Recombination and Linkage

Each human somatic cell contains two of each type of chromosome.  One chromosome
of each of the 23 pairs came from the mother and the other from the father. 
When gametes are produced (by meiosis), the paired homologous
chromosomes separate so that each gamete contains only one of the pair of alleles for
each trait.

Homologous chromosomes
separating in the production  
of sex cells

Which chromosome from each of the 23 homologous pairs of both parents is inherited is
a matter of chance.  There are 8,324,608 possible combinations of 23 chromosome
pairs.  As a result, two gametes virtually never have exactly the same combination of
chromosomes.  Each chromosome contains dozens to thousands of different genes. 
The total possible combination of alleles for those genes in humans is approximately
70,368,744,177,664.  This is trillions of times more combinations than the number of
people who have ever lived.  This accounts for the fact that nearly everyone,
except monozygotic twins, is genetically unique.

While homologous pairs of chromosomes are independently assorted in meiosis, the

genes that they contain are also independently assorted only if they are part of different
chromosomes.  Genes in the same chromosome are passed on together as a unit. 
Such genes are said to be linked.  For example, the "A" and "B" alleles (in the
illustration below) will both be passed on together if the lower chromosome is inherited. 
"A" and "B" are linked due to their occurrence in the same chromosome.  Similarly, "a"
and "b" are linked in the other chromosome.
 Genetic linkage continues
as homologous
chromosomes  
separate in the formation of
sex cells

Linked genes most likely account for such phenomena as red hair being strongly
associated with light complexioned skin among humans.  If you inherit one of these
traits, you will most likely inherit the other.

Genetic linkage of this sort can be naturally ended.  During the first division of meiosis,
sections near the ends of chromosomes commonly intertwine and exchange parts of
their chromatids with the other chromosome of their homologous pair.  This process of
sections breaking and reconnecting onto a different chromosome is called crossing-
over.  In the example shown below, "A" and "B" are unlinked by this process.

Crossing-over unlinks alleles

of genes as homologous
chromosomes separate in
 
the formation of sex cells

Crossing-over usually results in a partial recombination, or creation of combinations of

alleles in chromosomes not present in either parent.  For instance, the linkage between
red hair and light complexion can be broken if the chromosome breakage occurs
between the genes for these traits.  The further apart the genes are from each other in a
chromosome, the greater the likelihood that they will be unlinked as a result of crossing-
over.  Likewise, genes located closer to the ends, rather than the middle, of a
chromosome are more likely to be recombined during meiosis.  Subsequently, they are
more likely to vary from generation to generation.  As a consequence, it is probable that
they provide more new genetic combinations that can affect the outcome of natural
selection and the evolution of a population. 

Crossing-over does not produce new alleles.  Rather, it only exchanges existing alleles
between homologous chromosomes.

 
 Why Sex?
From an evolutionary perspective, the most important consequence of meiosis
and crossing-over is the rearrangement of genetic information.  It constantly
assures that each generation has significantly new genetic combinations from
which nature can select for winners and losers in the competition for survival. 
The more genetic variation existing in a population, the greater the chance it
will survive when there are stressful changes in the environment.  In other
words, there will more likely be some individuals who will have a genetic
combination that will allow them to survive changes such as major climate
shifts or new predators and diseases.  Those survivors will be the parents of
future generations.  This is very likely the reason that sexual reproduction was
so successful in the history of evolution on earth.  In contrast, organisms that
reproduce asexually do not have the advantage of extensively new genetic
combinations each generation.  They must rely on periodic mutations to
provide their variation.  Subsequently, they usually are less responsive to
rapid changes in their environments.  The short video linked below illustrates
this advantage of sex.
Recombination and Sex-Linked Genes.
When gametes (egg and sperm) form, chromosomes go through a process called
recombination. During recombination, homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange
stretches of DNA. Recombination makes new allele combinations, which can then be
passed to offspring.

What is the relation between linkage and recombination?

Linkage helps to keep certain genes together in the same chromosome whereas,
process of recombination mix genes between chromosomes. Linkage is a phenomenon
that can be seen in any type of cell. However, recombination is a process that occurs
during meiosis I.

Why is sex linkage important?

Biological Basis of Heredity: Sex Linked Genes. A particularly important category of
genetic linkage has to do with the X and Y sex chromosomes. ... In women, a
recessive allele on one X chromosome is often masked in their phenotype by a
dominant normal allele on the other.

