Match these prefixes and suffixes to their meanings.

The word root meso- means in the middle or intermediate.

The word root labio- means lips.
The word root acro- means end, tip, or height.
The word root sperm- means seed or sperm.
The word root -metrium means layer of the uterus.
The root word gon- means "reproductive."
The root word zyg- means "joined together."
The root word lact- means "milk."
The root word circum- means "around."
The prefix pheno- means show, showing or phenol.
The prefix chori- means chorion or choroid.
The prefix karyo- means nucleus of a cell, nut, or kernel.
The prefix gen(o)- means gene or generating offspring.

Match these vocabulary terms to their meanings.

The endometrium is the nutritive layer of the uterus prepared for the possibility of a
fertilized egg.
The labia minora are the lips that enclose the vestibule of the female external genitalia.
The acrosome is the structure at the tip of a sperm that contains enzymes to gain
access to an egg during fertilization.
Stem cells that give rise to sperm are spermatogonia.
The middle embryonic germ layer that forms everything except the epidermis of the
skin, nervous system, and epithelial linings and glands is the mesoderm.

Match these vocabulary terms to their meanings.

Reproductive organs that produce eggs and sperm are called gonads.
Mammary ducts secrete milk in the lactating breast..
The structure formed when an ovum and sperm join together is a(n) zygote.
A procedure that removes the prepuce from around the tip of the penis is
called circumcision.
circumcision returned

Besides causing genital warts, human papillomavirus (HPV) has been associated
with what type of cancer?
cervical

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) associated with untreated gonorrheal

infections results in fallopian tube scarring and infertility. What other disorder
would a female with PID be at high risk for?
ectopic pregnancy
Which of the following is NOT produced by meiosis?
a liver cell
Liver cells are somatic cells, and they are all produced by mitosis, not by meiosis.
When does the total number of chromosomes get reduced from 46 pairs to 23
individual chromosomes?
during meiosis I

Chromosome pairs are separated during anaphase I, and this first division is
called the "reduction division."

Chromosomes can exchange genetic information during a process called

"crossing over." This occurs when homologous chromosomes are lined up in
pairs. When does this happen?
prophase I

After DNA replication, each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids.

Which of the following is a likely result of meiosis?

four sperm, each with 23 chromosomes

Meiosis starts with a single diploid cell and produces

four haploid cells.
A cell preparing to undergo meiosis duplicates its chromosomes during
interphase
During prophase I of meiosis,
homologous chromosomes stick together in pairs.
The correct order of events during meiosis is
prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I, cytokinesis, meiosis II.
During meiosis, segments of nonsister chromatids can trade places. This recombination
of maternal and paternal genetic material is a key feature of meiosis. During what phase
of meiosis does recombination occur?
prophase I.
Complete the Concept Map to describe the process of meiosis, and compare and
contrast meiosis to mitosis.

purpose of meiosis: to produce haploid reproductive cells

Meiosis occurs in order to produce haploid gametes that can join via sexual
reproduction. Gametes can then join to make a new diploid cell that contains a
combination of the parents' genetic material.
During what stage of meiosis do chromosomes align on the spindle equator in
homologous pairs?
metaphase I

Homologous chromosomes form tetrads in prophase I and align on the spindle equator
as homologous pairs in metaphase I.
Why do chiasmata form during meiosis?
to form gametes that are genetically unique

Unlike mitosis, meiosis has the purpose of producing haploid cells that are all
genetically unique. Chiasmata form and genetic material is exchanged between
chromatids of homologous chromosomes to provide genetic variation in each daughter
cell.
During cellular division, the replication of DNA occurs __________.
before mitosis and meiosis I

Replication must occur before mitosis, which includes the separation of sister
chromatids. Replication must occur before meiosis so that sister chromatids can be
separated in meiosis II. Replication does not occur between meiosis I and II.
Drag the labels onto the grid to indicate the phases of mitosis and meiosis. Use
only pink labels for pink targets.

Label a section of a seminiferous tubule, showing sustentocytes and the stages of

sperm development
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets..

Define the following terms.

