession begins, there is (B) By studying different sites from which a
no soil and very few nutrients available to the glacier had retreated, ecologists found that
organisms. As the organisms die and soil builds plant diversity increased in the first 200 years
up, so do soil nutrients, including nitrogen. of primary succession, and then levelled off.
Organisms from different species can then
use the nutrients from the soil. They may also
change the composition of the soil.
As the plants grow, they compete for light and living space. Some populations are
climax community the
better able to survive the competition and the changing habitat. These populations final stage of ecological
replace those that are not able to survive. Animals may join the community and, as the succession
species of plants change, so do the species of animals. The latecomers in the process of
succession form a climax community. This community may remain relatively stable
if there are no major environmental changes. Figure 14.18 shows the changes in plant
composition as a community undergoes primary succession.
Figure 14.18 Succession

is a gradual change in
community structure,
beginning with a pioneer
community and leading
toward a climax community.
grass low shrub high shrub shrub-tree low tree high tree
pioneer community climax community

Secondary Succession
Secondary succession is the recolonization of an area after an ecological disturbance in
secondary succession
the changes that take which soil has remained intact. For example, soil, which contains nutrients and organic
place in an ecosystem matter, usually survives disturbances such as forest fires, floods, and agricultural activity.
that has been damaged, Often, the seeds and roots of vascular plants remain buried in the soil, as do the spores of
or in communities that ferns and mosses. In fact, some plant species produce seeds that will germinate only after
have been destroyed
but the soil has they are exposed to the extreme heat of a forest fire. The jack pine (Pinus banksiana) and
remained intact the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) are two examples of this. This adaptation ensures
that there will be plenty of light and nutrients available for new seedlings.
Like primary succession, secondary succession, shown in Figure 14.19, includes
changes in the composition and number of species over time. The stages of succession
may occur over weeks in an area recovering from a flood. In other areas, such as a
new forest, succession may continue for 150 years. According to the classical model
of succession, once the climax community has developed, it will remain stable unless
there is a major ecological disturbance.
Pines die, Mature

Annual Grasses/ Young oak/
Shrubs Pines oak/hickory oak/hickory
plants herbs hickory
mature forest
0 1–2 years 3–4 years 4–15 years 5–15 years 10–30 years 50–75 years
Figure 14.19 Secondary succession is a series of changes that leads to a mature community.
Frequency of Ecological Disturbances

SuggestedInvestigation In the past, scientists believed that ecological disturbances did not occur very often.
However, ecologists now think that ecological disturbances are the norm rather
Plan Your Own Investigation
than the exception in many communities. Even a tree falling in a rainforest creates a
14-D, Succession of
Microbial Organisms small ecological disturbance. This kind of event, and larger disturbances such as the
clearcutting of a forest, open a space in the canopy, allowing light to hit the ground
and secondary succession to occur. Thus, ecological disturbances are important for
many plants. Research shows that the magnitude of a disturbance affects the types of
organisms that will later inhabit an area. Spruce (Picea), a shade-tolerant plant, does
well following a small ecological disturbance in a forest. A large disturbance in a forest
provides plenty of light and allows shade-intolerant plants, such as the lodgepole pine,
to flourish. Ecological disturbances are also important for animals. The berry bushes
that grow up a few years after a forest fire are an important food for grizzly bears as
they gain body mass in preparation for hibernation.
Ecologists must consider how ecological disturbances affect different species when
trying to establish—or preserve—healthy natural communities. Understanding the role
of ecological disturbances in structuring communities is currently an important area of
investigation in ecology.

Learning Check
19. Make a spider map to organize the ecosystem 23. If you were volunteering to help revitalize a forest
services of plants. after it had been destroyed by a mudslide, why
20. What is ecological succession? would it be important to understand what the
pioneer species for the region are?
21. What is the difference between primary succession
and secondary succession? 24. Name at least two places where you could observe
succession occurring in an urban area.
22. Explain the role of ecological disturbances in the
structure of a community.
Plant Biodiversity and Ecosystem Resilience

Recall from Chapter 1 that ecosystems with greater species diversity have better
resilience—the capacity to survive changing conditions. This is particularly true
when it comes to plant diversity. A long-term study completed by researchers at the
University of Minnesota showed that as the number of plants species increased in an
ecosystem, the stability of the ecosystem also increased. Ecosystems with high diversity
are better able to withstand disruption, such as disease, competition from invasive
species, and extreme weather events such as a drought. When there is a high diversity
of plants in an ecosystem, it is more likely that at least some plants will survive a
disruption to the ecosystem.
Plants, Sustainability, and the Biosphere

You have read about the ecosystem services of plants and of the ecosystems they
inhabit. All of the ecosystem services of plants benefit the biosphere, which includes all
organisms living on Earth. Maintaining sustainable natural ecosystems, such as forests,
wetlands, and coral reefs, and human-made ecosystems, such as agricultural systems, is
critical to the health of the biosphere. Plants play an important role in ecosystems and
in the biosphere as a whole.
As shown in Figure 14.20, when viewing Earth from space,
the green leaves of plants are the most prominent evidence of
the biosphere. When plants are removed from ecosystems, their
importance as the anchor for an ecosystem becomes evident. For
example, when large areas of rainforest are cleared, the conditions
of that area change drastically. Soil erosion increases, water cycling
changes, and the habitats and food sources for many animals are
destroyed. The University of Minnesota researchers found that
diverse grasslands, the ecosystem in which they collected data, were
240 percent more productive than grasslands with only one plant
species. Plants are of critical importance in issues ranging from food
security and sustainable agriculture to biofuels and global climate
change. In addition to providing food, fuel, and materials for shelter,
plants are sources of medicine and sinks for carbon dioxide. Plants
also serve vital roles in conserving the biodiversity of Earth and
ensuring the sustainability of the biosphere.
Figure 14.20 “Looking outward to the blackness of space, sprinkled with
the glory of a universe of lights, I saw majesty—but no welcome. Below
was a welcoming planet. There, contained in the thin, moving, incredibly
fragile shell of the biosphere is everything that is dear to you, all the human
drama and comedy. That’s where life is; that’s where all the good stuff is.”
—Astronaut Loren Acton

