Reproduction

- Processes that produce more of the same kind of organism.

Types of Reproduction
1. Asexual Reproduction
(Vegetative Propagation)
- Reproduction process that produces genetically identical offspring from one
parent.
- This means that offspring are genetically identical to parent and to each
other (clones).

Characteristics of Asexual
Reproduction
(a) Organism is formed with only one parent being required, therefore
there is no fusion of nuclei of two gametes to form a zygote and there is
no fertilisation.

Type of Asexual Reproduction

- Binary fission.
Organisms That Perform Asexual
Reproduction
1. Plants
How Plants Perform Asexual
Reproduction
- Reproduce by producing stem tubers and bulbs that will develop into next
year’s plants.

Stem Tubers
- As plant grows, some stems grow down into ground and store food made
by leaves there.
- These stems grow swellings called stem tubers in which starch is stored.
- The parent plant eventually dies, and stem tubers sprout and grow into a
new plant in warm weather.

Bulb
- Short stem with leaves or remains of leaves that act as a food storage organ
that is able to develop into a plant the following year.

Stem Tubers and Bulb

- These are food storage organs from which budding is able to occur,

Budding
- Type of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from a bud
(generative anatomical point) because of cell division at one particular site.
 Runners
- These are side shoots
- Some plants grow side shoots that contain tiny plantlets on them.
- These plantlets will grow roots and develop into separate plants.

Example of Plant That Have Runners

 Strawberry plants.

Apple Culture
- Growing crops in water.

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Asexual Reproduction
Advantages Disadvantages
Population is able to be rapidly
increased when conditions are right.
Plants are able to withstand
unfavourable conditions with stored
foods.
Limited genetic variation in population
(are unable to be used to make
varieties) because offspring are
genetically identical to their parents.
Population is vulnerable to changes in
conditions because it may only be
suited for one habitat.

More time and energy efficient. Diseases may spread easily and rapidly
affecting the whole population
because there is no genetic variation.
Localised spreading reduces weeds. Overcrowding

Are able to exploit suitable

environments quickly.
For farmers, if a mother plant has
good characteristics, then it will be
passed on to offspring.
Only method of producing offspring
that is genetically similar to its parent.
Reproduction is completed faster than
sexual reproduction.

Advantage of Asexual Reproduction In

Crop Plants
- It means that a plant has good characteristics (high yield, resistant to
disease, hardy) can be made to perform asexual reproduction and
the entire crop will show the same characteristics.

2. Bacterium

How Bacteria Perform Asexual Reproduction

- Reproduce by cell division (binary fission).
 - Each cell of bacteria split into two.
- In this process, there is DNA replication, chromosome segregation and
cytokinesis.

Cytokinesis
- Occurs when cytoplasm of a single cell divides into two daughter cells.

Relationship Between Temperature and Rate of Bacteria Reproduction

- The greater the temperature, the greater the rate of bacteria reproduction.

3. Fungi
- Produce spores that are released into air and carried to substrate in which
they land on and develop/grow into a new mycelium.
- The sporangium bursts open and scatters spores in air or flies carry them on
their feet.

Sporangium
- Stores spores.

PICTURE

Mitosis
- Nuclear division that forms genetically identical cells in which the
chromosome number is maintained by exact duplication of chromosomes.

Characteristics of Mitosis
(a) This nuclear division occurs in asexual reproduction.
(b) This nuclear division occurs in sematic (body) cells.
 Inside nucleus, there are DNA cells called chromosomes.
Each chromosomes are made up of various genes.
(c) Different species have different number of chromosomes.

Example
 Humans have 46 chromosomes.
 Flies have 8 chromosomes.

(d) Before a cell divides by mitosis, each chromosome in cell

should be copied.
 (e)When cell divides, chromosomes are shared equally between 2
cells.

Sexual Reproduction
- Reproduction process that produces genetically different offspring from
two parents.
- This means that each offspring is genetically different from parent and
other offspring.

