2.

CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF INHERITANCE

DROSOPHILA AS A MATERIAL FOR EXPERIMENTAL GENETICS

y Thomas hunt morgan (the father of experimental genetics) selected fruitfly (drosophila
melanogaster) (the jackpot of genetics) as experimental material though it is small in size (2mm).
y Following advantages of drosophila-
y Its easily available hovering over ripe mango/banana fruits where it feeds over yeast cells present
over the fruit surface.
y The flies can be reared inside bottles having yeast culture over medium containing cream of wheat,
molasses and agar.
y A new generation can be raised within two weeks from single mating producing hundreds of
individuals.
y The animals can be temporarily inactivated with ether and examined by hand lens / dissection
microscope.
y Female is distinguishable from male by its larger size and ovipositor.
y The animals possess 4 pairs of chromosomes of different sizes, Y chromosome is hooked and easily
distinguished.
y Polytene chromosomes occur in salivary glands of larva which can indicate any type of
abnormality.
MORGAN
y Thomas hunt Morgan, an American geneticist and Nobel prize winner 1933 s considered as father
of experimental genetics for his work and discovery of linkage, crossing over, sex linkage, criss
cross inheritance, linkage maps, mutability of genes.
y He is considered fly man of genetics.
y He wrote the book the theory of gene.
y He discovered the basis for variations due to sexual reproduction.
y In 1910 he discovered linkage and differentiated between linked and unlinked gene.
y Morgan and castle in 1911 proposed chromosome theory of linkage showing that genes are located
in chromosomes and show linear order.
y The strength of linkage between genes increases with the decrease in distance between them.
y He proposed chaisma type hypothesis showing that chaismata causes crossing over.
y Morgan and Sturtevant (1911) found that frequency of crossing between two linked genes is
directly proportional to the distance between the two.
y 1% recombination is considered equal to 1 centi morgan (cM) or 1 map unit.
LINKAGE
y Linkage is the phenomenon of certain genes staying together during inheritance through
generations without any change or separation due to their being present on the same chromosome.
y Linkage was first suggested by Sutton and boveri. (1902- 1903).also gave chromosomal theory of
inheritance.
y In 1910 Morgan clearly proved and defined linkage on the basis of his breeding experiments in
fruitfly drosophila melanogaster. In 1911, Morgan proposed chromosome theory of linkage. It
states that-
y Linked genes occur on the same chromosome.
y They lie in a linear sequence in the chromosome.
y There is tendency to maintain the parental combinations of genes except for occasional cross
over's.

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y Strength of the linkage between two genes is inversely proportional to the distance between the two
i.e. two linked genes show higher frequency of crossing over if the distance between them is higher
and lower frequency if the distance is small.
LINKED GENES
y These genes are placed very closely on the chromosome an do not show independent assortment
at the time of gamete formation.
y They show dihybrid ratio of 3: 1.
y In dihybrid cross, they show test cross ratio of 1:1.
UNLINKED GENES
y These genes are located distantly and undergo assortment (segregation).
y Show dihybrid ratio of 9:3:3:1.
y Show test cross ratio of 1:1:1:1.
LINKED GENES
y Are those genes which occur on the same chromosome while unlinked genes are the ones found on
different chromosomes.
y Linked and unlinked genes can be easily known from breeding experiments.
TYPES OF LINKAGE
y Complete linkage.
y Incomplete linkage.
COMPLETE LINKAGE
y Morgan 1919.
y The genes located in the same chromosome do not separate and are inherited together over the
generations due to absence of crossing over.
y Complete linkage allows the combination of parental traits to be inherited as such.
y It is rare but has been reported in male drosophila and some other heterogametic individuals.
INCOMPLETE LINKAGE
y Genes present in the same chromosomes have a tendency to separate due to crossing over and
hence produce recombinant progeny besides the parental type.
y The number of recombinant individuals is usually less than the number expected in independent
assortment. In independent assortment all the four types (two parental types and two recombinant
types) are each 25%.
y In linkage each of two parental types is more than 25% while each of the recombinant types is less
than 25%.

KEY CONCEPTS
x A gene is a region of DNA within the chromosome.
x Each gene has a specific location on the chromosome.
x In humans, males have one X and one Y chromosome, and females have two X chromosomes.
x A specific gene on the Y chromosome is required for human embryos to develop as males.
x Unless they are located far from each other, genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited
together, or linked. Genes on different chromosomes are not linked.
x Homologous chromosomes that pair during meiosis can exchange genes in a process called
crossing-over.

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x The genotypes of offspring can be different from that of either parent as a result of crossing-over,
the random distribution of maternal and paternal chromosomes into gametes, and fertilization.
x Many inherited genetic disorders in humans are caused by mutations of single genes.
x A far smaller number of human genetic disorders are caused by abnormalities in chromosome
number or structure.
THE ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES IN INHERITANCE
x Mendel did not know what the physical properties of his “particles” were when he proposed his
laws of inheritance.
x August Weismann suggested that chromosomes (discovered in 1882) were the location of
hereditary material.
x Genes are located on chromosomes
x The idea that genes are located on chromosomes is known as the chromosome theory of
inheritance.
x Chromosomes are composed of a single DNA molecule and many proteins.
x The physical location of a gene on a chromosome is called a locus.
x Chromosomes that pair during meiosis and contain the same gene loci and structure are called
homologous chromosomes

AUTOSOMES AND SEX CHROMOSOMES

x Chromosomes that determine gender are called sex chromosomes; all other chromosomes are
called autosomes.
x Autosomes are homologous pairs.
x Sex chromosomes can be homologous or non-homologous pairs
x Sex determination in humans
x Human females have two X chromosomes, and all their gametes contain one X chromosome.
x Human males have one X and one Y chromosome; half their gametes contain an X chromosome,
and the other half contain a Y chromosome.
x The chromosome carried by the sperm determines sex in humans.
LINKAGE AND CROSSING-OVER
x Exceptions to the law of independent assortment
x Thomas Hunt Morgan discovered some genes that were inherited together in his research on fruit
flies
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance