SCIENCE 8

4th Quarter
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION AND GENETICS

GERRY M. ABELLA, LPT

Introduction
When you look at your parents, you can see features that you share with them, such as the shape
of the eye, the presence of dimples, or even the hand you use when you write. The sharing of features
can be explained by heredity, where traits are passed on from to offspring. Yet when you look at your
brothers and sisters, even if the same parents, each of you can be considered unique based on the
combination of traits each possess. That is variation, which demonstrates differences among individuals.

GENETICS-is the study of heredity and variation. It aims to understand how can be passed on to
the next generation and how variation arises.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-all living things contain what we call genetic material that serves as the set
of instructions that activities and functions of the cells.
Chromosomes-DNA bound with proteins and are organized as beads on strings to form chromosomes.

The number of chromosomes in a

cell is characteristics of the species
to which it belongings. For
example, humans have 46
chromosomes while rice have 12.
Table 1 summarizes the
chromosome numbers of some
common organisms

ORGANISM CHROMOSOME #
SACCHAROMYCES 32
CEREVISIAE
(COMMON YEAST)
CAENORHABDITES 12
ELEGANS (FRUIT
FLY)
DROSOPHILIA 8
MELONGASTER
(FRUIT FLY)
CANIS LUPUS 52
FAMILIARIS (DOG)
HOMO SAPIENS 46
(MAN)
ARABIDOPSIS 10
THALIANA (MOUSE
EAR CRESS)
THE CELL CYCLE

The chromosomes of a cell change form as the cell transitions from on stage to another in a typical
cell cycle. The cell may be divided in two stages: the interphase where the chromosomes are long and
extended and are also referred to as chromatin, and the cell division phase where the chromosomes
become condensed or thickened.

The type of cell division may vary depending on the types of cell and the reason why it is dividing.
Single-celled organisms, like bacteria, undergo reproduction by cell division called mitosis. Mitosis is also
the type of cell division where multicellular organisms undergo growth and development and when they
repair damage tissues.
The other type of cell division called Meiosis is used to produce sex cells, such as sperm and egg cells.
The entire cycle is divided into two main stages, INTERPHASE, and M-PHASE where M stands for either
mitosis or meiosis. The interphase further divided into three stages: G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase.

G1 (Growth 1) Phase

 The cell at this stage is still young and undergoes rapid growth.
 Organelles are formed
 Proteins are produced
 The longest phase in the most cells
 Cells that are not dividing (muscles and nerves) remain at this stage though out their life

S (Synthesis) Phase

 The DNA, the main composition of the chromosomes inside the nucleus of the cell, doubles at
this stage by a process called REPLICATION.
 At the end of this stage, each chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids attached at the
centromere.

G2 (Growth) Phase

 Preparation for cell division

 Assembly of proteins such as microtubules, hallow proteins fibers that cause the chromosomes to
move during cell division

M (Mitosis/Meiosis) Phase

 The cell undergoes division

 Division of the nucleus is called karyokinesis, while division of the cytoplasm is called
cytokinesis

Mitosis- is a type of cell division in which the nucleus of the cell divides into two nuclei with identical
genetic material. The resulting two daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes like the parent
cell, thus a diploid parent cell containing two set of chromosomes (paternal and maternal chromosome
sets) will result into diploid daughter cells after mitosis. Mitosis occurs ONLY in EUKARYOTES. Mitosis is
used by multicellular organisms for growth and development, repair of tissues, and in asexual
reproduction.

Prophase

 The long thread-like chromatids during interphase start to coil.

  Nuclear membrane disappears
 Spindle fibers are formed.
 Centrioles migrate at opposite poles.

Metaphase

 Chromosome move along the center of the cell called metaphase plate.
 Spindle fibers connect each chromosome on its centromere to the centrioles located at opposite
poles.

Anaphase

 The sister chromatids of each chromosome divide and move toward opposite poles due to the
shortening of the spindle fibers.

Telophase

 The chromatids (now called chromosomes) are located on opposite poles.

 Nuclear membrane forms around the chromosomes which start to uncoil.
 Spindle fibers dissolve and disappear

After division of the nucleus (karyokinesis), the cytoplasm will start to divide by cytokinesis. Cytokinesis
in animal cells and other cell walls starts at the exterior of the cell moving inwards until the cell is
divided into two cells. This process is called cleavage furrow formation.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division used by multicellular organisms in the formation of reproductive
cells(gametes-gametogenesis). Meiosis is a special type of cell division where the cell undergoes two
rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the chromosome number as the
original parent cell and with a unique set of genetic material because of exchange of chromosome
segments during the process of crossing over.

PROPHASE I- Meiosis starts with this stage and includes and includes the following sub-stages:
Leptotene- Each chromosome is made up of two long threads of sister chromatids as a result of
replication during S phase of the cell cycle.

Zygotene- the chromosomes begin to pair off, pairs of chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes, and this pairing process is exact.

Pachytene- the chromosome contract due to repeated coiling. Crossing over takes place during this
stage where a segment of a sister chromatid of one chromosome is exchanged with the same segment of
the sister chromatid of the homologous chromosome through the formation of cross-linkage of the
segments called chiasma.

