Topic 4 :

Cell Division II

Sexual Life
Cycle and
Meiosis
Reading Material

Text Book:
Campbell, N. A., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P.
V., & Reece, J. B. (2017). Biology: A Global Approach, ePub, Global
Edition, 11/e (11th Edition). Pearson International
Content. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781292234939

Chapter 13: Sexual Life Cycles and Meiosis

13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes p. 305
13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles p. 306
13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid p. 309
13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution p. 315
Course Learning Outcomes
CLO-4 : Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis, and cell cycle regulation.

Learning Objectives
1. Understand that cell division functions in reproduction.
2. Recognize the process of inheritance in sexual reproduction.
3. List the stages of meiosis and understand its role in maintaining the
chromosome number.
4. Understand how meiosis contributes to genetic diversity.
Vocabulary
− Heredity
For Vocab Self-Quiz, check the following
− Variation
link :
− Genetics
− Haploid https://media.pearsoncmg.com/intl/ge/2017/ge_campbell_bi
ology_11/msa/vocab/flashcards.php
− Diploid
− Genotype- genes Select “chapter 13”  Select “Create Deck”
− Phenotype- traits/physical appearance
− DNA
− Chromosome
− Mutation
− Allele
Offspring Acquire Genes from Parents by Inheriting Chromosomes (p; 304-
305)

– Living organisms are distinguished by their

ability to reproduce their kind

– Heredity is the transmission of traits from

one generation to the next

– Variation is shown by the differences in

appearance that offspring show from
parents and siblings

– Genetics is the scientific study of heredity

and variation

– In a literal sense, children do not inherit

particular physical traits from their parents

– It is genes that are actually inherited

Inheritance of Genes (p; 305)

• Genes are the units of heredity and are made up of segments of DNA

• Genes are passed to the next generation via reproductive cells called
gametes (sperm and eggs)

• Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes

• Humans have 46 chromosomes in their somatic cells, all cells of the body
except gametes and their precursors

• A gene’s specific position along a chromosome is called the locus

Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction (p; 305)
Asexual reproduction:
– Only from one parent cell passes all of its
genes to its offspring without the fusion
of gametes
– Offspring cells are genetically identical
to the parent cell

Sexual reproduction:
– Two parents give rise to offspring
– Offspring are genetically different from
one another and from the parents

A clone is a group of genetically

identical individuals from the same
parent
Binary Fission in Bacteria (Asexual Reproduction) (p; 292-293)

– Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) Origin of Cell wall

reproduce by a type of cell division called replication Plasma
binary fission (Asexual form of membrane
E. coli cell
reproduction) Bacterial
1 Chromosome chromosome
replication Two copies
begins. of origin
– In binary fission, the chromosome
replicates (beginning at the origin of
replication, Ori), and the two daughter 2 One copy of the Origin Origin
chromosomes actively move apart origin is now at
each end of the
cell.
– The plasma membrane pinches inward,
3 Replication
dividing the cell into two
finishes.

– No mitotic spindle formation

4 Two daughter
– DNA replication happens at the same time cells result.
Sexual Reproduction

–Two parents give rise to offspring that have

unique combinations (variation) of genes
inherited from the two parents

–This is because of sexual reproduction

–DNA is arranged in chromosomes

–Different species have different numbers of

chromosomes

–This needs a special cell called gametes

which are haploid
Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells (p; 306 - 307)

• Human somatic cells are diploid cells because have 23

pairs (2n) of chromosomes (a total of 46 chromosomes);
 22 + 22 = are autosomal chromosomes
 1 + 1 are sex chromosome;
Human females (XX)
Human males (XY)

• Human gamete cells (sperm or egg) are haploid, which

means have 23 chromosomes (1n);
 22 autosomal chromosomes
 1 single sex chromosome
 In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex chromosome is X
 In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be either X
or Y

• A karyotype is an ordered display of the pairs of

chromosomes from a cell
Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells (p; 306 - 307)

• During DNA synthesis in a cell, each

chromosome is replicated

• Each replicated chromosome

consists of two identical sister
chromatids

• The two chromosomes in each pair

are called homologous
chromosomes, or homologs

• Homologs are the same length and

shape and carry genes controlling
the same inherited characters
Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle (p; 307-308)

Figure 13.5 The human life cycle.

• Fertilization is the union of gametes Key Haploid gametes (n = 23)
(the sperm and the egg) Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Egg (n)

• The fertilized egg is called a zygote

and has one set of chromosomes Sperm (n)
from each parent (2n = 46 MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
chromosomes)

Ovary Testis
• Gametes (sperm and egg) are the
only types of human cells produced Diploid
zygote
by meiosis, while somatic cells are (2n = 46)
produced by mitosis Mitosis and
development

Multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)
Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle (p; 307-308)

Figure 13.6 Three types of sexual life cycles.