Match each key term to the appropriate description. Make certain each sentence
is complete before submitting your answer.
Gametogenesis: the process by which sperm and ova are formed
Fertilization: the union of an ovum and sperm to produce a zygote
Spermatogenesis: the process of developing many haploid sperm
Oogenesis: the process of developing the ova
Diploid: a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes
Haploid: a cell that contains one set of chromosomes
Zygote: the diploid fertilized ovum
Gamete: sex cells AKA sperm and ova
Spermiogenesis: the process by which sperm mature and develop
Meiosis: a special type of cell division that produces 4 haploid gametes
Complete the Concept Map to describe events that lead to genetic variability of gametes
and individuals.
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.

Which of the following is NOT a reason for genetic variation within the human
population?

-the random fertilization of eggs by sperm

-the exchange of genetic material between chromatids in meiosis I
-the random arrangement of homologous chromosomes during metaphase of meiosis I
-the different numbers of maternal and paternal chromosomes an individual may inherit
the different numbers of maternal and paternal chromosomes an individual may inherit

A healthy zygote contains 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. One chromosome

from each homologous pair comes from the mother, and the other comes from the
father, so every individual has 23 maternal and 23 paternal chromosomes.
When do chiasmata form?
prophase or metaphase of meiosis I

Chiasmata can occur only when homologous chromosomes synapse. This occurs only
during prophase and metaphase of meiosis I.
How many possible combinations of zygotes could theoretically occur between the
same parents?
more than 70 trillion

When considering the number of chromosome combinations due to independent

assortment and the possibility of random fertilization, the number of possible zygote
combinations is well over 72 trillion. This does not include the increased variation due to
crossovers.
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Which is true of linked genes?
Linked genes tend to be inherited together unless crossovers occur.

Linked genes occur on the same chromosome, so they would be passed on together
unless separated by crossovers.
Exercise 31 Review Sheet: The Male Reproductive System
The reproductive system is unique to all other organ systems in the body because it is
not necessary for the survival of the individual, but its activities are absolutely required
for sustaining the human species. Unlike other organs that are functional throughout life,
the reproductive organs are inactive until puberty. At this time, which normally occurs
between 11 and 15 years of age, the reproductive organs respond to increased levels
of sex hormones by growing rapidly and becoming functionally mature structures.
In males, the sex hormones are called androgens. The primary androgen
is testosterone. In addition to its role in the development and maturation of male sex
organs, testosterone also stimulates the growth of bones and skeletal muscle and
affects the development of the central nervous system.
To complete this Review Sheet, please complete the questions and activities below.
Choose the statement that correctly describes reproductive tract anatomy in males.
The ejaculatory duct conveys semen into the prostatic urethra.
Complete the following table.
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.

If one or both testes do not complete the migration into the scrotum and remain in the
abdominal cavity, they must be surgically moved into the scrotum. If the testes remain in
the abdominal cavity, what will be the result?
The individual will be sterile because body temperature is too high for viable sperm
production.
Match the structure at the left with the appropriate description at the right.
Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the
sentences.
1. In addition to the urethra, this muscular duct travels through the prostate
gland: Ejaculatory duct
2. Spermatozoa become functionally mature while in this structure: Epididymis
3. This structure has a urinary and reproductive function: Urethra
4. The corpus spongiosum is found in this structure: Penis
5. Interstitial (Leydig) cells, found in this structure, produce testosterone: Testis
6. This structure transports sperm cells from the epididymis to the ejaculatory
duct: Ductus deferens
7. This two-chambered structure contains the testes: Scrotum
8. Secretions from this structure are a component of semen: Seminal gland
Identify the structure that is shown in each of the following photos.
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.
Match the male reproductive structures with their functions.
Match each key term to the appropriate description. Make certain each sentence
is complete before submitting your answer.
Penis: Copulatory organ
Ductus deferens: Stores sperm; moves sperm to the ejaculatory duct
Epididymis: Stores sperm; moves sperm to the ductus deferens
Ejaculatory duct: Transports sperm from the ductus deferens to the urethra
Bulbourethal gland: Secretes mucus to lubricate glans penis
Urethra: Transports semen out of the penis
Scrotum: Houses the testes
Seminal vesicle: Produces alkaline secretion with nutrients and prostaglandins
Prostate gland: Secretes slightly alkaline substances with anticoagulants
Testis: Produces sperm and testosterone
Complete the Concept Map to describe ovarian cycle phases, and relate them to events
of oogenesis.

Which of the following differentiates the follicular and luteal phases of the ovarian cycle?
The follicular phase occurs directly before ovulation, and the luteal phase occurs directly
after ovulation.