Diplotene- The chromosome begins to uncoil.

Diakinesis- the paired chromosomes disperse in the nucleus

METAPHASE I-
 The paired homologous chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
 The chromosome in pair are attached to the spindle fiber.

ANAPHASE I

 Homologous chromosomes separate

 The chromosomes move toward opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fiber.

MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE II

 The nuclear membrane disintegrates

 In most organisms, the nuclear membrane forms. This is followed by cytokinesis.

METAPHASE II

 The chromosome aligns at the metaphase plate and are attached to their centromeres to the
spindle fibers.

ANAPHASE II

 Each chromosome is divided into two sister chromatids.

 The chromatids (now called chromosomes) move opposite poles.

TELOPHASE

 Nuclear membrane is formed around each set of chromosomes

 Spindle fibers disintegrates
 The cell undergoes cytokinesis.

Meiosis is the main event involved in the process of gamete formation called germatogenesis. Gamete
formation in males is called spermatogenesis, while gamete formation in females is called oogenesis.
Summary

1 Type of cell division which takes places during growth, repair and replacement.
2 Takes place in somatic cells.
3 Basis of asexual reproduction.
4 Daughter cells identical in chromosome number and genetic make-up at the parent cell.
Ensures consistency of genetic information in nuclei of cells of one individual.
5 Chromosomes don’t arrange themselves along equator in homologous pairs during
metaphase.
6 Chromatids separate at anaphase.

[NB. Plant - no centrosome, but a spindle forms as in animals]

RESULT

Four cells each with the haploid number chromosomes.

 Male - all four will develop into male gametes.

 Female - usually only one develops into female gamete. Produces gametes with varied combination
of genes by:

1 Crossing over

 Takes place when bivalents appear in prophase I. Chiasmata are formed and homologous
chromosomes exchange alleles.

 The homologous chromosomes later separate and end up in different gametes. As a result of
crossing over linked genes are parted and gametes with new genomes produced.

 Function of chiasmata mechanical as well as genetic. Holds the two homologous chromosomes
together while they manoeuvre themselves onto the spindle.

2 Random orientation of chromosomes

Separation of a pair of homologous chromosomes at anaphase I independent of the separation of other

pairs. As the chromosomes are orientated at random the alleles on one pair of homologous
chromosomes separate independently of the alleles on others. Because of random assortment a vast
permutation of genes is possible in the gametes.

Variation results from:

1 Chiasmata formation

2 Random positioning bivalents on equator at metaphase I

3 Random process which male gamete fertilises with female gamete.

SUMMARY
 Location - gonads.
 Reduction division - results in halving number chromosomes.
 Cell division involved in gamete production.
 Four daughter cells formed. Male - all four develop. Female - three abort, one develops.
 Two divisions occur.
 Chiasmata formation leading to crossing over occurs prophase I resulting in a mixing of genetic
material of the chromosomes.
 Metaphase I - bivalents arrange themselves on equator of cell. Results in further variation as
random which may position themselves.
 Anaphase I - chromosomes separate.
Daughter cells formed all genetically different from each other and parent cell
 THE CELL

CEL THEORY
 All living things are made up of cell
 Cell are the smallest working units of all living organisms
 All cells came from pre-existing cells

Proponents

1. Theodore Schwann- discovered cell in animals

2. Matthias Schleiden-discovered cell in plants

CELL PARTs

1. CYTOPLASM
 fills the cell interior
 It contains sugar, amino acids, proteins, organelles
 It protects cell, supports larger organism
 Gel-like mixture
 Surrounded by cell membrane

2. PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Double layer of lipids that separates cell from its surroundings and controls movement of
materials in and out of the cell.

3. RIBOSOME
 Protein factories made of RNA and proteins

4. NUCLEUS
 Control center of the cell
 Double membrane bound container for genetic DNA

5. NUCLEOLUS
 Nuclear structure for manufacturing ribosomes

6. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Membrane folded into compartments for manufacture of protein, and membrane components
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- Embedded with ribosomes
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- lack of ribosomes

7. Golgi Complex/bodies/apparatus
 Modifies and package lipids and proteins for exports, manufacture lysosome and vacuoles.

8. LYSOSOMES
 Membrane enclosed pockets of digestive enzymes.

9. VACUOLES
 Membrane bound packages of food, water, and other chemicals.

10. MITOCHONDRIA
 Double membrane organelles that produce energy by aerobic respiration
 Powerhouse of the cell

11. CHLOROPLAST
 Double membrane organelles that produce energy from synthesis

12. PLASTIDS
 Double membrane sacs that containing starch or pigments
 13. CYTOSKELETON
 Network of filaments that give cell shape, anchor organelles, enable movement of cell parts and
sometimes entire of the cell.

14. CILIA AND FLAGELLA

 Hair-like and whip-like appendages that move the cell the fluid or move fluid past cell.

15. CENTRIOLES
 Barrel shaped rings that produce cilia, flagella, and some cytoskeleton filaments.