Section Summary
• Plants provide ecosystem services such as adding • Primary succession occurs when there is no soil for plants
nutrients to soil, draining and filtering water, and to grow in.
providing food and oxygen for other organisms. • Secondary succession occurs when the ecosystem has
• Ecological succession is the changes that occur in been damaged but there is still soil.
ecosystems as one community replaces another after • The greater the plant diversity in an ecosystem, the more
a disturbance. resilient the ecosystem is to disturbances.
Review Questions
1. K/U What is the role of the pioneer species in 9. K/U Define ecological disturbance and provide three
primary succession? examples.
2. K/U Is the climax community that results from 10. T/I Describe an example of an ecological
secondary succession likely to be the same as the disturbance that could benefit wildlife.
climax community before secondary succession was 11. K/U What processes and events contribute to
forced to take place? Explain your answer. succession?
3. T/I You come across an abandoned mining town 12. T/I How does plant diversity enhance the survival
where the processing of the mine has polluted the rates of wildlife?
surrounding area so much that the plants and animals
13. A Clearcutting, shown below, involves the cutting
have all died or left the area. Assume that the polluted
and removal of all trees in a given area of forest.
area will grow back. What would you expect to see
growing in the area in about five years? Explain why.
4. C Create a flowchart or other concept organizer to
show the process of succession at the base of a volcano,
beginning after an eruption. Assume that it takes
100 years for a climax community to form and that
the volcano erupts every 100 years.
5. T/I How could you test the hypothesis that mosses
and lichens play a role in secondary succession?
6. K/U How is plant diversity linked to ecosystem a. What changes to ecosystems do you think occur
resilience? when clearcutting is done?
7. A Some people have suggested that the value of b. What type of succession occurs after an area has
the ecosystem services provided by plants should be been clearcut?
translated into a dollar amount. How do you think this c. What types of plants would grow in the area after
would affect society’s opinions on the importance of clearcutting has occurred?
maintaining sustainable ecosystems? 14. T/I Explain why succession in the desert does not
8. C Copy the table below into your notebook. Fill result in a rainforest climax community.
in the blanks to compare primary and secondary 15. C After fire destroyed much of the plant life in a
succession. Give the table a title. park, wildlife officials suggested that people could help
Primary Secondary the park recover by planting their own plants and trees
Succession Succession and feeding wildlife such as rabbits and deer. Write a
Where? supported opinion piece with your views of the
When? advantages and disadvantages of humans intervening
Sequence of in the natural processes of recovery in an ecosystem.
events?
16. A List five contributions that living trees make to
How fast? a community.
Leads to?

Inquiry 14-A
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Comparing Flowers and Their Structures
In this investigation, you will examine the different structures of flowers.
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
✓ Communicating Pre-Lab Questions
1. How can you identify a monocot or dicot from its flowers?
Safety Precautions
2. What are the organs found in flowers?
3. What is the difference between a perfect and an imperfect flower?
• Always wash hands before and
after handling plant materials. Question
• Use extreme care when handling How do the structures of flowers vary?
the scalpel.
Procedure
Materials 1. Obtain flowers of several different species from your teacher.
• whole flowers (various species) 2. Identify the organs of each flower, making note of the similarities and
• magnifier or dissecting microscope differences. Record the number of petals, sepals, stamens, and/or pistils
• forceps for each flower.
• scalpel 3. Carefully remove some petals and sepals and observe the pistil.
4. Draw a diagram of at least one of your flowers. Label all of the structures.
5. Select a flower with a large pistil. Use a scalpel to carefully make a vertical
incision through the pistil and ovary. Draw and label a diagram of the inside
of the pistil.
Analyze and Interpret

1. Compare and contrast the structures of the flowers you observed.
2. Although sepals and petals do not have a reproductive function, they are
important to the success of reproduction. Explain why.
3. a. What feature of the stigma makes it suited for capturing pollen grains?
b. What feature of a pollen grain makes it suited for being brushed off
onto animals?
Conclude and Communicate

4. Without referring to your notes or this textbook, sketch a flower and label
as many reproductive organs and structures as you can. Include their
functions.
Go to Biological Drawing in Appendix A

for help with making your diagrams.
Extend Further
5. INQUIRY Spring winds blow millions of pollen grains through the air at
once. Based on your observations, how do you think seed-bearing plants
prevent their egg from being fertilized by sperm from a different species?
Write a hypothesis for an investigation to test your ideas.
6. RESEARCH Unlike humans, pollinating birds and insects can see ultraviolet
light. Research to find out how different flowers look to the eyes of these
pollinators.

Inquiry 14-B
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Techniques of Artificial Propagation
In this investigation, you will test and compare three methods of plant
propagation.
✓ Communicating
Pre-Lab Questions
Safety Precautions 1. What are some advantages of artificial propagation?
2. Identify at least three different methods for propagating plants artificially.
• Wash hands well before and 3. What safety precautions will you take when working with plants and plant
after handling plants and plants chemicals?
chemicals, especially hormone
products. Question
How can you compare plant propagation methods?
Materials
• various house plants, such as Procedure
philodendron, spider plant, 1. Using sharp, clean scissors, take three cuttings from each plant. Clean the
African violet scissors and dry them well before taking each cutting.
• sharp scissors 2. Place one cutting from each plant in a test tube of water. Label each test
• beakers, or large test tubes in a rack tube as appropriate to track the species of each cutting. Add water to the
• masking tape test tubes as needed throughout the investigation to keep water levels up.
• marker 3. Place one cutting from each plant directly into moist soil. Cover the pot
and cutting with a plastic bag, pierce the bag with a couple of small holes,
• water
and secure with an elastic band. Label each pot as appropriate to track the
• soil species of each cutting.
• plastic bags 4. For the third cuttings, apply a root hormone to the cut edge, and place in
• pots moist soil as in step 3. (The hormone will help the cutting develop new
• elastic bands roots quickly.)
• root hormone product 5. Put all cuttings in a well-lit area and observe over several days.

1. Which cuttings showed the best results? Suggest a reason why.
2. Which growing medium gave the best results? Suggest a reason why.

3. Which species that you tested seemed best suited to artificial propagation?
Explain why you think this is the case.
Extend Further
4. INQUIRY Design an investigation to find out how light conditions (for
example, bright light versus partial light) affect growth of artificially
propagated plants.
5. RESEARCH Which professions do you think need knowledge and skills
related to plant propagation? What kinds of courses would people interested
in these professions need to take? Which educational institutions provide
such courses?

Plan Your Own 14-C
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
✓
Factors That Affect Plant Growth
In this investigation, you will design and test a procedure to investigate how
a factor that you select affects the growth of plants.
✓ Communicating
Question
Safety Precautions What factors affect plant growth?
Hypothesis
• Always wash hands before and
after handling plants and soil. Form a hypothesis based on the factor you have chosen to investigate.
• Be extremely careful when Plan and Conduct

handling chemical products such
1. Decide which condition you are going to vary in your experiment. Prepare
as fertilizers.
a list of possible ways to test your hypothesis.
Suggested Materials 2. Decide on one approach for your investigation that can be done in the
• bean or radish seeds (or other classroom. Your design should test one variable at a time. Plan to collect
quick-growing seeds) quantitative data.
• labels 3. Write a full procedure for your investigation. Include all safety precautions
as well as a list of all the materials and equipment you will need. You may
• potting soil
find the following questions helpful in developing your plan and procedure.
• water • What will be your independent variable, dependent variable(s), and
• small pots or planting trays controlled variable(s)?
• equipment and materials • How will you apply the different treatments to the plants in the
appropriate to the factor being appropriate labelled pots?
tested (e.g., soil testing kit, vinegar, • How will you determine whether your variable has had an effect on
lime, litmus paper, fertilizer) plant growth?
• How will you record the data and information you collect?
4. Obtain your teacher’s approval before conducting your investigation.

1. How did the variable affect the growth of your plant?
2. Compare your results with those of classmates who investigated the same
variable. In what ways are the results similar and different?

3. Did your results support your hypothesis? Explain why or why not.
4. Identify and explain at least two changes you would make to improve the
design of your investigation.
Go to Scientific Inquiry in Appendix A for

help with designing your experiment.
Extend Further
5. INQUIRY Predict how the variable you investigated would affect a plant of
a different species. Design an investigation to test your prediction.
6. RESEARCH What differences might you observe in the plant variable you
investigated if you conducted your experiment in a different climatic region
of Canada?