How does sex linkage and crossing over?

Sex linkage shows that genes are found on chromosomes because a trait can be
inherited only if it is found on an X or Y chromosome and the individual receives that
mutated chromosome. Crossing over shows that genes are found on different
chromosomes because they can be inherited separately.

What is the difference between genetic recombination and crossing

over?
The crossing over occurs during the prophase 1 of meiosis 1. It facilitates thegenetic
recombination by exchanging the genetic information and producing new
combinations of alleles. ... This tight holding of the two homologous chromosomes
allows the exchange of genetic information between the two non-sister chromatids.Mar
20, 2017

Are linked genes on the same chromosome?

When two genes are close together on the same chromosome, they do not assort
independently and are said to be linked. Whereas genes located on
differentchromosomes assort independently and have a recombination frequency of
50%,linked genes have a recombination frequency that is less than 50%.
What is the meiotic process that results in genetic recombination?
Meiosis 2 occurs in each cell formed during meiosis 1 and is not preceded by copying
DNA. They have the same phases including: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Telophase, and Cytokinesis. Name the meiotic process that results in genetic
recombination. Crossing-over during prophase 1 results in genetic recombination.
What is an example of linked genes?
Genes that are located near each other on a chromosome are called linked genes.
They are linked because they travel together during meiosis. This means they get
packaged into the same gamete more often than not. The exception to this rule is when
recombination occurs and genes are swapped.

How do you know which genes are linked and unlinked?

In this case, inheritance of alleles at the two loci are independent. If the recombination
frequency is less than 50% we say the two loci are linked. Under most models of
meiosis, recombination frequencies cannot be larger than 50%. You can tell if
the genes are linked by looking at the offspring.

Are these genes linked or unlinked?

Unlinked genes may be on different chromosomes, or so far apart on the same
chromosome that they are often separated by recombination. If two genes are inherited
together more than 50% of the time, this is evidence that they are linkedon the same
chromosome.

What are gametes in biology?

Gametes are the cells used during sexual reproduction to produce a new individual
organism or zygote. The male gamete, sperm, is a smaller, mobile cell that meets up
with the much larger and less mobile female gamete, egg or ova. Both sperm and egg
are only haploid cells. They only carry half of the chromosomes needed.

What does a gamete do?

gamete. Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells. They are also referred to as
sex cells. Female gametes are called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called
sperm. Gametes are haploid cells, and each cell carries only one copy of each
chromosome.

What is the meaning of the allele?

An allele is one of a pair of genes that appear at a particular location on a particular
chromosome and control the same characteristic, such as blood type or color
blindness. Alleles are also called alleleomorphs. Your blood type is determined by
the alleles you inherited from your parents.
What is Gene and allele?
A gene is a stretch of DNA or RNA that determines a certain trait. Genes mutate and
can take two or more alternative forms; an allele is one of these forms of agene. For
example, the gene for eye color has several variations (alleles) such as an allele for
blue eye color or an allele for brown eyes.

What is the definition of a recessive allele?

n an allele that produces its characteristic phenotype only when its paired allele is
identical. Synonyms: recessive Type of: allele, allelomorph. (genetics) either of a pair
(or series) of alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same locus on a particular
chromosome and that control the same character.

meios

a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.

What is the process of meiosis?

The process results in four daughter cells that are haploid, which means they contain
half the number of chromosomes of the diploid parent cell. Meiosis has both similarities
to and differences from mitosis, which is a cell division process in which a parent cell
produces two identical daughter cells.

What are the 4 stages of meiosis?

The end result is production of four haploid cells (n chromosomes, 23 in humans) from
the two haploid cells (with n chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids)
produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of meiosis II are: prophase II, metaphase
II, anaphase II, and telophase II.

What is meiosis for?

Meiosis is the process whereby chromosomes are copied, paired up and separated to
create eggs or sperm. Credit: NIGMS. Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division that
produces reproductive cells, such as plant and fungal spores, sperm and egg cells. Oct
15, 2015

Somatic cells are any cell in the body that are not gametes (sperm or egg),
germ cells (cells that go on to become gametes), or stem cells. ... The word somatic comes
from the Greek word σὠμα (soma), which means body.
Are somatic cells diploid?
Like all cells, somatic cells contain DNA arranged in chromosomes. If a somatic
cell contains chromosomes arranged in pairs, it is called diploid and the organism is
called a diploid organism. (The gametes of diploid organisms contain only single
unpaired chromosomes and are called haploid.)

chromosomes
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells,
carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

Homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs

 (one from each parent) that are similar in length, gene position, and centromere location. The
position of the genes on eachhomologous chromosome is the same, however, the genes may
contain different alleles.Sep 27, 2018

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA.
Some genesact as instructions to make molecules called proteins. However, many genes do
not code for proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more
than 2 million bases.