The follicular phase is the period in which the dominant follicle prepares for ovulation
and secretes large amounts of estrogen. The luteal phase occurs after ovulation as the
corpus luteum secretes progesterone and some estrogen.
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What is the role of the granulosa cells in the ovarian cycle?
Granulosa cells guide the development of the oocyte.

Granulosa cells are directly connected to the oocyte by gap junctions, allowing for direct
communication between the oocyte and granular cells. These cells guide each other's
development.
What is the fate of the corpus luteum if pregnancy occurs?
It secretes progesterone and some estrogen for about three months.

If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum prevents another menstrual cycle by releasing
progesterone and estrogen until the placenta can take over and maintain those
hormone levels.
Which hormone is most responsible for triggering ovulation?
luteinizing hormone (LH)
Complete the concept map to describe the regulation of the uterine cycle including
some of the physiological effects of estrogen and progesterone on the uterus.
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.

When does ovulation occur in the uterine cycle?

at the end of the proliferative phase

A surge in luteinizing hormone triggers ovulation at the end of the proliferative phase of
the uterine cycle, around day 14.
Which of the following is an effect of luteinizing hormone (LH) after ovulation?
It maintains the corpus luteum.

LH maintains the corpus luteum. Increased levels of estrogen promote the release of LH
at ovulation, but the increased levels of progesterone after ovulation inhibit the release
of LH, which causes the degradation of the corpus luteum.
At which point in the uterine cycle are the ovarian hormone levels at their lowest?
at the beginning of the menstrual phase

The ovarian hormone levels are lowest at the beginning of the menstrual phase. Their
low levels are what trigger menstruation.
What is the role of estrogen on luteinizing hormone (LH) production?
Estrogen may have either an inhibitory or an excitatory effect on LH production
depending on the overall estrogen levels.

Estrogen exerts negative feedback on LH production until estrogen levels reach a

certain concentration, and then estrogen exerts positive feedback on LH production,
which promotes ovulation.
Exercise 32 Review Sheet: The Female Reproductive System
Both the male and female reproductive systems develop from similar embryonic tissue.
In fact, during the first few weeks of development, male embryos are indistinguishable
from female embryos. As development proceeds, however, two distinct and special
organ systems form. The male reproductive system contains a pair of testes, accessory
ducts and glands, and external genitalia, which include the scrotum and penis. The
female reproductive system contains a pair of ovaries and uterine tubes, a uterus,
vagina, and external genitalia, which include the labia majora, labia minora, vestibule,
and clitoris.To complete this Review Sheet, please complete the questions and activities
below.
An ectopic pregnancy occurs when the early embryo implants at a location outside the
uterus. A common site for an ectopic pregnancy is in a uterine tube. Identify a situation
that could explain how this happens.
Scar tissue due to tubal infection prevents movement of the embryo.
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Predict what might happen if the broad ligament and other supporting ligaments were
damaged by infection or injury.
The uterus would prolapse or displace in a downward direction.
Match the structure at the left with the appropriate description at the right.
Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the
sentences.
1. This structure passes posterior to the urinary bladder and urethra, and anterior to the
rectum: Vagina
2. Fertilization usually occurs in the ampulla of this structure: Uterine tube
3. Like the penis, this structure has corpora cavernosa: Clitoris
4. This structure encloses the vestibule: Labia minora
5. During fetal development, primordial follicles are produced by this structure: Ovary
6. The vaginal and urethral openings are located in this region: Vestibule
Match the structure at the left with the appropriate description at the right.
Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the
sentences.
1. A Pap smear is a test for detecting cancer of this structure: Cervix
2. Milk produced by the mammary glands drains into these structures: Lactiferous
ducts
3. This structure supports the internal female reproductive organs in the pelvic
cavity: Broad ligament
4. The corpus spongiosum in the penis is homologous to this structure: Vestibular
bulbs
5. The vaginal and urethral openings are located in this region: Urogenital triangle
6. These structures provide support for the mammary glands: Suspensory ligaments
What would happen if fertilization occurred normally, but the corpus luteum did not
produce progesterone?
The uterine lining will shed its functional zone.
Identify the female reproductive organ that is shown in each of the following photos.
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.
Identify the female reproductive organ that is shown in each of the following photos.
Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets.

Match the female reproductive structures with their functions.