Plan Your Own 14-D
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
✓
Succession of Microbial Organisms
Recall from Chapter 2 that many microscopic organisms, such as Paramecium,
Euglena, and diatoms, are found in aquatic ecosystems, including ponds.
✓ Communicating
The oxygen-poor mud at the bottom of the pond likely contains methane-
producing bacteria or sulfate-reducing bacteria. What happens to populations
Suggested Materials of these micro-organisms when they are contained in a micro-environment?
• pond water (supplied by your
teacher) Pre-Lab Questions
• wood shavings or dried grass 1. Which type of micro-organisms do you expect to find in the pond water?
• pH paper 2. What are the independent and dependent variables in your investigation?
• paper towels 3. What safety precautions should you take due to the gases produced in the
• 2 glass jars with lids micro-environments?
• refrigerator Safety Precautions
• long plastic pipettes
• microscope slides
• To avoid creating completely anaerobic conditions in the jars and to prevent
• microscope gases from building up in the jars, leave the lids on the jars loose.
• cover slips • Do not leave the micro-environments near open flames. Gases produced in
the micro-environments may ignite.
• Be careful not to smell the micro-environments solution directly. Breathing in
hydrogen sulfide gas is dangerous.
• Wash your hands after working with the micro-environments.
Go to Scientific Inquiry in Appendix A for Questions

help with designing your experiment.
How can you demonstrate microbial succession over time? What factors
influence succession in a micro-environment?
608 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth and Function

Plan and Conduct Conclude and Communicate
1. Use the library or Internet resources to refresh your 3. Describe how the microbial communities in each
memory about the role of micro-organisms in the micro-environment changed over the course of the
carbon cycle. experiment. Which micro-organisms were most
2. Using the list of suggested materials as a starting abundant at the beginning, middle, and end of the
point, decide with your group which environmental experiment? Which micro-organisms were least
factor your group will manipulate. For example, will abundant at these three times?
you examine the effect of temperature on succession 4. How did the environmental factor that you tested
in the micro-environments? Will you examine the affect the growth of particular populations in the
effect of frequent aeration on succession in the micro-environments?
micro-environments?
3. Decide exactly how you will set up each Extend Further
micro-environment, and how and when you will
observe them. How will you detect changes in the 5. INQUIRY Estimate the total number of organisms
microbial community? How will you detect population in your microsystem. Your answer should include a
growth in a specific population? complete explanation of all your calculations and list
4. Write a step-by-step procedure for your experiment. the assumptions you made.
Be sure to include safety precautions. 6. RESEARCH Your experiment focussed on a small-scale
5. Once your group has agreed on the procedure, have ecosystem and succession. Scientists have conducted
your teacher approve it. similar research on a larger scale using hundreds
of organisms and humans to simulate ideal living
6. Set up your micro-environments, and make and record
conditions. Prepare a summary of Biosphere 2,
your initial observations.
the boldest attempt thus far. Refer to Appendix A,
7. Make and record periodic observations throughout the Developing Research Skills, for Internet research
duration of the experiment. guidelines and note-taking suggestions.
8. Follow your teacher’s instructions on how to clean up
when your investigation is complete.

1. Which environmental factor did you test?
2. How were you able to identify changes in the
microbial community over time?

Chapter 14 SUMMARY
Section 14.1 Plant Reproduction
Plants reproduce sexually by producing seeds and • There are three key stages in the haploid part of the plant
asexually by vegetative propagation. life cycle: development of pollen cells, development of
eggs, and fertilization.
KEY TERMS
• Fertilization ends when a seed is formed. Seeds are usually
artificial propagation pollination
contained in a mature ovary called a fruit and surrounded
germination radicle
by a protective seed coat.
hypocotyl seed coat
petal sepal • Plant seeds disperse away from their parent plant through
pistil stamen the action of wind or animals such as insects and mammals.
• Plants can propagate sexually through seeds or asexually
KEY CONCEPTS by vegetative propagation. In vegetative propagation,
• Flowers are the reproductive structures of plants, and also called artificial propagation, new individual plants are
they include four main organs: sepals, petals, stamens, grown from a portion of the roots, stems, or leaves of an
and pistils. existing plant.
Section 14.2 Plant Growth and Development
Plant growth is influenced by hormones and conditions • Plants manufacture many hormones or growth regulators,
in the environment. including auxins and gibberellins. Each serves a specific
purpose, usually related to growth or the inhibition of
KEY TERMS growth.
apical dominance phototropism
• Plants respond to their environment with nastic responses,
gravitropism thigmotropism
which are reversible, and with tropic responses, which are
hormones tropism
irreversible.
nastic response
• Plant tropisms are growth responses to environmental
KEY CONCEPTS stimuli that include light (phototropism), gravity
• Plant growth after fertilization begins with the process (gravitropism), and touch or contact (thigmotropism).
of germination. • In addition to hormones, light, and water, other factors
that affect plant growth include availability of soil minerals
(nutrients) and soil acidity (pH).
Section 14.3 Succession and Sustainability
Plants play an important role in succession and in the • Ecological succession is the changes that occur in
sustainability of ecosystems. ecosystems as one community replaces another after a
disturbance.
KEY TERMS
• Primary succession occurs when there is no soil for plants
climax community primary succession
to grow in.
ecological succession secondary succession
pioneer species • Secondary succession occurs when the ecosystem has
been damaged but there is still soil.
KEY CONCEPTS • The greater the plant diversity in an ecosystem, the more
• Plants provide ecosystem services such as adding nutrients resilient the ecosystem is to disturbance.
to soil, draining and filtering water, and providing food and
oxygen for other organisms.

Chapter 14 REVIEW
Knowledge and Understanding 6. Cytokinins are found in this part of the plant.
Select the letter of the best answer below. a. root tip d. leaf
1. From which structure did the structure labelled A in b. root system e. shoot tips
the diagram below develop? c. stem
7. What is the significance of the human-made auxin
2,4-D?
a. It causes decreased plant growth.
b. It works as a seed germinator.
c. It reduces yield in crops.
d. It promotes seed maturation.
e. It acts as a weed killer.
8. A vine naturally grows in and around a wire fence.
A
This is an example of which type of tropism?
a. phototropism d. thigmotropism
b. ecotropism e. negative tropism
a. hypocotyl c. gravitropism
b. radicle
Answer the questions below.
c. auxin
d. cotyledon 9. When does the dormant period of a seed end?
e. monocot 10. Which plant growth hormone is gaseous?
2. Which artificial propagation technique allows one What is its function?
plant to have two branches from different species? 11. What happened to promote the growth of
a. division the side branches on the plant shown below?
b. grafting
c. leaf cutting
d. stem cutting
e. air layering
3. Which is true regarding artificial propagation?
a. It limits genetic variation.
b. It results in slower growth.
c. It increases germination wait-time.
d. It increases diversity when used in farming.
e. It is common, and occurs often in nature. 12. Use a flowchart to outline the key steps in
primary succession.
4. Which could describe a dicot plant?
a. has a flower with four petals 13. Why would plants on the International Space Station,
in orbit around Earth, have difficulty germinating?
b. has a flower with five petals
c. has a flower with six petals 14. Examine the illustration that was used in question 11
d. a and b above. Suppose that you wanted to encourage a plant to
grow vertically with minimal growth of side branches.
e. b and c
What would you do, and why?
5. Which of these options best describes the function of
15. Identify the following flower structures as male,
pioneer species during primary succession?
female, or other, and state their functions in each case.
a. produce oxygen
a. style e. stigma
b. provide lodging for carnivores
b. stamen f. anther
c. break down nutrients
c. petal g. sepal
d. die and decompose to become soil
d. pistil h. filament
e. remove toxins for future animal habitation