Characteristics of Sexual
Reproduction
(a) Organism is formed with two organisms/parents being required,
therefore there is fusion of nuclei of two gametes to form a zygote and
there is fertilisation.
Fertillisation
- Mixing of genetic information.
- It involves fusion of nuclei of two gametes, leading to production of offspring with
variation in offspring because each gamete is from a different parent. The nuclei of two
gametes fuse to form a zygote.

Gametes and Zygotes

Gamete 

- Sex cells produced by an organism in sexual reproduction.

Examples of Gametes

 In Animals
- Sperm and ovum.

 In Plants
- Pollen nucleus and ovum.

Difference Between Gametes and Other Body (Normal) Cells

- Gametes contain half the number of chromosomes (haploid nucleus) because they
contain one copy of each chromosome while other body cells contain a full number of
chromosomes (diploid nucleus) because they contain two copies of each chromosome.

 In humans, a normal body cell contains 46 chromosomes but each gamete contains 23

chromosomes.

Zygote

- Fertilised egg cell.

- Formed when male gamete and female gametes fuse.
- This contains the full 46 chromosomes, half that came from father and half that came from
mother.

 Zygote is a diploid nucleus.

 
Advantages & Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
Advantages Disadvantages
Increases genetic variation Requires two organisms of same
because of fusion of nuclei of two species; one male and one female,
gametes from 2 organisms. This means this means that it is difficult for
that each offspring is genetically isolated members of species to
different from parent and other reproduce.
offspring . This means that a genetic variant
may be produced that is better able to cope with
weather changes or produces significantly
higher yield.
Responsible for evolution of new Process is slow because of fusion of
species. nuclei of gametes, fertilization, growth
and development of embryo.
Species are able to adapt to new Process is slow because it takes
environments because of time and energy in order to find
variation, meaning that they have mates.
a survival advantage.
Disease is less likely to affect Each offspring is genetically different
population because of variation. from parent and other offspring
therefore quality is not maintained.
Formation of seeds for dispersal in
plants causes pollination of new
areas and new organisms that are
able to adapt to new areas and
changes in environment.

Disadvantages of Variation

 Leads to offspring that are less successful than parent plant at growing well or producing a
good harvest.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Flowers and Pollination
Flowers

- Reproductive organ of plant.

- Contain both male and female reproductive parts.

Pollen
- Plants produce pollen that contains a nucleus inside that is the male gamete.

Characteristics of Pollen
(a) Pollen is not capable of locomotion (moving from one place to another) meaning that plants
have to have mechanisms in place to transfer pollen from anther to stigma of plant
(pollination).

Main Mechanisms

1. Transferred by insects or other animals like birds

2. Transferred by wind

 The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are slightly different because each is
adapted for their specific function.
 

Parts of Flower

Structure Function
1. Sepal - Protects flower while in bud.

2. Anther - Contains pollen sacs that produces and releases pollen

grains that contain male sex cells.

3. Stigma - Sticky surface on ovary in which pollen tubes grow.

- This sticky surface collects pollen grains.

- Located on top of female part of flower.

4. Ovary - Contains ovules that develop into seeds when fertilised

that contain female sex cells.

Hermaphrodite

- Flowers that have both male and female gametes.

 

Structure of General Flower

Stages of Journey From Male Gamete To Female Gamete

1. Pollination
- Transfer of pollen grains from male part of flower (anther or stamen) to
female part of flower (stigma) of plant.

Types of Pollination
1. Self – Pollination
- Occurs when there is a transfer of pollen grains from male part of flower (anther or stamen) of
one plant to female part of same flower (stigma) of same plant or another flower of same plant
therefore same species.

Disadvantages of Self Pollination

 1. Reduces genetic variety of offspring because all gametes originate from same parent and
therefore are genetically identical.
2. Lack of variation in offspring is a disadvantage if environmental conditions change, because this
means that it is less likely that any offspring is able to have adaptations that fit new
conditions well.

2. Cross – Pollination
- Occurs when there is a transfer of pollen grains from male part of flower (anther or stamen) of
one plant to female part of flower (stigma) of another plant of same species.

Advantages of Cross-Pollination
1. Improves genetic variation.

Disadvantages of Cross-Pollination
1. Relies completely on presence of pollinators and this becomes a problem if pollinators
are missing.

Insect Pollinated Flower

Features of An Insect-pollinated Flower

Feature Insect Pollinated Flower
1. Scent and Nectar - Present because there is a need to advertises presence
of food that attracts insects to visit flower and push
past stamen in order to reach nectar.

 When insects push past anthers that are

carrying pollen grains, pollen grains stick onto
their bodies.

 When they feed second flower, some pollen is

brushed onto stigma.

2. Petals - Attracts insects because it is large and brightly

coloured.

3. Number of Pollen - High chance of successful pollination because large

Grains number of pollen grains are transferred to another
flower therefore more are produced.

4. Pollen Grains - Easily attached to insects and carried away because

they are larger, sticky and/or spiky.

5. Anthers - Brushes against insects easily inside flower.

- It is stiff and firmly attached.

6. Stigma - Sticks pollen grains to it when insect brushes past.

- It is inside flower.

Wind Pollinated Flower

 Features of Wind-Pollinated Flower

Features Wind Pollinated Flower

1. Scent and Nectar Absent because there is no need to advertise presence of
food that attracts insects to visit flower and push past
stamen in order to reach nectar
2. Petals No need to attract insects therefore it is small and dull
(green or brown in colour).
3. Number of - Better chance of successful pollination because large
Pollen Grains number of pollen grains are not transferred to
another flower therefore more are produced.

4. Pollen Grains - Easily blown by wind because they are smooth, small
and light.

5. Anthers - Releases pollen grains easily outside of flower.

- It is swinging loose on long filaments.

6. Stigma - Catches drifting pollen grains because it is feathery.

Difference In Pollen Produced By Insect and Wind Pollinated Flowers

- Insect pollinated flowers produce smaller amounts of larger, heavier pollen grains that

contain spikes or hooks on outside therefore they are better at being able to stick to insects
while wind pollinated flowers produce larger amounts of small, lighter pollen grains that
are smooth. 

Fertilisation In Plants
 - Occurs when nuclei of male gamete (pollen nucleus) fuses with nuclei of female gamete (ovum
nucleus) in ovule to form a zygote.

Fertilisation Process
(a) Pollen grows a pollen tube in order to reach female gamete.
 This only occurs if pollen grain lands on the right kind of stigma (that is of same species
as the flower the pollen came from).
(b) Gamete inside pollen grain slips down tube as it grows down style towards ovary.
(c) Ovary contains one or more ovules that each contain an ovum with a female gamete that a
male gamete is able to fuse with.
(d) Once gametes have joined together, ovule is fertilised and a zygote is formed.
(e) Zygote starts to divide and eventually form a seed within the ovule.

 Different plants have different numbers of ovules, explaining why different fruits that develop
from ovary have different numbers of seeds that develop from ovules.

Growth of a Pollen Tube

 Fertilisation in a flowering plant

Seeds and Fruits
- After Fertilisation All parts no longer needed wither and fall
off.
- Each ovule that is fertilized develops into a seed.
- Once seed grows to its full size it loses water.
- Metabolic reaction in seeds stop and seed becomes dormant allowing seed to survive for a long
time in harsh conditions.
 Ovary changes into a fruit.

Function of Fruit

- Protecting seeds.
- Dispersing seeds.

Germination
- Start of growth in seed.

Factors Affecting Germination

1. Water 
 - Allows seed to swell up and enzymes in embryo to start working in order for growth to be able
to occur.

Absorption of Water
- Absorbed through micropyle until radicle is forced out of testa.

Function of Water
- Activates enzymes for converting soluble starch stores in cotylendon.
- For testa to be soaked and opened.

2. Oxygen

Function of Oxygen
- Used in respiration for energy to be released for germination.

3. High Temperature/Warmth

- The greater the temperature, the greater the germination because reactions that occur are
controlled by enzymes.
 If temperature is above optimum temperature, then enzymes may denature.
 If temperature is too low, then enzymes may not function.

Carbon Dioxide

 Not necessary for germination but also does not inhibit it, therefore it makes no difference
whether it is present or not.