• Gametes are the only haploid cells

in animals

• They are produced by meiosis and

undergo no further cell division
before fertilization

• Gametes fuse to form a diploid

zygote that divides by mitosis to
develop into a multicellular
organism
The Stages of Meiosis (p; 309-311)

Figure 13.7 Overview of meiosis

• Chromosomes duplicate during interphase Interphase
Pair of
homologous
• The resulting sister chromatids are closely chromosomes
in diploid
associated along their lengths. This is called parent cell
Chromosomes
sister chromatid cohesion Pair of duplicated
homologous
duplicate
chromosomes

• The chromatids are sorted into four haploid Sister

chromatids
Diploid cell with
duplicated
daughter cells, and this is carried out chromosomes
Meiosis I
through meiosis which takes place in two 1
stages: Homologous
chromosomes
• Meiosis I Separating out the homologous separate
Haploid cells with
pairs into 2 separate cells duplicated chromosomes
Meiosis II
• Meiosis II: Separating out the sister 2 Sister chromatids
separate
chromatids in each cell to produce 4
haploid cells.
Haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes
Course Learning Outcomes
CLO-4 : Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis, and cell cycle regulation.

Learning Objectives
1. Understand that cell division functions in reproduction.
2. Recognize the process of inheritance in sexual reproduction.
3. List the stages of meiosis and understand its role in maintaining the
chromosome number.
4. Understand how meiosis contributes to genetic diversity.
Figure 13.8 Exploring Meiosis in an Animal Cell The Stages of Meiosis
(p; 309-311)
The Stages of Meiosis – Meiosis I (p; 309-311)
The Stages of Meiosis – Meiosis II (p; 309-311)
Crossing Over and Synapsis During Prophase I (p; 312)

• After interphase, the sister chromatids are held together by proteins called cohesins

• The non-sister chromatids are broken at precisely corresponding positions

• A zipper-like structure called the synaptonemal complex holds the homologs

together tightly

• DNA breaks are repaired, joining DNA from one non-sister chromatid to the
corresponding segment of another
Crossing Over and Synapsis During Prophase I (p; 312)

Figure 13.9 Crossing over and synapsis in prophase I : a closer look

Product of Meiosis

• Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm

• At the end of meiosis, there are four

daughter cells, each with a haploid set
of unreplicated chromosomes

• Each daughter cell is genetically distinct

from the others and from the parent cell.

• Note: No chromosome replication occurs

between the end of meiosis I and the
beginning of meiosis II because the
chromosomes are already replicated in
Interphase
A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis (p; 312-314)

• Mitosis conserves the number Figure 13.10 A comparison of mitosis and meiosis
of chromosome sets,
producing cells that are
genetically identical to the
parent cell

• Meiosis reduces the number

of chromosomes sets from
two (diploid) to one
(haploid), producing cells
that differ genetically from
each other and from the
parent cell
A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis (p; 312-314)

SUMMARY
Mitosis (occurs in both diploid and
Property Meiosis (can only occur in diploid cells)
haploid cells)
DNA replication Occurs during interphase before mitosis begins Occurs during interphase before meiosis I begins

Number of divisions One, including prophase, Two, each including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
prometaphase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
Synapsis of Does not occur Occurs during prophase I along with crossing over between nonsister
homologous chromatids; resulting chiasmata hold pairs together due to sister
chromosomes chromatid cohesion

Number of daughter Two, each genetically identical to the Four, each haploid (n); genetically different from the parent cell
cells and genetic Parent cell, with the same number of and from each other
composition chromosomes

Role in the animal or Enables multicellular animal or plant Produces gametes (in animals) or spores (in the sporophyte plant);
plant body (gametophyte or sporophyte) to arise reduces the number of chromosomes sets by half and
from a single cell; produces cells for growth, Introduces genetic variability among the gametes or spores
repair, and, in some species, asexual
reproduction; produces gametes in the
gametophyte
plant
Enjoy Learning About Cell Division =)

Meiosis
A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis (p; 312)

Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur in meiosis l;
1. Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I: Homologous chromosomes
physically connect and exchange genetic information
2. Homologous pairs at the metaphase plate
3. Separation of homologs during anaphase I
Course Learning Outcomes
CLO-4 : Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis, and cell cycle regulation.

Learning Objectives
1. Understand that cell division functions in reproduction.
2. Recognize the process of inheritance in sexual reproduction.
3. List the stages of meiosis and understand its role in maintaining the
chromosome number.
4. Understand how meiosis contributes to genetic diversity.
Genetic Variation Produced in Sexual Life Cycle Contributes to
Evolution (p; 315)

How do we account for the genetic variation of the family members in?

• Mutations (changes in an
organism’s DNA) are the original
source of genetic diversity

• Mutations create different

versions of genes called alleles

• Reshuffling of alleles during

sexual reproduction produces
genetic variation
Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring (p; 315)

The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is responsible

for most of the variation that arises in each generation.

