Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

Lecture 5

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 Learning Objective & Outcome
• Objective:
– To apply the key concepts in cell cycle and sexual
life cycles
• Outcome: Successful students will be able to
– To relate cell division to its regulations, as well as
to the phases of the cell cycles involving mitosis
and/or meiosis in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
genomes.

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 Inheritance of Genes
• Genes are passed from parents to their offspring &
become the genetic link between parents & their
offspring
– Genes are translated into specific enzymes & proteins that
give rise to an organism’s inherited traits
– The genetic information is passed on in the form of specific
DNA nucleotide sequence  precise replication of DNA
produces copies of genes
• Reproductive cells called gametes carry the genes &
upon fertilization, the genes of both parents are passed
to their offspring
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 Inheritance of Genes
• In the nucleus of eukaryotes, DNA & associated
proteins are packaged into chromosomes
• Hundred to thousand of genes are found along
one chromosome; each is a specific sequence
of nucleotides
• This specific location of gene along a
chromosome is called the gene’s locus (plural;
loci)

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 Comparison of Asexual & Sexual
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
• A single parent that passes copies of ALL of its genes to
its offspring
• Hence, offspring are exact copies of the parent
individual
• Both single-celled & multicellular eukaryotic organisms
are capable of reproduce asexually in which DNA is
copied, allocated equally to 2 daughter cells & give rise
to a clone
• If mutation occur, it will give rise to variation
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 Comparison of Asexual & Sexual
Reproduction
Sexual reproduction
• Two parents involve in giving rise to offspring
that consist of a unique combination of genes
inherited from the two parents
• Genetically vary among the offspring and to
their parents  variations; not exact replicas

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 Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
• Life cycle refers to the generation-to-generation
sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an
organism, from conception to production of its own
offspring
• In human, each somatic cell contains 46 chromosomes
– (Somatic cell refers to any cell in a multi-cellular organism
except a sperm or egg cell)
• During mitosis, these chromosomes condensed &
become visible under light microscope; microscopic
examination allow the chromosomes to be distinguish
from one another
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 Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
• Karyotype
– (= A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged
by size & shape)
– Homologous chromosome / homolog refer to a pair of
two chromosomes which has the same length,
centromere position, & staining pattern; each
chromosome of a pair carries the genes controlling the
same inherited characters
– In medical, it is used to screen for abnormal numbers of
chromosomes / defective chromosomes associated with
certain congenital disorders
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 Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

Karyotypes are prepared from

isolated somatic cells that are treated
with a drug to stimulate mitosis &
then grown in culture for several
days. Cells arrested in metaphase are
stained & then viewed with a
microscope equipped with a digital 9
camera.
 Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
• However, there are two distinct chromosomes found
in human somatic cells: X & Y chromosomes
– Females: a homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX)
– Males: XY; only small parts of X & Y chromosomes are
homologous; most genes on X chromosome do not have
counterparts on Y chromosome & Y chromosome carries
genes not found on the X
– They are known as the sex chromosomes which determine
an individual’s sex
– The rest of the chromosomes in a human somatic cell are
called autosomes

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 Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

• Human somatic cells inherited a maternal set

(n = 23 chromosomes) & a paternal set (n = 23
chromosomes) from each parent which give
rise to the total of 46 chromosomes (2n)
– n: number of chromosomes from a single set of
chromosomes
– 2n: diploid number of chromosomes found in a
diploid cell (= any cell with two chromosome sets)
– Human somatic cells are diploid cells (2n = 46)

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Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
Figure 13.4 Describing chromosomes.
After chromosome replication &
condensation, the cell has a diploid
number of 6 (2n=6)
Each of the 6 chromosomes here
consists of two sister chromatids
associated closely along their lengths
Each homologous pair is composed of
1 chromosome from the maternal set
(red) & the paternal set (blue)
Each set is made up of 3 chromosomes
(n=3)
Non-sister chromatids are any two
chromatids in a pair of homologous
chromosomes that are not sister
chromatids
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 Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

• However, gametes (sperm & eggs) are haploid

cells
– i.e. they contain only haploid number of
chromosome, n
– In human, gametes contain only a single
chromosome set, i.e. set of 23 = 22 autosomes + a
single sex chromosomes (X chromosome for
unfertilized egg; either X or Y chromosome for a
sperm)

