Cytology 3 week Lecture

rd

September 19,2020

2.3MEIOSIS
Definition:
• Meiosis
-
is a special type of cell division necessary for
sexual reproduction in eukaryotes.

- The cells produced by meiosis are gametes

or spores. In many organisms, including all
animalsIn many organisms, including all
animals and land plantsI (but not some
other groups such as fungi), gametes are
called sperm and egg cells.

- -the type of cell division wherein gametes

form from special cells called germline
• Halves the amount of genetic material, so that
the full amount is restored when sperm
meets eggs.
Whilst the process of meiosis bears a number of similarities
with the 'life-cycle' cell division
process of mitosis, it differs in two important respects:
• Gametes-contain 23 different chromosome ,
constituting one copy of the genome.
• Somatic cells-contain 23 pairs or 46
chromosomes. One member of each pair comes
from the person’s mother and one from the
father. HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS
may have same genes in same order but
may carry different alleles or variants of the
Are diploid (2n)
same gene
-Gametes are Haploid –which means that they
have only one of each type of chromosome.

-Polypoid- genetically overloaded cell .w/o

meiosis , the sperm and oocyte would each
contain 46 chromosomes and the fertilize ovum
would have twice the normal # of chromosomes
(92)- do not develop to be born.
Meiosis
• Mixes up trait combinations,
• For example a person might produce a gamete
containing alleles encoding green eyes and
freckles yet another gamete with alleles
containing brown eyes and no freckles.

• This explains why siblings differ genetically

from each other and from their parents.

• As the mechanism of sexual reproduction

provides genetic diversity
Part of a series on
Evolutionary biology
Diagrammatic representation of the
divergencedivergence of modern taxonomic
groupsgroups from their common ancestor
Genetic Diversity-May enable a population to survive an
environmental challenge

Meiosis entails , two divisions of the genetic

material

I. Meiosis I, First division, Reduction division-

because it reduces the number of replicated
chromosomes from 46 to 23
- During meiosis, reduction division produces four haploid cells from
a single diploid cell. The parent cell contains replicated
chromosomes, but the four daughter cells contain unreplicated
chromosomes. While meiosis is part of the life cycle of many
organisms, it is not itself a cycle.
- The daughter cells produced by a reduction division are not
identical to the parent cells, as is the case in mitosis. The diagram
below provides an overview of the series of steps, or phases, that
are involved in a single meiotic division. Meiosis occurs only in
eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cell division occurs via binary fission.
• Meiosis II ,Second Division,
Equational Division-
produces four cells from the
two cells formed in the first
division by splitting the
replicated chromosomes
• -       The second meiotic
division is an equational
division because it does not
reduce chromosome
numbers. A nuclear division
that maintains the same
ploidy level of the cell
Interphase
• As in mitosis , meiosis
occurs after an
interphase period when
DNA is replicated
(doubled)
• For each chromosome
pair in the cell
undergoing meiosis , one
homolog come from the
person’s mother and one
from the father
Prophase I
• Prophase of Meiosis I
• Begins as the replicated
chromosomes condensed and
become visible when stained.
• Spindle forms
• Toward the middle of
Prophase I, the homologs line
up next to one another, gene
by gene, in an event called
synapsis.
• a mixture of RNA and protein hold
the chromosome pair together.
• At this time the homologs exchange
parts or crossover.
• All 4 chromatids that comprise
each homologous chromosome
pair are pressed together as
exchange occur.
• After crossing over each homolog
bear the genes from each parent.
• Prior to this ; all of the genes on a
homolog were derived from one
parent.
• New gene combination arise from crossing
over when the parents carry different alleles.
Toward the end of Prophase I the synapsed
chromosomes separate but remains attached
at a few points along their length
Metaphase I
• When the homologs align down the center of
the cell.
• Each member of a homolog pair attaches to a
spindle fiber at opposite poles
• The pattern in w/c the chromosomes align during
metaphase 1 is important in generating genetic
diversity
• For each homolog pair, the pole the maternally
or paternally derived member genes goes to is
random.
• For each homolog pair, the pole the maternally or
paternally derived members goes to is random
• The greater the number of
chromosomes, the greater the genetic
diversity generated at this stage.
• For 2 pairs of homologs, four(2)different
metaphase alignements are possible.For 3 pairs
of homologs eight (2 different alignments occur.)
• Independent assortment
- random alignment of chromosomes
- The fate of a gene on one chromosome is not
influenced by a gene on a different chromosomes
- Accounts for a basic law of inheritance.
- This principle states that the alleles for a trait
separate when gametes are formed. These allele
pairs are then randomly united at fertilization.
Mendel performed dihybrid crossesMendel performed dihybrid
crosses in plants that were true-breeding for two traits. For
example, a plant that had green pod color and yellow seed color
was cross-pollinated with a plant that had yellow pod color and
green seeds. In this cross, the traits for green pod color (GG) and
yellow seed color (YY) are dominant. Yellow pod color (gg) and
green seed color (yy) are recessive. The resulting offspring (Figure
A) or F1 generation or F1 generation were all heterozygous for
green pod color and yellow seeds (GgYy).
Anaphase I
• Homologs separate in this
phase and finish moving
to opposite poles
• Movements establish a
haploid set of still-
replicated chromosomes
at each end of the stretch
out cell
• Centromeres of each
homolog remains
together unlike in mitosis
• During a second interphase ,
chromosomes unfold into very thin threads.
• Proteins are manufactured , but DNA is not
replicated a second time. The single DNA
replication, followed by the double division of
meiosis ,halves the chromosome number
Prophase II
• Marks the start of the
second meiotic division
• Chromosomes are again
condensed and visible
Metaphase II