Chapter 14 REVIEW
16. Make a sketch to summarize the sexual reproduction 27. Compare and contrast complete and incomplete
of plants by sporic reproduction. (Hint: What is flowers. Use a graphic organizer such as a Venn
another name for sporic reproduction?) diagram to organize your answer.
28. Define a tropism in plants. Draw an example of a
Thinking and Investigation
positive tropism and of a negative tropism.
17. Is the flower of an angiosperm a tissue, an organ, or a
29. Fruit trees in orchards often have scars on their trunks.
system? Give evidence to justify your answer.
While you are picking apples, you overhear a person
18. To test the effects of pH, a student decides to commenting that it was lucky the trees were able to
administer five unique solutions to five unique plants. heal after having their stems broken by last year’s
From least to greatest pH, the student uses solutions of ice storm. Is that the most likely explanation for the
cola, vinegar, water, milk, and diluted bleach. Give the scarring on trees in an orchard?
student two suggestions to improve the validity of the
30. It is Plant Appreciation Day in your community. Write
results that will be obtained. Explain your reasoning in
a short public service announcement, about 180 words,
each case.
letting people know the significance of plants to the
19. Although simple layering is a method of artificial community.
propagation, describe a situation in which this could
31. A chef writes an article for a food magazine in which
naturally occur.
fruits and vegetables are distinguished on the basis of
20. “Pollination by animals is more efficient than how they are prepared, how they are eaten, and their
pollination by wind.” sweetness. Write a letter to the magazine explaining,
a. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? respectfully, how the scientific use of the term fruit
b. Provide examples to support your opinion. differs from the chef ’s use.
21. Describe an investigation to test the effect of light on 32. Construct a diagram showing positive phototropism
growth in one plant. in a small plant. Shade regions of the plant darker
a. What would be your control situation? where higher auxin levels are found.
b. What variables would you use? 33. Study the diagram below.
c. Write a hypothesis for your investigation.
d. Describe data that you would expect to collect if
your data supported your hypothesis.
e. Describe data that you would expect to collect if
your data did not support your hypothesis.
22. Artificial propagation techniques can result in many
identical plants, or they can be used to encourage
variation. Describe two examples of when each would
be desirable.
23. A plant is developed with negative phototropism. What
prediction can you make about auxin levels and the
plant’s chances of survival?
24. Suggest reasons why seeds found in an ancient
Egyptian tomb may prove useful to scientists today. a. Identify the type of artificial propagation shown.
b. Write a caption that explains more about this
Communication technique.
25. Use a graphic organizer such as a Venn diagram to 34. Summarize your learning in this chapter using
compare the internal structures of a monocot seed with a graphic organizer. To help you, the Chapter 14
those of a dicot seed. Summary lists the Key Terms and Key Concepts. Refer
26. Create an illustration that shows the stages of to Using Graphic Organizers in Appendix A to help
development of a monocot seed from germination to you decide which graphic organizer to use.
mature plant.

Application 40. Plant variety is critical to the survival and
35. You buy some raspberries that are wrapped in plastic. sustainability of ecosystems. Describe at
When you go to eat them the next day, they have least three examples from your studies of plants, and
spoiled. Your friends comment that they never buy other units that you have studied this year, that support
fresh raspberries because they always go bad before this statement.
they get a chance to eat them. What could you say in 41. Animals and plants require many of the same
response? nutrients.
36. Infer why monofloral honey is more expensive than a. Research the nutrients that animals require.
standard honey. Hint: To answer this question, first b. List seven nutrients and their functions that the
determine what monofloral means. If necessary, refer to two kingdoms have in common.
Appendix B, Greek and Latin Prefixes, for help. 42. The diagram below shows the treatment of four
37. Study the photo below, which shows a plant growing seedlings for an investigation. In 1, the leaves were
around a pole. cut from the top of the seedling. In 2, a foil cap was
placed over the top of the seedling. In 3, a foil tube
was wrapped around the base of each seedling. In 4,
the seedling received no treatment. The four seedlings
were covered with a three-sided box that exposed
the seedlings to plentiful sunlight from one side only
and prevented light from entering at the top or other
three sides.
a. Predict what you will observe about each of the
seedlings when you remove the box in two days.
b. Write a hypothesis that could have been used by the
students who designed this investigation.
foil cap
a. Identify the type of tropic response the plant is foil tube

displaying.
b. Explain how you could investigate the role of pea
plant cells in the plant’s response to touch.
38. You have been hired to teach a Grade 6 class at a local
school about secondary succession. Design the lesson
that you would use to help the students understand
this concept in the world around them. Your lesson 1 2 3 4
should include the following:
• an imaginary field trip involving the class and its
teacher 43. Table 14.1 summarizes the advantages of vegetative
• a script you would use during the field trip to point propagation. What are at least three disadvantages of
out specific aspects of secondary succession vegetative propagation?
39. Plants have specialized structures with 44. Explain why commercial nurseries routinely pump
distinct functions that enable them to carbon dioxide into their greenhouses.
respond and adapt to their environment. Demonstrate 45. A vegetable storage container is designed to allow air
the validity of this statement by describing at least circulation around vegetables. The advertisement for
two examples associated with plant reproduction. the container states that this reduces the amount of
ethylene surrounding the vegetables, which keeps them
fresh longer. Is this fact or fiction? Explain.

Chapter 14 SELF-ASSESSMENT
Select the letter of the best answer below. 5. K/U How does a plant benefit from inhibition of
1. K/U Which is true of the sperm cells in seedless its growth caused by abscisic acid?
vascular plants? a. energy is stored
a. They use cilia for movement. b. fruit matures
b. Their movement resembles that of an amoeba. c. root system develops
c. They use a flagellum for movement. d. stomata remain open to ensure energy is made
d. They do not require water for movement. e. Both a and c are true.
e. All of the above are true. 6. K/U Which of the following can inhibit apical
2. K/U Which combination of variables does seed dominance?

germination require? a. injecting the plant with auxin
a. water and oxygen b. cutting the leaves
b. water, oxygen, and suitable temperatures c. removing the top of the plant
c. water and suitable temperatures d. adding micronutrients to the plant’s diet
d. a tropical climate and water e. increasing the soil pH
e. a nearby angiosperm species and oxygen 7. K/U Which pair of terms means the same thing?
3. K/U Which of the following includes a pioneer a. asexual propagation; artificial propagation
species? b. sexual propagation; artificial propagation
a. deer, goats, trees c. asexual propagation; artificial selection
b. lichens, deer, ticks d. asexual reproduction; artificial production
c. ants, bushes, birds e. asexual propagation; artificial prorogation
d. cats, catnip, dogs 8. K/U Which of the following terms could describe
e. shrubs, wildflowers, bees a monocot flower?
4. K/U Touching the leaves of Mimosa pudica plant a. 4 sepals, 4 petals
shown below has caused them to fold up quickly. b. 5 sepals, 10 petals
c. 12 sepals, 12 petals
d. 4 sepals, 8 petals
e. All of the above are correct.
9. K/U Which of the following statements about
cross-pollination is correct?
a. It leads to genetic diversity.
b. Most plants also pollinate themselves.
c. It may occur between plants and fungi.
d. It occurs only in monoecious plants.
e. All of the above are correct.
10. K/U Which of the following do monocot and dicot
After a short time, the leaves begin to unfold.
plants have in common?
What kind of response is this?
a. number of leaves at germination
a. phototropism
b. radicle becoming the root structure
b. nastic movement
c. cotyledons are visible after sprouting
c. thigmotropism
d. a fibrous root system
d. gravitropism
e. the exterior endosperm
e. negative movement

Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the 17. T/I Potassium is a plant nutrient that helps in the
questions below. opening and closing of stomata. Predict how a
11. K/U Use perfect or imperfect, and complete or deficiency of potassium would affect a plant’s growth.
incomplete, to describe the flower in the diagram Refer to specific plant processes in your answer.
below. Explain how you made your choices. 18. A How could the retreat of a glacier help scientists
to understand succession?
19. A Ecological disturbances can dramatically change
the course of an ecosystem. Classify the following
disturbances in order of increasing severity: oil spill,
forest fire, clearcutting. Justify your answer.
20. A List five ways in which plants are important in
a. your daily life
b. the daily life of a bird
c. the whole planet
12. K/U Explain the role that animals play in pollination, 21. C Construct a graph that demonstrates the
and give three examples. relationship between an ecosystem’s resilience and its
diversity. When making your graph, consider the
13. T/I What adaptations are seen in plants that rely on
independent (x-axis) and dependent (y-axis) variables.
the wind for pollination?
22. T/I Describe an imaginary plant that has flowers
14. C Explain the concept of double fertilization in
adapted for pollination that involves water.
angiosperms.
23. A Study the diagram below.
15. C At some time in human history, people
discovered the type of artificial propagation that is now
called simple layering. Write a story in one or two
paragraphs that describes how this discovery might
have been made.
16. K/U Study the plant in the photo below.
a. Which method of artificial propagation is shown?

b. Provide two reasons why you would recommend
this method to someone wanting to grow an
orchard in a short period of time.
24. A Cherry trees must be grown in pairs. Explain
why, and then describe a way to get around this
situation.
a. What type of tropism is the plant displaying? 25. C Construct a dichotomous key to determine
b. Identify and describe two other types of tropisms. whether a plant is monoecious or diecious, and
whether the flowers are perfect or imperfect.
Self-Check
If you missed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
question...
Review
14.1 14.1 14.3 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.2 14.2 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.1 14.1 14.1 14.1
section(s)...

Unit 5 Project
An Issue to Analyze
Comparing the Sustainability of Bamboo and Cotton Fibres

Which is more sustainable: a t-shirt made from cotton fibres or one made from bamboo fibres?
Many people consider the different methods used in growing the plants, processing the fibres,
and manufacturing the fabric as part of the answer to this question. For example, some people
choose products based on whether cotton fabric was made from conventionally grown cotton
or organically grown cotton. Or, consumers may use information about the way bamboo fibres
are processed to assess the sustainability of a product made from bamboo. For example, fabric
referred to as “bamboo linen” is produced when bamboo stalks are crushed mechanically and
natural enzymes are used to break them down further. The fibre is then combed out. Fabric
referred to as “bamboo rayon” is produced when chemicals are used to break down the bamboo
stalks. The fibres are then separated mechanically.
In this project, you will research information about the resources and processes used to grow
and produce both cotton and bamboo fibres. You will then analyze and draw conclusions about
the sustainability of each type of fibre and the products made from them.
Which type of fibre would you choose as more sustainable: cotton or bamboo?
Both cotton and bamboo fibres are used to make fabric for clothing, sheets, towels, and other products. (A) Bamboo is a monocot
in the grass family. These large, fast-growing plants are also used as a source of building materials in tropical regions of the world.
(B) Cotton is a dicot, grown in China, India, the United States, and Brazil.
Initiate and Plan Perform and Record

1. Determine which two fibres you would like to compare: 2. Research your chosen fibres. Begin by familiarizing
• organic cotton and bamboo linen yourself with background information about them.
Consider the following questions to guide your research:
• conventional cotton and bamboo rayon
• Where are the plants grown?
• cotton and bamboo in general

• How much of each fibre is produced globally each year? • What are the sources of the information you have
• What are the basic differences between the two fibres gathered? How trustworthy and credible are your
you have chosen to research? sources? How can you know or decide?
• What products are made from each type of fibre? Analyze and Interpret
• What terms, such as organic or rayon, do you need to 1. Compare and contrast the sustainability of the two
define? fibres you researched. You may use a Venn diagram
• What qualities does each fabric have that may be or other graphic organizer to help you organize your
important to a consumer? information. Refer to Using Graphic Organizers in
• What is the difference in the prices of some finished Appendix A.
products made from each fibre? 2. Based on the sustainability of the two fibres, determine
whether you would purchase bamboo products or
3. Research information related to the sustainability of
cotton products as a consumer. Explain your reasoning.
each fibre in regard to growing the plant, including any
environmental, social, or economic issues. Consider the Communicate Your Findings
following questions to guide your research:
3. Choose a form of communication to promote the fibre
• What types of resources are used in the growth and and/or products you support. For example, you could
harvesting of the plant? create an advertisement (print or web-based), write a
• What are the environmental effects of growing the blog entry, or summarize your findings in point form to
plant, including effects on soil fertility, water quality, persuade a retailer to sell the product in a local store.
and biodiversity?
• How is the health of workers and the community Assessment Criteria
protected against possible exposure to synthetic Once you complete your project, ask yourself these
chemicals in the air or water? questions. Did you…
• What terms, such as integrated pest management, ✓ K/U research background information about the
genetically modified, or persistent pesticide, do you growth and processing of the plants used to make
need to define? the two fibres?
• What are the sources of the information you have ✓ K/U research information about the sustainability
gathered? How trustworthy and credible are your of each of the fibres?
sources? How can you know or decide? ✓ T/I evaluate the sources of the information you
gathered?
4. Research information related to the sustainability
✓ T/I compare and contrast the sustainability of the
of each fibre in regard to processing the fibre
two fibres?
and manufacturing the product, including any
✓ A assess the social and environmental impacts
environmental, social, or economic issues. Consider
of the methods used to produce each fibre and make
the following questions to guide your research:
a decision about which products to purchase?
• How is the fibre extracted from the plant?
✓ C explain, on the basis of your research and
• What resources are used to extract and/or process decision making, your reasoning as to which
the fibre? products you would purchase?
• How does the extraction and/or processing of the ✓ C select a format that is appropriate for the
fibre impact the environment? audience and purpose to promote the sustainably
manufactured fibre or products you have chosen to
• How is the health of workers and the community support?
protected from possible exposure to chemicals
✓ C use scientific vocabulary appropriately?
and/or contaminated wastewater?
Unit 5 Project • MHR 617

UNIT
5 SUMMARY
Overall Expectations
In this unit, you learned how to...
• Plants have specialized structures with distinct • evaluate the importance of sustainable use of plants to
functions that enable them to respond and adapt to their Canadian society and other cultures
environment. • investigate the structures and functions of plant tissues,
• Plant variety is critical to the survival and sustainability and factors affecting plant growth
of ecosystems. • demonstrate an understanding of the diversity of
vascular plants, including their structures, internal
transport systems, and their role in maintaining
biodiversity
Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function
KEY IDEAS • The root system anchors the plant