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Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human
Life Cycle
• A human life cycle begins when a haploid sperm (from
father) fertilized a haploid egg (from mother) in the
process called fertilization which involves the fusion of
the nuclei
• The fertilized egg / zygote is diploid in which the union
of gametes (two haploid sets of chromosomes) restore
the diploid number of chromosome
• As the zygote / organism grows & develops, mitosis of
zygote generate somatic cells which contain diploid
number of chromosomes
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Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human
Life Cycle

Figure 13. 5 The human life

cycle.
The number of chromosome
sets double at fertilization in
each generation
The number of chromosome
sets is halved during meiosis
E.g. in human, the number of
chromosome in haploid cell is
23 (n=23); the number of
chromosome in diploid zygote
& all somatic cells arising from
it is 46 (2n=46)
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Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human
Life Cycle
• However, another type of cell division known
as meiosis takes place in the germ cells of
sexually reproducing organisms
• During meiosis, the number of sets of
chromosomes is halved
– Upon fertilization, the diploid number is restored
again with the union of two haploid sets of
chromosomes

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 Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
• The life cycle of sexually reproducing
organisms alternate between meiosis and
fertilization
• Generally it can be grouped into 3 depending
on the difference in timing of the two events:
– Human & most animals
– Plants & some algae
– Most fungi & some protists

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 Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
• In human & most animals:
– Meiosis in germ cells
produce gametes (the only
haploid cells, n) with NO
any further cell division
prior to fertilization
– After fertilization, the
diploid zygote (2n) divides
by mitosis to produce a
multicellular organism that
is diploid (2n)

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Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
• Plants & some algae:
– Experience alternation of
generations that have both diploid &
haploid stages in multicellular form
– The multicellular diploid stage called
sporophyte undergoes meiosis,
producing haploid spores which
divide mitotically to generate a
multicellular haploid stage called
gametophyte
– Cells of gametophyte undergo
mitosis to produce gametes
(haploid); two gametes fused during
fertilization result in a diploid zygote
that enters the next sporophyte
generation 19
 Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
• In fungi & some protists
– When gametes fuse & form a
diploid zygote, meiosis follows to
produce haploid cells
– Haploid cells divide mitotically &
give rise to either unicellular
descendants or a haploid
multicellular adult organism
– Haploid organism further divide by
mitosis, producing cells that develop
into gametes
– The single-celled zygote is the only
diploid stage found in these species

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 Meiosis Reduces Number of Chromosome
Sets
• Meiosis begins with the replication of
chromosomes and consists of two consecutive
cell divisions – meiosis I and meiosis II that
result in 4 daughter cells (each contains half
the chromosome number of the parent cell)

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 Meiosis Reduces Number of Chromosome
Sets
• Figure 13.7 Overview of
meiosis:
– In this diagram, only one pair
of homologous chromosome
at interphase is shown at the
condensed state (which
normally do not condensed
during interphase)
– Chromosomes replicate
during interphase, follow by
dividing twice to yield 4
daughter cells

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 States of Meiosis
• Meiosis is separated into two divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II

Meiosis I (separating Meiosis II (separating sister

homologous chromosomes) chromatids)

Prophase I Prophase II
Metaphase I Metaphase II
Anaphase I Anaphase II
Telophase I & Cytokinesis Telophase II & Cytokinesis
• Stages of meiosis in animal cell (2n=6) are shown in Figure 13.8

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Meiotic Division – Meiosis I

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis I (Glossary)
• Crossing over
– = The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between non-sister
chromatids during prophase I of meiosis
• Chiasma (chiasmata)
– = The X-shaped, microscopically visible region where homologous
non-sister chromatids have exchanged genetic material through
crossing over during meiosis, the two homologs remaining
associated due to sister chromatid cohesion
• Synapsis
– = The pairing & physical connection of replicated homologous
chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis I
Prophase I
– Chromosomes condense, homologous
chromosomes loosely pair along their
lengths, aligned gene by gene
– Paired homologs occurs between non-
sister chromatids; homologs in
synapsis are held tightly along the
lengths by proteins
– At mid-prophase, synapsis completes
& chromosomes in each pair move
apart slightly

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis I
Prophase I
– One/more chiasmata is found on the
homologous pair; homologs are still
associated due to the cohesion between
sister chromatids (sister chromatid
cohesion)
– Centrosomes movement, formation of
spindle & breaks down of nuclear
envelope occur (as in mitosis)
– At late prophase I, microtubules extend
from the opposite poles attach to the
two kinetochores at the centromeres of
both homologs
– Homologs move toward metaphase plate
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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis I
Metaphase I
– Pairs of homologous chromosomes
arrange at metaphase plate with each
chromosome of a pair faces the
opposite pole
– Kinetochore microtubules attach to
both chromatids of one homolog
extending from one pole; the other
homolog is also attached by
kinetochore microtubules extending
from the opposite pole

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis I
Anaphase I
– Proteins responsible for sister
chromatid cohesion along chromatid
arms break down
– This enables the homologous pairs to
separate; homologs move toward
opposite poles along the spindle
– Sister chromatid cohesion remains at
the centromere causes the chromatids
to move as a unit toward the same
pole

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis I
Telophase & Cytokinesis
– Each half of the cell has a complete
haploid set of chromosomes
– Each chromosome composes of 2 sister
chromatids (one/both may include
regions of non-sister chromatid DNA)
– Cytokinesis occurs simulatenously with
telophase I to form 2 haploid daughter
cells
– Cytokinesis of animal cells: a cleavage
furrow forms
– Cytokinesis of plant cells: a cell plate
forms
– No replication between meiosis I & II
(chromosome already replicated)
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Meiotic Division – Meiosis II

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis II
Prophase II
– A spindle apparatus forms
– In late prophase II, chromosomes
(with the two chromatids still
associated at the centromere) move
toward the metaphase II plate

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis II
Metaphase II
– Chromosomes (each with two
sister chromatids) positions on
the metaphase plate
– Two sister chromatids of each
chromosome are not genetically
identical due to crossing over
that occurred in meiosis I
– Microtubules extending from
opposite poles attach to the
kinetochores of sister
chromatids

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis II
Anaphase II
– Proteins that held the sister
chromatids at the centromere
breaks down
– Chromatids separate & move
toward opposite poles
– Each chromatid is an individual
chromosome

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 Meiotic Division – Meiosis II
Telophase II & Cytokinesis
– Nuclei form, chromosomes
decondense, cytokinesis begins
– Meiosis of 1 parent cell gives rise
to 4 haploid daughter cells (each
with a haploid set of
chromosome); they are
genetically distinct from one
another as well as from the
parent cell

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 Comparison of Mitosis & Meiosis
Meiosis Mitosis

•Halves the number of •Chromosome number is

chromosome sets from diploid to conserved; daughter cells are
haploid; produces daughter ells genetically identical to the
that are genetically different parent cell & each other
from parent cell & each other
•Meiosis I  reductional division;
halves the number of
chromosome sets per cell
•Meiosis II  equitional division;
sister chromatids separate,
produce haploid daughter cell;
virtually identical to mitosis

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37
Comparison of Mitosis & Meiosis

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 Comparison of Mitosis & Meiosis
• In addition, there are 3 unique events occur
during meiosis I
(i) Synapsis & crossing over
(ii) Homologs on the metaphase plate
(iii) Separation of homologs

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 Comparison of Mitosis & Meiosis
(i) Synapsis & crossing over
– During prophase I, synapsis occurs in which replicated
homologs pair up & physically connected along their lengths
by a synaptonemal complex (a zipper-like protein structure)
– Crossing over completes during prophase I in which the
genetic rearrangement between non-sister chromatids occur
– The synaptonemal complex disassembles during late
prophase I, the two homologs pull apart slightly but remain
connected at 1/more X-shaped region called a chiasma
(chiasmata) as the sister chromatid cohesion holds the two
original sister chromatids together
– Do not happen during mitosis
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 Comparison of Mitosis & Meiosis
(ii) Homologs on the metaphase plate
– During metaphase I of meiosis, pairs of
homologous chromosomes are arranged on the
metaphase plate
– However, the individual chromosomes are
positioned during metaphase of mitosis

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 Comparison of Mitosis & Meiosis
(iii) Separation of homologs
– Sister chromatids attach along their lengths by cohesins
– During metaphase I of meiosis, homologs are held by
cohesion along sister chromatids arms (with DNA segments
exchanged)
– During anaphase I of meiosis, the cohesins are cleaved that
allow the homologs (replicated) to move toward opposite
poles with the sister chromatids of each replicated
chromosomes still remain connected
– During anaphase II of meiosis, cohesins are cleaved at the
centromeres in which the chromatids separate
– However, sister chromatids separate during anaphase of
mitosis 42
 Genetic Variation In Sexual Life Cycles
Contributes to Evolution
• In sexually reproduce species, there are 3
mechanisms occur during meiosis &
fertilization which contribute to the genetic
variation among offspring:
1. Independent assortment of chromosomes
2. Crossing over
3. Random fertilization

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 Genetic Variation In Sexual Life Cycles
Contributes to Evolution
1. Independent assortment of chromosomes
– At metaphase I of meiosis, homologous chromosome pairs (1
maternal & 1 paternal) are positioned in a random orientation
at metaphase I plate
– Each pair is oriented randomly with either its maternal or
paternal homologs closer to one pole
– 50% chance that the daughter cell has maternal chromosome
of a certain homologous pair & 50% chance that it has the
paternal chromosome
– i.e. each homologous pair of chromosomes independently
assorted its paternal & maternal homologs into daughter cell of
every other pair  Independent assortment

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 Genetic Variation In Sexual Life Cycles
Contributes to Evolution
1. Independent assortment of chromosomes
– Each daughter cell represents the possible combinations of
maternal & paternal chromosomes
– According to independent assortment, the number of
possible combinations during meiosis is 2n (n = haploid
number)
– For instance, in human where n = 23, number of possible
combinations in which each chromosome is sorted
independently during meiosis = 223
– i.e. each gamete has 1/8.4 million of possible combinations
of chromosomes inherited from two parents

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 Genetic Variation In Sexual Life Cycles
Contributes to Evolution
1. Independent assortment of chromosomes

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 Genetic Variation In Sexual Life Cycles
Contributes to Evolution
2. Crossing over
– In human averagely, 1-3 crossover takes place per chromosome
pair during meiosis; depending on the size of chromosomes &
the positions of centromeres)
– During early prophase I, homologous chromosomes are paired
loosely along their lengths in which each gene on one homolog
is aligned precisely to its corresponding allele on the other
homolog;
– Specific proteins direct the exchange between segments of two
non-sister chromatids of each homologous pair during crossing
over which results in recombinant chromosomes that carry
genes derived from both parents

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1 1. In prophase I, synapsis &
crossing over occur; then
2
homologs move apart
slightly.
2. Chiasmata & attachments
3 between sister chromatids
hold homologs together;
they move to the
metaphase I plate.
3. Breakdown of proteins
holding sister chromatid
arms together allows
homologs with recombinant
chromatids to separate.

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 Genetic Variation In Sexual Life Cycles
Contributes to Evolution
3. Random fertilization
– In humans, each gamete (male & female) is equals
to a 1/8.4 billion (223 ) possible combination of
chromosomes due to independent assortment
– When a male gamete fuses with a female gamete
during fertilization, zygote that forms represents a
possibility of about 70 trillion (223 x 223) diploid
combinations
– Conclusion: Each one of us is truly unique

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 Variation in Traits
• Darwin realized that in any population, some
individuals have traits that make them better suited
to their environment than others – and those traits
might enhance the individual’s ability to survive and
reproduce (fitness)

• Adaptive traits (adaptations) that impart greater

fitness to an individual would become more common
in a population over generations, compared with less
competitive forms
 Natural Selection
• Darwin considered the way humans select desirable
traits in animals by selective breeding (artificial
selection)
• Darwin called the process in which environmental
pressures result in the differential survival and
reproduction of individuals of a population natural
selection
• Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which
laid out the theory of evolution by natural selection