Chromosomes

How do chromosomes form?

As eukaryotic cells prepare to divide the

proteins associated with the DNA coil
into a structure called  Chromosomes.
Before the DNA is coiled up, the genetic
information is copied in the copied DNA.

The two exact

copies of DNA that make up the
chomosomes are are called chromatids.
The two chromatids of a chromosome
are 
attached at a point called the
centromere. The chromatids which
become separted during the cell divison
and placed into 
each new cell ensure that each new cell
willo have the same genetic information
as the original cell.
Sex Determination System

This is a system that determines

the sexual characteristics in a
living organism. Most organisms
have 
only 2 sexes. The sex is
determined by different alleles or
even different genes that specify
their sexual morphology.
The details of some sex-
determination systems are not yet
fully understood.
 
Autosomes

Is a type of chromosome that is

not a sex chromosome its there to
indicate that there are equal
number of 
copies of the chromosome in
males and females.
 Sex-linked genes and
traits
Scientist Thomas Hunt
Morgan hypothesized that the
gen for the eye color is carried
on the x chromosome and
that the y chromosome lacks
an allele for the eye color
gene. X chromosome carries a
gene for eye color.

In a cross of XRXR female

with an Xr y male, all of the F1
females will be XR Xr and all of
the F1 males will be XR y,
meaning white eyed.
 Morgan called genes located
on the x chromosome X-linked
genes and Y chromosomes he
called it y-linked genes. Sex
linked refers to a trait that is
coded for by an allele on a sex
chromosome. The x
chromosome is much larger
than the y chromosome, so
there are more x-linked traits
than y-linked traits. Because
males have only one X
chromosome, a male who
carries a recessive allele on
the X chromosome will exhibit
the sex-linked trait.
 Linked Genes
Linked genes are the genes that tend to be
inherited together . A set of linked genes
are called linkage group. When genes occur
on the same chromosome, they are usually
inherited as a single unit.
Morgan, a scientist, found out genes are
linked because they are found in the same
chromosome. They are physically attached
to one another, where one genes goes so
does the other.
 The farther apart two
genes are located in a
chromosome, the more
likely a cross-over will
occur.
Chromosome mapping is
the assignment of genes
to specific locations on a
chromosome.
Researchers conduct
breeding experiments
and use results to
compare in a
chromosome map.
Mutations
A mutation is a change in the
nucleotide-base sequence of the
gene or DNA molecule.

Germ – cell mutations occur in gametes, and even

though they may not affect the organism it may
be passed onto the offspring.

Somatic-cell mutation take place in the body’s

organism and can therefore affect the organism.
They can not be inherited.

Lethal mutations cause death, often before birth. Skin cancer is an expample of
Some mutations, however, can result benefitial to somatic-cell mutation.
the organism.
 Chromosome
mutations

Chromosome mutations involve

changesin the structure of the
chromosome.

Deletion: in deletion, a chromosome

breaks and some genetic material is
lost.

Inversion: inversion occurs when a

chomosome breaks in two places
and the resulting piece of DNA is
reversed and re-inserted into the
chromosome.
Nondisjunction: a
chromosome fails to sparate
from its homologue during
meoisis, so one gamete
recieves an extra copy of the
chromosome while the other
gamete recieves no copies.
-Point Mutation: is the substitution, removal, or addition of a single
nucleotide that occurs within a single gene or DNA segment.
- Substitution: one nucleotide replaces another.
- Frameshift mutation: is the incorrect grouping of the remaining codons.
-Insertion Mutation: one or more nucleotides are added to the gene.

GENE MUTATIONS