• Two important ecosystem services of plants include and absorbs water and nutrients
photosynthesis and production of cellulose. from the surrounding soil.
• Plants are a source of food, fibres, building materials, • Stems provide support for the
biochemicals, fuel, flood and erosion control, recreation, plant’s leaves and reproductive
and ecotourism. structures.
• Plants are made up of cells, tissues, organs, and organ • Leaves perform photosynthesis.
systems. The two organ systems of plants are the root • The cohesion-tension model
system and the shoot system. explains how water is moved
• Vascular tissues transport materials throughout the plant. long distances from a plant’s roots
Xylem transports water from the roots to the rest of the to its leaves, driven mainly by transpiration.
plant. Phloem transports sugars from leaves to other parts • The pressure-flow model explains how translocation moves
of the plant. organic molecules from a source, where they are entering
the phloem, to a sink, where they are being used or stored.
Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability
KEY IDEAS • Plants respond to their environment

• Flowers are the reproductive structures of plants. They with nastic responses, which
consist of four main organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and are reversible, and with tropic
pistils. responses, which are irreversible.
• There are three key stages in the haploid part of the plant • Plant tropisms are growth
life cycle: development of pollen cells, development of responses to environmental stimuli
eggs, and fertilization. that include light (phototropism),
• Fertilization ends when a seed is formed. Seeds are usually gravity (gravitropism), and touch
contained in a mature ovary called a fruit and surrounded or contact (thigmotropism).
by a protective seed coat. • Plants provide ecosystem services such as adding nutrients
• Plants can propagate sexually through seeds or asexually to soil, draining and filtering water, and providing food and
by vegetative propagation. In vegetative propagation, new oxygen for other organisms.
individual plants are grown from a portion of the roots, • Ecological succession is the changes that occur in
stems, or leaves of an existing plant. ecosystems as one community replaces another after
• Plants manufacture many hormones or growth regulators, a disturbance.
including auxins and gibberellins. Each serves a specific • The greater the plant diversity in an ecosystem, the more
purpose, usually related to growth or the inhibition of resilient the ecosystem is to disturbance.
growth.
618 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability

UNI T
5 REVIEW
Knowledge and Understanding 7. Trichomes are tiny projections on the surface of leaves
Select the letter of the best answer below. and stems that perform the following function.
a. increase nutrient absorption
1. Which of the following refers to a cellular component
b. keep surfaces cool
of plants, rather than a reproductive structure?
c. collect additional sunlight for photosynthesis
a. runner
d. assist in translocation
b. meristem
c. corm e. collect, store, and process nutrients
d. tuber 8. Which provides a protective coat for the plant?
e. rhizome a. dermal tissue
b. epidermis
2. The cells inside an apple are primarily of this type.
c. guard cells
a. parenchyma
d. stomata
b. collenchyma
c. sclerenchyma e. ground tissue
d. endochyma 9. Which of the following statements about the function
e. mesochyma of phloem is false?
a. moves nutrients to the leaves
3. The cells in celery are primarily of this type.
b. moves nutrients to the roots
a. parenchyma
c. moves nutrients to new shoots
b. collenchyma
d. move nutrients down
c. sclerenchyma
e. all of the above are true
d. endochyma
e. mesochyma 10. Which of the following statements best describes the
illustration below.
4. Which of the following explains the flexible nature of
a. The apical meristem has been grafted on.
plant stems?
b. The plant is dying.
a. parenchyma cell volume
c. The apical meristem has been removed, so side
b. collenchyma cell irregularities
branches are growing.
c. sclerenchyma transport
d. The apical meristem has been removed, so side
d. endochymal proteins
branches are being inhibited.
e. variation in xylem development e. The apical meristem has been removed, so leaves
5. Which is the dominant generation in vascular plants? are conducting photosynthesis more rapidly.
a. female gametophyte
b. male gametophyte
c. sporophyte
d. 1n
e. gamete
6. Identify the statement comparing taproots and fibrous
roots that is false.
side branch
a. Fibrous root systems are common in grasses.
b. Dandelions have taproots.
c. Taproots store food more efficiently than fibrous
roots.
d. Plants that have taproots prevent erosion more
efficiently than plants with fibrous roots.
e. Taproots are able to reach deep into the soil
for water.
Unit 5 Review • MHR 619

UNIT
5 REVIEW
Answer the questions below. 22. Identify and summarize the four main types of plant
11. The photo below shows pine trees growing in a forest tissue.
after a fire. Estimate how recently the fire occurred,
Thinking and Investigation
and describe how the area will change over the next
23. A municipal government wants to reduce costs
100 years.
associated with the upkeep of a park by reducing the
amount of landscaping. To do this, they have hired a
biotechnology firm to produce a grass plant that does
not have intercalary meristems.
a. How would you expect this engineered grass plant
to help reduce the amount of landscaping required?
b. What, if any, risks or hazards might be associated
with planting this new grass in a park?
24. Plants produce molecules of various kinds that support
their overall life functions. These molecules include
proteins, simple sugars such as sucrose, edible starches,
12. Where is meristem tissue located, and what is its fats, oils, toxic compounds, and scents (fragrances).
significance for a plant? Do research to find out at least two functions for each
13. List the three key functions of roots. of these types of molecules and how these molecules
14. Why do farmers and gardeners dry the seeds of grains may be used by humans as bioresources. Organize
and legumes before storing them? and present your findings using a suitable graphic
organizer such as a comparison chart, a main idea web,
15. The epidermis of leaves is covered with cuticle, but the
epidermis of roots is not. Explain the role of the cuticle or a flowchart.
and account for this difference. 25. Predict what would happen to the health of a plant if
its xylem or phloem were damaged. Give reasons to
16. Your school puts you in charge of planting a garden in
explain your prediction.
the courtyard. List four factors to consider in order to
optimize plant growth. 26. Plants have specialized structures with
distinct functions that enable them to
17. Why is grass considered an incomplete flower?
respond and adapt to their environment. Design an
18. Identify the goal of sustainable agriculture, and investigation to find out which structure—the stem,
explain how the following practices aid in this goal: leaf, or root—is the first to emerge from a germinating
crop rotation, use of natural predators to control pest seed. Write a hypothesis for your investigation that
populations, hand-pulling of weeds. clearly indicates how you plan to test it.
19. What are three ways in which seeds of fruits are 27. Why does running over weeds with a lawnmower
dispersed? make the weed problem worse?
20. What part of a plant is shown in the cross section 28. Evaluate, using a PMI chart, the advantages and
diagram below? Is it a monocot or a dicot? Explain disadvantages of monocultures, and express your
how you know. opinion about the use of monocultures in Canada.
29. Food security is a local as well as a global concern.
a. What is food security?
b. Explain how the following factors are related to
food security: human population size; economic
cost of growing plants as opposed to animals for
food; ecological cost of growing plants as opposed
to animals for food; location of people in relation to
sites of farms and food-production facilities.
21. The provincial flower of Ontario, the trillium, has three c. Identify at least two other factors that are related to
petals and six stamens. How is this flower classified? food security, and explain how they are related.

30. Why would artificial propagation using division be an Communication
ideal method for a gardener? 34. Write a brief story (approximately 250 words), poem,
31. Examine the diagrams below. short skit, or song, or draw an illustration or comic strip,
a. Identify the process shown in each case. to express your ideas about how life would be different
b. Explain why the processes shown in these diagrams if plants were no longer able to produce cellulose.
are examples of asexual reproduction.
35. Use a table, sketches, or both to compare the following
c. Give another name that is used to describe these structures and the tissues in which they are found:
processes. vessel element, companion cells, sieve tube elements,
d. Choose one of these processes. Describe a situation tracheid.
in which a person would use the process you have
36. Use a graphic organizer such as a summary chart or
chosen, and explain how it would work.
a fishbone diagram to compare the similarities and
A B differences of the seeds, roots, stems, leaves, and
flowers of monocots and dicots.
37. Many people have expressed concern that the
production of biofuels may lead to an increase in the
price of many foods. Explain how this is possible, and
propose a solution.
38. Construct a mnemonic device or other literary clue to
remember the difference between xylem and phloem.
C D
39. Construct a diagram illustrating three different ways in
which nutrient atoms, molecules, and ions in one plant
can end up in a different plant.
40. You observe a tree that has the remains of a partially
rusty metal fence sticking out through the base of
its truck. Somebody informs you that the tree grew
around the remains of the old fence. Is this an example
E F of thigmotropism? Explain your decision.
41. Draw a flowchart that shows how water moves into a
vascular plant from the soil, up through the body of
the plant, and out the leaves.
42. Make a table that lists the five groups of plant
hormones and classifies them based on whether they
stimulate or inhibit growth.
G H
43. Make a cause-and-effect diagram to compare the two
processes of succession.
44. Write a paragraph, suitable for a class of Grade
6 students, to explain how the female and male
gametophytes of an angiosperm form.
45. Compile a list of plant products that people use. Divide
your list into categories such as the following: forestry,
32. Angiosperms are unique in that both sperm cells of the
spices, fuels, food, pharmaceuticals, horticulture,
pollen grain are used in the seed development. Name
construction. Do research to help you find at least
this process, and explain what happens to the two
three products for each category. Make a table to
sperm cells.
summarize your findings. Then display this same
33. Acetic acid (vinegar) is suggested as an alternative to information using another method, such as a graph, a
more harmful chemical weed-killing products for the diagram, or a graphic organizer.
control of weeds in lawns. Infer how acetic acid works.

UNIT
5 REVIEW
Application 52. A family that lives in an apartment building has a

46. Plant variety is critical to the survival and balcony. They want to set up a small balcony garden to
sustainability of ecosystems. Biodiversity in grow some of their own food.
Canada is a key feature of the different geographic and a. Do research to find out the kinds of foods that can be
climatic regions. If this is true, why are there strict laws grown in a balcony garden and the factors the family
that prevent people from increasing this diversity by needs to consider to ensure good crops year after year.
importing new plants and animals into Canada? b. Suppose the family decides to grow ornamental plants
instead. Do further research to find out the kinds of
47. As you drive through Ontario, you observe that many
ornamental plants that can be grown in a balcony
farmers’ fields have trees and small bushes growing
along their outskirts (outer boundaries). Why do garden, and what those plants need in order to thrive.
farmers choose to keep these landscape features 53. As a recent high school graduate you have secured
instead of clearing the area for additional crops? a job writing for a gardening column for a local
newspaper. Your first task is to assess house plants for
48. When growing a privacy hedge, why is it important to
a future article titled “Canada’s Top House Plants—
trim its height?
When a green thumb is on someone else’s hand!” Do
49. The roofs of abandoned buildings, abandoned parking research to help you find information that you will
lots, and old stone walls often display signs need to write the article. Complete the organizational
of secondary succession. Explain how and why this is chart below to guide your research.
the case.
Goal
50. Canada is a major producer and exporter of maple
Background research and
syrup. Two tablespoons (30 mL) of maple syrup sources of research information
contain about 23 g of carbohydrates in the form Favourable traits
of sugars, no protein, and no fat. This serving size
Traits to avoid
contributes 100 Calories to a person’s diet.
Other factors for consideration
a. If maple syrup has no fat or protein, how can a
small serving have so many Calories? 54. Use the illustration of plant phylogeny below to answer
b. Maple syrup has other nutrients that make it the following questions.
a healthy food choice when eaten as part of a a. Which type of organism gave rise to the modern
balanced diet. Do research to find out what these organisms that we call plants?
other nutrients are and why they are useful to the b. How are mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
human body. differentiated from other groups of plants?
c. Aboriginal peoples of the North American west c. How are ferns differentiated from gymnosperms
coast have long used the sap of the paper birch and angiosperms?
(Betula papyrifera) and several other birch species d. Is it likely that the first seed plants evolved before
to make birch syrup. Do research to find out the first vascular plants did? Why or why not?
the health benefits of birch syrup and how this
non-vascular vascular plants
alternative sweetener compares nutritionally with plants seedless seed plants
maple syrup. plants
51. Many farmers do not make much money growing
the crops they do. Sometimes they make no money
at all, and often they lose money, especially when mosses, liverworts, ferns gymnosperms angiosperms
hornworts (flowering plants)
unseasonable weather conditions reduce or destroy
their expected harvest. Farmers may receive economic
incentives, often in the form of tax breaks, to continue
to farm their lands. What is the value to Canada, both
economically and ecologically, of farmers continuing
ancestral first vascular first seed
to farm? green alga plants plants
700 500–400 350 140
mya mya mya mya

55. Measurements of the diameter of tree trunks show that 61. Populations of native grasses such as wheat are often
trunks shrink during the day, and that the shrinkage able to tolerate years of drought, while cultivated
happens in the upper part of the trunk first, and then varieties typically grown on farms cannot. Explain
in the lower part. Explain how these observations why this is the case.
support the hypothesis that water is pulled through 62. During the winter, deer and rodents such as mice and
the trunk as a result of transpiration. rabbits may consume the bark of certain trees but leave
56. As you are eating an apple, you decide that you would the underlying wood intact. If the bark is eaten away
like to save and plant the seeds. You do so, but the around the whole circumference of the trunk, the tree
seeds fail to germinate. List all the possible reasons will not survive. Explain why.
you can think of for why the seeds did not germinate, 63. Pollutants such as acid precipitation harm the
and suggest strategies you could try to improve your reproduction of plants that grow from spores more
chances of success. easily than plants that grow from seeds. Explain why
57. In most parts of the world, commercial potato crops this does or does not surprise you.
are produced asexually by planting tubers. However, 64. Many of the commercially available synthetic
in some regions of the world, such as in southeast herbicides are similar in chemical structure and in
Asia and in the Andes of Peru, some potatoes are function to naturally occurring auxins. Why are
grown from true seeds. Describe the advantages and synthetic herbicides more effective at killing dicot
disadvantages of growing potatoes from seeds rather weed plants than monocot crop plants?
than from tubers.
65. You observe that a gardener is removing the shoot
58. The relationship between angiosperms and pollinating apical meristem of some plants to make them “bushier”
organisms is often cited as an example of coevolution. as they are growing. What tissues will supply new
Coevolution is the process by which the niches of growth for these plants?
two species of organisms are so closely linked that
66. The underground storage organs of the potato look
both species evolve together. Many flowering plant
similar to the underground storage organs of the sweet
species have flower structures that are adaptive to
potato. Are these storage organs the same or are they
a single pollinator species. Research coevolution
different? Explain your answer.
of angiosperms and their pollinators. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of such a specialized 67. Fish farms are operations in which fish are raised in
relationship? large numbers for commercial sale. Wastewater from
fish farms contains high amounts of nutrients and can
59. There are more than 250 000 known species of
impact the surrounding environment if it is not filtered
angiosperms. And yet we humans get most of our
before being released. Do you think plants could be
nourishment from just three of them: rice, corn, and
used to filter the wastewater? Explain your reasoning.
wheat. Explain why this is likely the case, and evaluate
the advantages and disadvantages of our significant 68. While walking in a maple forest, you notice that the
reliance on these three species. leaves of the maple trees are quite large. The leaves
growing on maples in open fields, on the other
60. The Galapagos Islands were formed about one million
hand, are smaller. What could account for this size
years ago as a result of undersea volcanic eruptions. In
difference?
the early years after their formation, the islands would
have been totally devoid of life. Eventually, however, 69. The saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) is found only
they were colonized by a relatively small number of in the Sonoran Desert—a large desert occupying parts
species of plants and, later, animals. of Arizona, California, and northwestern Mexico. Do
research to find out the following information about
a. The mainland nearest to the Galapagos Islands
this cactus species.
is about 1000 km away. What dispersal-related
adaptations would have enabled plants to make a. its distinctive physical features
their way from the mainland to the islands? b. its lifespan
b. Infer at least three adaptations that would have c. how it is adapted for growth in its harsh
enabled plants to establish themselves on the environment
desert-like islands. d. how it is adapted for reproduction

UNIT
5 SELF-ASSESSMENT
Select the letter of the best answer below. Use the following diagram to answer questions 7 and 8.
1. K/U Which of the following is true of a E
monoculture? root hair A
a. It creates genetic variety in plants.
b. It minimizes the need for crop rotation.
c. It eliminates the need for pesticides.
cortex H20
d. It increases crop yield.
e. It improves environmental sustainability. C D H 20 root hair
B
2. K/U Which organelle do plants rely on for
photosynthesis? 7. K/U The cells identified by arrow A are
a. cell wall a. epidermis
b. chloroplast b. Casparian strip cells
c. mitochondrion c. root hairs
d. plasma membrane d. endodermis
e. chlorophyll e. collenchyma cells
3. K/U Which cell structure allows for plant flexibility? 8. K/U Which of the following structures increases the
a. parenchyma cells surface area for absorption?
b. collenchyma cells a. A
c. sclerenchyma cells b. B
d. meristematic tissue c. C
e. cork cambium tissue d. D
4. K/U Which is true regarding xylem? e. E
a. It transports nutrients to the root system. 9. K/U Apical dominance is a result of this hormone
b. It transports sugar to mature leaves. being produced in large quantities.
c. It transports water from the roots. a. auxin
d. It is the reverse of transpiration. b. cytokinin
e. It relies on translocation. c. gibberellins
5. K/U Which of the following characteristics best d. ethylene
describes perfect flowers? e. abscisic acid
a. They contain pistils and stigma. 10. K/U Parallel venation in a leaf is evidence that a plant
b. They contain stigma and style. is of which type?
c. They contain stamen and pistils. a. non-vascular
d. They contain pollen and sepals. b. woody
e. They have multiples of three leaves. c. monocot
6. K/U Which of these structures is the outcome of d. dicot
reproduction in angiosperms? e. herbaceous
a. flower Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the
b. seed questions below.
c. apple
11. T/I Plant cells are composed of three cell types.
d. pollen
a. Name these three cell types.
e. spermatocyte
b. If you were designing a plant that could only
contain one cell type, which would be the most
beneficial? Justify your selection.

12. T/I Identify the plant hormone that would be used 16. K/U Explain what root pressure is and why it is
in each of the following situations. important to a plant.
a. You want to delay the ripening of a fruit. 17. C A Venn diagram made of two overlapping
b. You want to make a fruit ripen. circles has the following details in the centre:
c. You want a seed to germinate. • able to reproduce in a dry environment
13. C Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast • dependent on gametophyte generation
animal pollination and wind pollination. Include • non-motile sperm
methods of pollen dispersal, and identify the plant Draw and complete this Venn diagram.
adaptations that are well suited for these mechanisms. 18. C Summarize the theory that explains how water
14. A You observe grass sparkling in the morning as is moved against gravity to the leaves of a plant.
light reflects from small drops of liquid on the blades. 19. T/I Describe three characteristics that can help you
Are these drops of liquid the result of guttation? to distinguish between a monocot and a dicot plant
Explain why or why not. growing in the forest.
15. T/I The diagram below shows the vascular bundles 20. K/U List three dissolved chemicals (micro- or
in cross sections of two stems. Which stem belongs to a macro-nutrients) that are essential to plant growth and
monocot, and which belongs to a dicot? Explain how function. Provide a plant use for each.
you know.
21. A The drooping, bell-shaped flowers of Canadian
A B columbine (Aquilegia canadensis) are adapted for
cross-pollination. However, if the flower has not been
pollinated previously, self-pollination can occur. If
cross-pollination occurs after self-pollination has taken
place, the pollen from the cross-pollination reaches the
base of the style before the pollen from self-pollination.
Explain how this adaptation for reproduction benefits
the plant.
22. T/I How does tropism promote healthy and efficient
vascular
bundles
plant growth?
23. T/I A plant has a taproot and net-like venation.
How could dissecting the root from this plant help you
to confirm your inference that it is a dicot?
24. C Sketch the structures associated with the
reproduction of a flowering plant.
25. A Explain how the development of a vascular
system in plants influenced the evolution of plants
millions of years ago.
Self-Check
If you missed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
question...
Review 13.1, 13.3, 3.1,
13.1 13.1 13.2 13.2 14.1 14.1 13.3 13.3 14.2 13.3 13.1 14.3 14.1 13.4 13.3 13.4 13.1 13.4 13.4 14.1 14.2 14.2
section(s)... 14.2 13.4 13.3
Unit 5 Self-Assessment • MHR 625

Chapter 14 Biology 11

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Chapter 14 Biology 11

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CHAPTER Plants: Reproduction,

14 Growth, and Sustainability

• F2.1 use appropriate terminology related

• F2.2 design and conduct an inquiry to

• F2.3 identify and draw biological

• F2.4 investigate various techniques of

• F3.2 compare and contrast monocot and

• F3.3 explain the reproductive

• F3.4 describe the various factors that

• F3.5 explain the process of ecological

Farmers and gardeners in developed and developing countries

580 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Germinate Some Seeds

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 581

Male gamete Female gamete

Sexual Reproduction in Seedless Plants

582 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms

r sporic reproduction (alternation

Seedless Seed Natural Vegetative Artificial

Non-vascular Vascular Gymnosperms Angiosperms

r dominant r dominant r Unprotected r Protected seeds

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 583

584 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 585

Self-pollination and Cross-pollination

586 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Life Cycle of a Flowering Plant

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 587

Seed and Fruit Development

Activity 14.1 Comparing Seeds

In this activity, you will examine the structures of monocot Procedure

588 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

monocot dicot monocot dicot monocot dicot

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 589

Table 14.1 Common Techniques of Artificial Propagation

Grafting • can be used to produce • fruit trees such as apple

590 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Type of Plants Propagated

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 591

12. K/U In monocots and dicots germination occurs in

592 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 593

A Apical meristem intact B Apical meristem removed

594 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Plants Responses to Environmental Stimuli

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 595

Activity 14.2 Exploring Gravitropism

596 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 597

When caterpillars feed on cabbage leaves, the

After the eggs hatch, the wasp

598 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

with plants that are unable to produce auxins. You

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 599

Plants as Ecosystem Pioneers

600 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Changes in Soil Nitrogen Changes in Number of Plant Figure 14.17 Scientists

number of plant species

Figure 14.18 Succession

Chapter 14 Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and Sustainability • MHR 601

Pines die, Mature

Frequency of Ecological Disturbances