Three mechanisms contribute to

genetic variation:
1. Independent assortment of
chromosomes
2. Crossing over
3. Random fertilization
1. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes (p; 315)

• Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis

• In independent assortment, each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal

homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs

• The number of combinations

possible when chromosomes
assort independently into
gametes is 2n, where n is the
haploid number

• For humans (n = 23), there are

more than 8 million (223) possible
combinations of chromosomes
2. Crossing Over (p; 315-316)

• Crossing over produces recombinant

chromosomes, which combine DNA inherited
from each parent

• Crossing over contributes to genetic

variation by combining DNA from two
parents into a single chromosome

• In humans, an average of one to three

crossover events occurs per chromosome
3. Random Fertilization (p; 316)

• Random fertilization adds to genetic variation because any

sperm can fuse with any ovum (unfertilized egg)

• The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4 million possible

chromosome combinations from independent assortment)
produces a zygote with any of about 70 trillion diploid
combinations

• Crossing over adds even more variation

• Each zygote has a unique genetic identity

The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation Within (p; 316-317)

Populations
• Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic variation in a population,

• Animals that always reproduce asexually are quite rare

• Reshuffling of alleles during sexual reproduction, produces genetic variation

• Over time some changes (mutations) occur in organisms’ DNA and then by natural
selection (i.e., accumulations of variations favored by the environment) we get a new
variant of the gene (allele).

• Mutations: changes in an organism’s DNA. They are the original source of genetic
diversity

• Alleles: Different versions of a gene created by mutations.

Results of Mistakes in Meiosis
Nondisjunction: failure of homologues to separate normally during meiosis
• Results in a gamete having one too many chromosomes (trisomy) or one
too few chromosomes (monosomy)
• Most embryos that result from such gametes will die before birth
Several chromosome abnormalities are known in humans:
• Down syndrome- trisomy 21 (the person has three copies of chromosome 21)
• Trisomy 18- the person has three copies of chromosome 18
• Trisomy 13- the person has three copies of chromosome 13
• Klinefelter syndrome- a boy is born with an extra copy of the X chromosome
(XXY)
• XYY syndrome- Male with an extra Y chromosome
• Turners syndrome- A female is partly or completely missing an X chromosome
• Triple X syndrome- trisomy X, A female with three X chromosomes
These can be detected by Karyotyping
Results of Mistakes in Meiosis

• For cancer mutations to be passed on to offspring, they must take

place in cells that give rise to gametes.

• Mutations caused by environmental exposures are not passed on

unless the mutation occurs in the gametes.

• Mutations in somatic cells (e.g., skin cancer from UV ray exposure) are
not heritable.

• Mutations in the gametes are heritable.

Summary of Key Concepts

Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes (pp. 305–306)
• Each gene in an organism’s DNA exists at a specific locus on a certain chromosome.
• In asexual reproduction, a single parent produces genetically identical offspring by mitosis.
• Sexual reproduction combines genes from two parents, leading to genetically diverse offspring.

Concept 13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles (pp. 306–309)
• Normal human somatic cells are diploid. They have 46 chromosomes made up of two sets of 23
chromosomes, one set from each parent. Human diploid cells have 22 pairs of homologs that
are autosomes, and one pair of sex chromosomes; the latter typically determines whether the
person is female (XX) or male (XY).
• In humans, ovaries and testes produce haploid gametes by meiosis, each gamete containing a
single set of 23 chromosomes (n = 23). During fertilization, an egg and sperm unite, forming a
diploid (2n = 46) single-celled zygote, which develops into a multicellular organism by mitosis.
• Sexual life cycles differ in the timing of meiosis relative to fertilization and in the point(s) of the
cycle at which a multicellular organism is produced by mitosis.
Summary of Key Concepts

Concept 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid (pp. 309–
315)
• The two cell divisions of meiosis, meiosis I and meiosis II, produce four haploid daughter cells.
The number of chromosome sets is reduced from two (diploid) to one (haploid) during meiosis I.
• Meiosis is distinguished from mitosis by three events of meiosis I:

• Meiosis II separates the sister chromatids.

• Sister chromatid cohesion and crossing over allow chiasmata to hold homologs together until
anaphase I. Cohesins are cleaved along the arms at anaphase I, allowing homologs to
separate, and at the centromeres in anaphase II, releasing sister chromatids from each other
Summary of Key Concepts

Concept 13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution (pp. 315–
317)
• Three events in sexual reproduction contribute to genetic variation in a population: independent
assortment of chromosomes during meiosis I, crossing over during meiosis I, and random
fertilization of egg cells by sperm. During crossing over, the DNA of nonsister chromatids in a
homologous pair is broken and rejoined.
• Genetic variation is the raw material for evolution by natural selection. Mutations are the original
source of this variation; recombination of variant genes generates additional genetic diversity
Enjoy Learning About Cell Division =)

Mitosis vs. Meiosis: Side by Side Comparison

Do you want to test your understanding of TOPIC 4 ?

Check the following link for

multiple choice questions:

https://media.pearsoncmg.
com/intl/ge/2017/ge_camp
bell_biology_11/msa/conten
t/practice-test/practice-
test.php

Select Chapters 12 and 13