Match each key term to the appropriate description. Make certain each sentence
is complete before submitting your answer.
Labia: Enclose and protect external reproductive structures
Greater vestibular gland: Secretes mucus to lubricate vaginal opening
Uterus: Houses developing embryo/fetus
Vestibule: Recess containing external openings of vagina and urethra
Uterine tube: Moves oocyte or fertilized ovum toward uterus
Vagina: Copulatory organ; birth canal
Ovary: Produces oocytes and female sex hormones
Clitoris: Erectile tissue
Clinical Case Study: Angela's Story: A Case on the Reproductive System
You are a columnist for a popular website that deals with women's health issues.
Visitors to the site can submit their stories and questions through an "Ask the Expert"
link on the site. In this scenario, a 26-year-old woman has posted her story and some
questions regarding reproductive health.My name is Angela. I am a 26-year-old married
woman with no children. My husband, Doug, and I have been trying to get pregnant for
over two years now and my doctor has suggested that I consider fertility drug
treatments. The irony of our situation is that I have been taking a birth control pill for five
years to prevent getting pregnant, and now my doctor suggests that I take another drug
to help me get pregnant. When I went off birth control about a year ago, my menstrual
cycle became very irregular. I had been taking a birth control drug called Ortho Tri-
Cyclen. To be perfectly honest, I don't understand how it works because my periods
were more regular when I was on the pill than when I went off of it. My doctor told me
that the pill works because it tricks your body into thinking that it is pregnant. That just
confused me even more. When I looked back on my decision to take birth control pills, I
realized that I did not really understand how they work. I just do not want to make that
mistake again. Before I consider taking any more drugs, I want to understand more
about how they work. The drug we're looking into is called Clomid. I asked my doctor a
bunch of questions, but I still feel confused. I looked up some stuff online when I got
home. Here is some information that I learned from a website about how Ortho Tri-
Cyclen works: Estrogen and progestin work in combination to suppress the
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. This suppression leads to a decrease in the
release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus and
luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior
pituitary. Maturation of the dominant follicle is inhibited under the decreasing levels of
FSH and LH. Hormonal contraceptive use also leads to an an increase in the viscosity
of the cervical mucus, which inhibits sperm penetration and movement through the
cervical canal. I am hoping that you would be able to help me understand how these
drugs actually work.
Angela has a question about the levels of gonadotropins in the body. Which of the
following hormones are considered gonadotropins?
follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Which of the following explanations would help Angela understand how the birth control
pill helps prevent her from ovulating?
The hormones in the pill produce negative feedback, which leads to a drop in FSH
levels.
Angela is confused by the statement her doctor made about how the birth control pill
"tricks the body" into thinking it is pregnant. Which of the following pieces of information
would help her better understand why pregnant women do not ovulate?
The placenta of a pregnant woman produces estrogen and progesterone. These
hormones exert negative feedback, which leads to a reduction of LH and FSH levels.
Angela is curious about how Clomid works to stimulate her ovaries. Her doctor told her
that this drug works by "tricking the brain into thinking that the levels of estrogen in the
body are low." Which of the following statements help explain why this would lead to a
stimulation of the ovaries?
Clomid prevents estrogen from exerting negative feedback, so LH and FSH levels
remain high and continue to stimulate the ovaries.
Angela's doctor instructed her to take Clomid on days five through nine of her cycle.
Which of the following best explains why this would be the ideal time to take this fertility
drug?
During this time of the normal menstrual cycle, rising estrogen levels are producing
negative feedback and a drop in LH and FSH levels. Clomid prevents this from
happening.
In my research, I found that the levels of "gonadotropins" in the body are critical to
understanding how the drugs Clomid and Ortho Tri-Cyclen work. What are
gonadotropins? What role do they play in fertility?
The two gonadotropins are luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH). These hormones are released from the pituitary gland under the influence of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) that is produced by the hypothalamus. LH and
FSH are called gonadotropins because they stimulate the gonads.
Some of the references talk about how "negative feedback" is involved in understanding
how these drugs work. Can you explain what is meant by negative feedback?
Feedback makes reference to the idea that the output of a system "feeds back" to
influence the input of that same system. A frequently used example is the thermostatic
control of the temperature of a house. As the temperature falls inside the house, the
thermostat measures the drop and sends a signal to the furnace to turn on. The result is
that the temperature of the house begins to rise. In negative feedback, the effect on the
input is that it will reverse the direction in which the variable is changing. In the house
example, the dropping temperature begins to rise.
My doctor told me that birth control pills contain small amounts of estrogen and
progesterone, and these hormones prevent me from ovulating. I don't understand how
giving me these hormones in a pill would prevent me from ovulating. I assume that this
has something to do with the levels of the gonadotropins that I asked about earlier. Can
you explain this to me?
In female reproductive physiology, estrogen and progesterone levels have an effect on
the output of the gonadotropins-this is an example of a negative feedback system.
When estrogen and progesterone levels rise, they inhibit the release of the two
gonadotropins from the pituitary. The birth control pill takes advantage of this effect by
causing blood levels of estrogen and progesterone to rise so that they inhibit
gonadotropin release. Without sufficient gonadotropin release, the gonads are not
stimulated. In the case of female reproductive physiology, this means that follicles will
not develop and release an egg.
In the information about Ortho Tri-Cyclen, it mentions that the hormones in the pill make
cervical mucus thicker and stickier. Does this happen during my natural cycle? How are
estrogen and progesterone involved in this process?
During the normal menstrual cycle, the viscosity of the cervical mucus changes under
the influence of estrogens and progesterone. During the first 14 days of the cycle, the
rising estrogen levels cause the mucus to become thin and watery. This change helps
to facilitate the passage of sperm through the cervical canal. The rising progesterone
levels during the second 14 days cause the mucus to thicken again.
My doctor also explained that birth control pills "trick the body into thinking it is
pregnant." She explained that women do not normally ovulate when they are pregnant.
Can you explain to me why a pregnant woman does not ovulate? How is this related to
how the birth control pill works?
During a pregnancy, the placenta produces estrogen and progesterone. The levels of
these hormones rise throughout the pregnancy and help to maintain the uterus and
prepare the mammary glands for lactation. These hormones produce negative feedback
which leads to the inhibition of the release of gonadotropins from the pituitary. The low
levels of LH and FSH mean that no new follicles can develop during the pregnancy.
Birth control pills produce levels of estrogen and progesterone in the body that mimic
this effect.
My doctor explained that Clomid works by "tricking the brain into thinking that estrogen
levels in the body are low." She explained that this is what leads to the extra stimulation
of the ovaries to encourage eggs to be released. One of the references for Clomid said
this happens because there is less negative feedback. Can you explain to me how this
"trick" and the decreased negative feedback are related? Why would these factors lead
to the stimulation of the ovaries?
Clomid interferes with the ability of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to measure the
rising estrogen levels that occur during the menstrual cycle. During the normal cycle the
rising estrogen levels produce negative feedback, which leads to a drop in LH and FSH
levels. Clomid prevents this from happening, so LH and FSH levels remain high. The
elevated levels of gonadotropins stimulate the ovaries and promote follicle
development.
My doctor told me that if I take Clomid, I would be taking it on days five through nine of
my normal menstrual cycle. She explained that this is when it will have the greatest
chances of stimulating the ovaries. What is going on during this part of the menstrual
cycle that would makes it the best time to take this drug?
During days five through nine of the menstrual cycle, the rising estrogen levels are
exerting negative feedback on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. This would
normally lead to a drop in LH and FSH levels. By taking Clomid during this time, this
negative feedback can be reduced and LH and FSH levels can remain high to stimulate
the ovaries. This stimulation leads to the development of mature follicles.
I read an article that mentioned that women on Clomid may be more likely to get
pregnant with twins, triplets, or more! The article said that normally there is a dominant
follicle that releases a single egg, but Clomid can potentially make lots of follicles
release an egg in a given month. How does Clomid do that?
Under the influence of rising LH and FSH levels, several follicles are allowed to develop
further at the start of the normal menstrual cycle. Not all of these follicles are in the
same stage of development. The more mature follicles begin producing estrogen. As
estrogen levels rise, negative feedback leads to a reduction in LH and FSH levels.
Follicles rely on a steady supply of FSH in order to continue their development. As FSH
levels begin to fall, only the most mature follicles can continue to develop because of
their increased sensitivity to this hormone. The less mature follicles will begin to
degenerate. Eventually, a single "dominant" follicle is all that remains and it will continue
to develop. Clomid reduces the negative feedback that normally leads to a drop in LH
and FSH levels, so even the less mature follicles can continue their development. This
leads to the possibility of multiple eggs being released and increases the risk of multiple
births.