Investigating Germination

1. Set up 4 boiling tubes each containing 10 seeds on cotton wool.

2. Leave tubes in set environment for a period of time:
(a) A, B and C incubated at 20°C
(b) D placed in a fridge at 4°C
3. Compare results and determine which tube contains the greatest number of germinated seeds.
 Conditions Required For Germination - Results:

Seed Dispersal
- Proccess of dispersing seeds that flowers produce providing means of colonizing new areas.

1. Wind Dispersed Seeds

- Fruits contains seeds and contain a parachute or wing structure to help them be carried away by
wind.

Example
- Dandelion
- Sycamore
 2. Animal Dispersed Seeds
- Fruits contain seeds that are succulent and hooked.

Succulent Fruits
- Fruits that are formed by animals getting attracted to fruit because of its characteristics, this
leads to them passing the seeds out through their faeces.

Characteristics of Succulent Fruits

(a) Have bright distinctive colours
(b) Juicy and nutritious.

Hooked Fruits

- Fruits that are formed by catching on animals fur and eventually falling off or getting groomed
by animal itself removing it.

Sexual Reproduction In Humans

Male Reproduction System

Structures of Male Reproductive System and Function of Male Reproductive System

Structure Function
1. Prostate (a) Produces nutrient fluid that mixes with sperm cells to produce a
Gland mixture called semen.
 Example of Nutrient Fluid

(i) Seminal Vesicle

2. Sperm Duct (a) Carries sperm from testis to urethra for ejaculation.

(b) Sperm duct mixes sperm with fluids produced by glands as sperm
passes through it.

3. Urethra (a) Pathway of semen and urine in body.

 If sperms are passing through urethra, then a valve closes to

stop urine from passing through at the same time.

- It is a tube running down centre of penis that is able to carry

out semen or urine.

(b) Contains a ring of muscle that prevents urine and semen from
mixing.

4. Testis (a) Produces male gamete (sperm) by meiosis.

(b) Produces testosterone (hormone).

Contained in a bag of skin called scrotum.

5. Scrotum (a) Ensures sperm are kept at a temperature slightly lower than body
temperature.

How It Ensures This

- Sac supports testes outside body.

6. Epididymis (a) Coiled tube that stores sperms.

7. Penis (a) Passes urine out of body from bladder.

(b) Allows semen to pass into vagina of woman during sexual

intercourse.

Female Reproduction System

Structures of Female Reproductive System and Function of Female Reproductive System

Structure Function
1. Oviduct (a) Connects ovary to uterus.
(Fallopian
Tube) (b) Carries ovum to uterus because it is lined with ciliated cells to push
released ovum down it.

(c)Fertilisation occurs.

2. Ovary (a) Produces and stores eggs (ova) (female gametes) that mature and
develop when hormones are released.

(b) Produces oestrogen.

(c) Contains follicles.

3. Uterus (a) Implantation occurs to fertilised egg (zygote) meaning it develops into
a foetus (fully grown child).

- Implantation occurs on muscular bag with a soft lining.

4. Cervix (a) Keeps developing foetus in place during pregnancy.

(b) Separates uterus from vagina.

- It is a ring of muscle at lower end of uterus.

 5. Vagina (a) Receives semen from male’s penis by it entering during sexual
intercourse and sperm getting deposited.

(b) Acts as a birth canal.

- It is a muscular tube that leads to the inside of a woman’s body.

Fertilisation In Animals
- Occurs when male gamete (sperm cell) fuses female gamete (ovum/egg cell) in oviducts to
form a zygote.

Adaptation Feature of Gametes and Reason For It

Sperm Cell Egg Cell

- Has a flagellum (tail) because this - Has a cytoplasm that contains a store
enables it to swim to egg. of energy because this provides
energy for dividing zygote after
fertilisation.

- Contains enzymes in acrosome - Has a jelly like coating that changes

(head region) because this helps it to after fertilization by forming an
digest through jelly coat and cell impenetrable barrier in order to
membrane of egg cell when it meets prevent other sperm nuclei from
one. being able to enter the egg cell.