What is the best definition of heredity?

First used in the 1530s, the noun heredity comes from the Latin word
hereditatem,meaning "condition of being an heir." It can refer to inheriting
characteristics from your parents, or it can refer more broadly to the passing on of
genetic factors from one generation to the next.

Heredity is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring, either through asexual
reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic
information of their parents. ... The study of heredity in biology is genetics.

What are examples of heredity?

Heredity is defined as the characteristics we get genetically from our parents and our
relatives before them. An example of heredity is the likelihood that you will have blue
eyes. An example of heredity is your possibility of having breast cancer based on
family history.
 What is the full meaning of DNA?
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) The abbreviation for "deoxyribonucleic acid," the primary
carrier of genetic information found in the chromosomes of almost all organisms. The
entwined double structure allows the chromosomes to be copied exactly during cell
division.

What is the purpose of DNA?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions for
the development and function of living things. All known cellular life and some viruses
contain DNA. The main role of DNA in the cell is the long-term storage of information.

What Are the 4 Types of DNA Monomers?

 Adenine. Adenine is one of the two purines within the nucleotide bases. ...
 Guanine. Guanine is the other purine nucleotide in DNA. ...
 Thymine. Thymine is a pyrimidine base that binds to adenine in the DNA
structure. ...
 Cytosine. Cytosine is also a pyrimidine base.

What is the role of DNA in reproduction?

Molecular reproduction. The sequence of bases in a DNA molecule serves as a code
by which genetic information is stored. Using this code, the DNA synthesizes one strand
of ribonucleic acid (RNA), a substance that is so similar structurally toDNA that it is also
formed by template replication of DNA.

Why do we need DNA?

Proteins form the structure of our bodies, as well playing an important role in the
processes that keep us alive. Genes are made of a chemical called DNA, which is short
for 'deoxyribonucleic acid'. The DNA molecule is a double helix: that is, two long, thin
strands twisted around each other like a spiral staircase.

What are the four main functions of DNA?

DNA contains only four bases, called A, T, C and G. The sequence of the nucleotides
along the backbone encodes genetic information. The four roles DNAplays are
replication, encoding information, mutation/recombination and gene expression.
How does reproduction occur in humans?

Reproduction in Human Beings. Reproduction in human beings is by
sexualreproduction where both the male and female gametes fertilize to give rise to an
embryo. The fertilization of human embryo occurs inside the body of the female. Thus,
it is called Internal Fertilization.
Why is it important to reproduce?
Reproduction is important for the survival of all living things. Without a mechanism
for reproduction, life would come to an end. There are two types of reproductionto
learn in elementary grades, asexual and sexual reproduction. ... Some
cellsreproduce by unequal division of the cells, this is called budding.

Human reproduction is any form of sexual reproduction resulting in human fertilization,

typically involving sexual intercourse between a man and a woman. During sexual intercourse, the
interaction between the male and female reproductive systems results in fertilization of the
woman's ovum by the man's sperm. These are specialized reproductive cells called gametes,
created in a process called meiosis. While normal cells contains 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, gamete
cells only contain 23 chromosomes, and it is when these two cells merge into one zygote cell
that genetic recombination occurs and the new zygote contains 23 chromosomes from each parent,
giving them 23 pairs. After a gestation period, typically for nine months, is followed by childbirth. The
fertilization of the ovum may be achieved by artificial insemination methods, which do not involve
sexual intercourse.

Human male
Further information: Human male reproductive system
The male reproductive system contains two main divisions: the testes where sperm are produced,
and the penis. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity. Having the testes
outside the abdomen facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific
temperatures to survive about 2-3 °C less than the normal body temperature i.e. 37 °C. In particular,
the extraperitoneal location of the testes may result in a 2-fold reduction in the heat-induced
contribution to the spontaneous mutation rate in male germinal tissues compared to tissues at 37 °C.
[1]
 If the testicles remain too close to the body, it is likely that the increase in temperature will harm
the spermatozoa formation, making conception more difficult. This is why the testes are carried in an
external pouch viz. scrotum rather than within the abdomen; they normally remain slightly cooler
than body temperature, facilitating sperm production.

Human female
Further information: Female reproductive system
The female reproductive system likewise contains two main divisions: the vagina and the Ovum.
The ovum meets with sperm cell, a sperm may penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it with
the help of certain hydrolytic enzymes present in the acrosome. The fertilization usually occurs in
the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus itself. The zygote then becomes implanted in the lining of
the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis and morphogenesis. When the fetus is
developed enough to survive outside of the uterus, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus
propel it through the birth canal, which is the vagina.
The ova, which are the female sex cells, are much larger than the spermatozoon and are normally
formed within the ovaries of the female fetus before its birth. They are mostly fixed in location within
the ovary until their transit to the uterus, and contain nutrients for the later zygoteand embryo. Over
a, usually, regular interval known as the menstrual cycle, in response to hormonal signals, a process
of oogenesis matures one ovum which is released and sent down the Fallopian tube. If not fertilized,
this egg is flushed out of the system through menstruation.

Process[edit]
"Coition of a Hemisected Man and Woman" (c. 1492) by Leonardo da Vinci.

Human reproduction normally begins with copulation, followed by nine months of pregnancy before
childbirth, though it may be achieved through artificial insemination. Many years of parental care are
required before a human child becomes independent, typically between twelve and eighteen or
more. Pregnancy can be avoided with the use of contraceptives such as condoms and Intrauterine
devices.

Copulation[edit]
Main article: Sexual intercourse
Human reproduction naturally takes place as internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this
process, the male inserts his penis, which needs to be erect, into the female's vagina, and then
either partner initiates rhythmic pelvic thrusts until the male ejaculates semen, which contains sperm,
into the vaginal canal. This process is also known as "coitus", "mating", "having sex",
or, euphemistically, "making love". The sperm and the ovum are known as gametes (each containing
half the genetic information of the parent, created through meiosis). The sperm (being one of
approximately 250 million sperm in a typical male ejaculation) travels through the vagina and cervix
into the uterus or Fallopian tubes. Only 1 in 14 million of the ejaculated sperm will reach the
Fallopian tube. The egg simultaneously moves through the Fallopian tube away from the ovary. One
of the sperm encounters, penetrates and fertilizes the ovum, creating a zygote.
Upon fertilization and implantation, gestation of the fetus then occurs within the female's uterus. [2][3][4][5]

Chance of fertilization by menstrual cycle day relative to ovulation.[6]

Pregnancy rates for sexual intercourse are highest during the menstrual cycle time from some 5
days before until 1 to 2 days after ovulation. [7]For optimal pregnancy chance, there are
recommendations of sexual intercourse every 1 or 2 days,[8] or every 2 or 3 days.[9] Studies have
shown no significant difference between different sex positions and pregnancy rate, as long as it
results in ejaculation into the vagina.[10]
As an alternative to natural sexual intercourse, there are many methods of assisted reproductive
technology, such as artificial inseminationwhere sperm is introduced into the female reproductive
system without sexual intercourse. Another method of assisted reproductive technology is in vitro
fertilization, where one or more egg cells are retrieved from a woman's ovaries and co-incubated
with sperm outside the body. The resulting embryo can then be reinserted into the woman's womb.

Pregnancy[edit]
Main article: Pregnancy
Pregnancy is the period of time during which the fetus develops, dividing via mitosis inside the
female. During this time, the fetus receives all of its nutrition and oxygenated blood from the female,
filtered through the placenta, which is attached to the fetus' abdomen via an umbilical cord. This
drain of nutrients can be quite taxing on the female, who is required to ingest slightly higher levels
of calories. In addition, certain vitamins and other nutrients are required in greater quantities than
normal, often creating abnormal eating habits. Gestation period is about 266 days in humans. While
in the uterus, the baby first endures a very brief zygote stage, then the embryonic stage, which is
marked by the development of major organs and lasts for approximately eight weeks, then the fetal

Birth

Newborn infant and mother

Main article: Childbirth
Once the fetus is sufficiently developed, chemical signals begin the process of birth, which begins
with the fetus being pushed out of the birthing canal. The newborn, which is called an infant in
humans, should typically begin respiration on its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta
eventually falls off on its own. The person assisting the birth may also sever the umbilical cord.