• The replicated
chromosomes
align down the
center of the cell
Anaphase II
• The centromeres
part and the
newly formed
chromosomes,
each now in the
unreplicated form
move to opposite
poles
Telophase II
• Nuclear envelope form
around the four nuclei
w/c then separate into
individual cells
The net result of meiosis is
four haploid cells, each
carrying a new assortment
of genes and chromosomes
that represent a single copy
of the genome
 Gamete Maturation

• Each type of gamete is Haploid, but different

distributions of other cell components create
their distinctions.
• The cells of the maturing male and female
proceed through similar stages but with sex-
specific terminology and different timetables.
• Male- begins manufacturing sperm at puberty
and continues throughout life whereas a
• Female –begins meiosis when she is a fetus.
Meiosis in the female completes only if a sperm
fertilizes an oocyte.
 Sperm formation
• Spermatogenesis-formation of sperm cells, begins in
a diploid stem cell called spermatogomiun.
• This cell divides mitotically, yielding 2 daughter cells. One
continues to specialize into a mature sperm. The other
daughter cell remains a stem cell, able to self –renew and
continually produce more sperm
• Bridges of cytoplasm attach several spermatogonia and their
daughter cells enter meiosis together . As these spermatogonia
mature, they accumulate cytoplasm and replicate their DNA,
becoming primary spermatocytes
• During reduction division (Meiosis I) each primary spermatocytes
divides, forming 2 equal sized haploid cells called secondary
spermatocytes.
Spermatogenesis- is
the process by which sperm
(the male sex cells, or gametes)
are formed. This happens in a
boy's testes, beginning at
puberty and continuing for the
rest of his life.

Spermatogenesis begins when

one of the spermatogonia cells
matures and grows to become
a primary spermatocyte. This
cell undergoes meiosis I to
produce two secondary
spermatocytes. After meiosis
II, four haploid spermatids
result. All four spermatids
continue to develop into
mature sperm.
• In Meiosis II each secondary spermatocyte
divides to yield 2 equal sized spermatids
• Each spermatid then develops the
characteristic sperm tail or flagellum. The base
of the tail has many mitochondria which will
split ATP molecules to release energy that will
propel the sperm inside the female
reproductive tract.
• After spermatid differentiation some of the
cytoplasm connecting the cells falls away,
leaving mature, tadpole-shaped spermatozoa
or sperm
• A sperm will travel about 18 cm (7 inches to
reach an oocyte.
• Each sperm cell consist of a tail, body or
midpiece, and a head region
• A membrane-covered area on the front end ,
the acrosome contains enzyme that help
the sperm cell penetrate the protective layers
around the oocyte.
• Within the large sperm head, DNA is wrapped
around proteins. The sperms DNA at this time
is genetically inactive.
• A male manufactures trillions of sperm in his
lifetime.
• Many will come close to the oocyte , very few
will actually touch one
• Meiosis in the male has built in protection that
help prevent sperm from causing some birth
defects.
• Spermatogonia that are exposed to toxins
tends to be so damaged that they never
mature into sperm
Oocyte formation
• Meiosis in the female is called Oogenesis (egg
making) with a diploid cell an Oogonium.
• Oogonia are not attached . Follicle cells surround
each oogonium.
• Each Oogonium grows, cytoplasm accumulates,
DNA replicates and the cell becomes a primary
oocyte.
• The ensuing meiotic division in oogenesis, unlike
the male pathway produce cells of different sizes.
• Meiosis I the primary oocyte divides into 2 cells a
small cell w/ very little cytoplasm, called a first Polar
Body and a much larger cell called Secondary
oocyte.
• Each cell is haploid w/ the chromosomes in replicated
form.
• In Meiosis II- the tiny first polar body may divide to
yield 2 polar bodies of equal size w/ unreplicated
chromosome or the first polar body may decompose
• The secondary oocyte divides unequally to produce
another small polar body w/ unreplicated chromosomes
and the mature egg cell or ovum which contains a large
volume of cytoplasm
• Most of the cytoplasm among the 4 meiotic
products in the female ends up in only one cell,
the ovum.
• The woman’s body absorbs the polar bodies w/c
normally play no other role in development.
• Rarely a sperm fertilizes a polar body and if
happens the woman’s hormones respond as if
she is pregnant but a disorganized clump of cells
that is not an embryo grows for a few weeks, and
then leaves the woman’s body. This event is a
type of miscarriage called a “blighted ovum”
• Before birth a female’s million or so oocytes
arrest in Prophase I (w/c means that when your
grandmother was pregnant with your mother the
oocyte that would be fertilized and become you
was already there).
• After puberty , Meiosis I continue in one or
several oocytes each month but halts again at
Metaphase II.
• In response to specific hormonal cues each
month one ovary releases a secondary oocyte
this event is Ovulation
• The oocyte drops into a uterine tube where
waving cilia move it towards the uterus
• Along the way , if a sperm penetrates the oocyte
membrane, then female meiosis completes and
fertilized ovum forms.
• If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized , it
degenerates and leaves the body in the
menstrual flow. Meiosis never completed.
• A female ovulates about 400 oocytes between
puberty and menopause, In mice even beyond
menopause during experiment.
• Most oocytes degrade because fertilization is so
rare.
• A sperm cell will continue to grow, divide and
specialize to eventually form a new individual.
THE END
MEIOSIS