- Contains various mitochondria

because they provide energy from
respiration in order for the flagellum
to be able to move back and forth for
locomotion.

Use of Adaptation of Gametes
 Increase chances of fertilisation and successful development of an embryo.
Comparison of Male and Female Gametes
Male Gametes (Sperm)
Size Very small (45 micrometres)
Structure/Shape (a) Head region containing
nucleus.
(b) Middle piece containing
mitochondria.
(c) Tail (flagellum)
concerned with
movement of sperm.
(d) Many structural
adaptations.
Mobility Mobile because it is able to
move on its own tail using
energy from the large number
of mitochondria.
Number Produced Produced every day in large
numbers (100 million per
Female Gametes (Egg)
Large (0.2mm)
(a) Spherical shape.
(b) Covered in jelly coating.
(c) Protected by inner plasma
membrane and outer
protein coat.
(d) Few structural
adaptations.
Immobile because it moves
along uterus by being swept
by cilia and peristalsis
contraction of oviduct walls.
One produced every month,
although there are thousands
 day). of immature eggs in each
ovary.
Size of Nucleus and Small nucleus and cytoplasm. Nucleus surrounded by
Cytoplasm abundance of cytoplasm.

Sexual Intercourse (Copulation)

Process
1. Male penis is full of erect tissue and blood vessels that make it firm because of increased
blood pressure.
2. Penis is inserted into female vagina.
3. Stimulation of penis causes ejaculation.
4. Semen is deposited in vagina (just below cervix) where sperms begin their journey.
Sperms + Nutritive Fluid = Semen
Menstruation (Period)
- Breakdown of thickened lining of uterus, other materials from thickened lining of uterus
and discharge of blood due to breakdown.

Cause of Menstruation
- Failure to fertilise egg.

Menstrual Cycle
- Repeated process in which lining of uterus is discharged in menstruation.

Time of Starting and Ending of Menstrual Cycle

1. 28 days (average menstrual cycle)

- Total Time Taken.

2. Around Age 12
- Starting of menstrual cycle in early adolescence in girls.
o Controlled by hormones.
3. Around Age 50
- Ending of menstrual cycle in girls.

Period of Menstrual Cycle

 1. Day 1-7
- Menstruation occurs.
- Towards around 5 - 7 days menstruation stops therefore signaling beginning of next cycle.

2. Day 8-11
- After menstruation finishes, lining of uterus starts to thicken in preparation for egg/ possible
implantation in the next cycle.

3. Day 14
 Ovulation (Release of an egg)
- Egg travels down oviduct to uterus.
- Occurs about halfway through cycle.

4. Day 18-25
- If fertilisation of egg has not occurred, then there is a reduction in corpus luteum (substance
that secretes progesterone) and progesterone leading to menstruation.

5. Day 26-28
- Uterus lining also detaches leading to menstruation.
- Therefore cycle begins all over again.

Hormonal Control of Menstrual Cycle

 - Menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones released from ovary (oestrogen and progesterone)
and pituitary gland (FSH and LH) in brain.

Hormone

Oestrogen and Progesterone

Function

- Helps lining of uterus to build up again after menstruation is finished.

Oestrogen Level In Ovary

- Rises from day 1 and peaks just before day 14 which is just before ovulation.
- This hormone causes uterine wall to start thickening and egg to mature.

Progesterone Level In Ovary

 Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has occurred
 The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in progesterone
levels causes the uterine lining to break down (menstruation / ‘period’)

 The roles of FSH and LH

 Changes in the levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in the blood during the menstrual
cycle

 FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) is released by the pituitary gland and causes an egg to

start maturing in the ovary
 It also stimulates the ovaries to start releasing oestrogen
 The pituitary gland is stimulated to release luteinising hormone (LH)
when oestrogen levels have reached their peak
 LH causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone

 
The roles of oestrogen and progesterone

Changes in the levels of oestrogen and progesterone in the blood during the menstrual cycle

 Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14

 This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature
 The peak in oestrogen occurs just before the egg is released
 Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has occurred
  The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in progesterone
levels causes the uterine lining to break down (menstruation / ‘period’)

Interaction between all four of the menstrual cycle hormones

 The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulates the development of a follicle in the ovary
 An egg develops inside the follicle and the follicle produces the hormone oestrogen
 Oestrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall and inhibits
production of FSH
 When oestrogen rises to a high enough level it stimulates the release of LH from the pituitary
gland which causes ovulation (usually around day 14 of the cycle)
 The follicle becomes the corpus luteum and starts producing progesterone
 Progesterone maintains the uterus lining (the thickness of the uterus wall)
 If the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone levels drop
 This causes menstruation, where the uterus lining breaks down and is removed through the
vagina - commonly known as having a period
 If pregnancy does occur the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone, preventing
the uterus lining from breaking down and aborting the pregnancy
 It does this until the placenta has developed, at which point it starts secreting progesterone
and continues to do so throughout the pregnancy
Diagram showing where hormones involved in the menstrual cycle are made and act
Pregnancy and Birth

Growth and Development of Fetus

- After fertilisation in oviduct, zygote travels towards uterus (3 Day Process), as zygote travels,
it will divide several times to form a ball of cells (embryo).

 In the uterus, the embryo embeds itself in the thick lining (implantation) and continues to grow
and develop
 The gestation period for humans is 9 months
 Major development of organs takes place within the first 12 weeks, during which time the
embryo gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion through the uterus lining
 After this point the organs are all in place, the placenta has formed and the embryo is now
called a fetus
 The remaining gestation time is used by the fetus to grow bigger in size
 The fetus in the uterus

 The fetus is surrounded by an amniotic sac which contains amniotic fluid (made from the

mother’s blood plasma)
 This protects the fetus during development by cushioning it from bumps to the mother’s
abdomen
 The umbilical cord joins the fetus’s blood supply to the placenta for exchange of nutrients and
removal of waste products

The Placenta
 During the gestation period the fetus develops and grows by gaining the glucose, amino acids,
fats, water and oxygen it needs from the mother’s blood
 The bloods run opposite each other, never mixing, in the placenta
 The fetus’s blood connects to and from the placenta by the umbilical cord
 The mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the fetus’s blood in the placenta; substances
like carbon dioxide and urea are removed from the fetus’s blood so that they do not build up to
dangerous levels
 Movement of all molecules across the placenta occurs by diffusion due to difference in
concentration gradients
 The placenta is adapted for this diffusion by having a large surface area and a thin wall for
efficient diffusion
 The placenta acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens getting into the fetus’s blood
 Not all toxin molecules or pathogenic organisms (such as viruses, eg rubella) are stopped from
passing through the placenta (this usually depends on the size of the molecule)
 This is why pregnant women are advised not to smoke during pregnancy as molecules
like nicotine can pass across the placenta
 After the baby has been born, the umbilical cord is cut – this does not hurt as there are no
nerves in it, just two blood vessels
 It is tied off to prevent bleeding and shrivels up and falls off after a few days leaving the belly
button behind
 The placenta detaches from the uterus wall shortly after birth and is pushed out due to
contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus - known as the afterbirth
 The placenta

Stages of Birth
 Muscles in the uterus wall contract
 Amniotic sac breaks
 Cervix dilates (gets wider)
 Baby passes out through the vagina
 Umbilical cord is tied and cut
 Afterbirth is delivered

Antenatal Care
 Antenatal (before birth), care is the name given to the care and advice given to expectant
mothers along with checks on fetal growth and development
  Whilst pregnant, expectant mothers are given advice on:
o diet including the need to take folic acid to prevent developmental issues with the fetus
and the importance of a balanced diet
o exercise to stay fit
o health precautions such as avoiding infections, tobacco, alcohol and other drugs

Breastfeeding
 During pregnancy the mammary glands enlarge and become prepared to secrete milk
 Shortly after birth, the mother will be stimulated to release milk due to the sucking action of the
baby at the breast
 Some mothers struggle to breastfeed successfully and so may feed the baby using formula milk
in a bottle

Comparing milk: