Name: Regina A.

Razo Score:
Course/Yr. BSA-1 Subject: CHM05

CHM05
BIOCHEMISTRY

EXERCISE NO. 2
The Cell

INTRODUCTION

Cells are also known as 'a small room'. It is the functional and structural unit of life. It is a small
united area where all kinds of actions and reactions collectively take place. Organisms that are made
up of single cells are known as single-celled organisms or unicellular and from many cells are known
as multi-cellular organisms. In 1665, the cell was first discovered by Robert Hook.
We are aware of the fact that the cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. It is also the
smallest and the most basic biological unit of living organisms. On the basis of the cellular
organization, cells are further classified as eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Plant cells and animal cells fall
under the eukaryotic category.
What is a Plant Cell?

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic
organisms. Both plant and animal cells contain nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the
distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane.
 Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom Plantae. They are eukaryotic cells,
which have a true nucleus along with specialized structures called organelles that carry out different
functions. Plant cells have special organelles called chloroplasts, which create sugars via
photosynthesis. They also have a cell wall that provides structural support.
Cell membrane
 It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a
thin layer of protein and fat.
 The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific
substances within the cell.
 For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential
minerals are transported across.
Nucleus
 The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital
function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division,
metabolism and growth.
Nucleolus
 It manufactures cell’s protein-producing structures and ribosomes.
Chloroplasts
 It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped
like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA.
Each chloroplast contains a green coloured pigment called chlorophyll required for the
process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to
transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose.
Ribosomes
 They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They
are the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell.
Mitochondria/Mitocondrion
 They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are
also referred to as the “Powerhouse of the cell.”
Lysosome
 Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane.
They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food
particles and foreign bodies in the cell.
Vacuoles
 Plant cells are unique in that they have a large central vacuole. A vacuole is a small sphere of
plasma membrane within the cell that can contain fluid, ions, and other molecules. Vacuoles
are essentially just large vesicles. They can be found in the cells of many different organisms.
However, plant cells characteristically have a large vacuole that can take up anywhere from
30% to as much as 90% of the total cell volume.
Cell Wall
  The cell wall is a tough layer found on the outside of the plant cell that gives it strength and
also maintains high turgidity. In plants, the cell wall contains mainly cellulose, along with
other molecules like hemicellulose, pectin, and lignins. The composition of the plant cell wall
differentiates it from the cell walls of other organisms.
Nuclear Membrane
 A nuclear membrane is a double membrane that encloses the cell nucleus. It serves to separate
the chromosomes from the rest of the cell. The nuclear membrane includes an array of small
holes or pores that permit the passage of certain materials, such as nucleic acids and proteins,
between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm is the gelatinous liquid that fills the inside of a cell. It is composed of water, salts,
and various organic molecules. Some intracellular organelles, such the nucleus and
mitochondria, are enclosed by membranes that separate them from the cytoplasm.
Centrosome
Centrosomes assist with several important functions, including:
 Organizing changes to the shape of the cell membrane that allow the membrane to “pinch” in
two during cell division.
 Ensuring that chromosomes are properly distributed to daughter cells by creating and
shortening mitotic spindle fibers.
 Overseeing other important changes to cell membrane shape, such as those seen in
phagocytosis.
Endoplasmic Reteculum
 Endoplasmic reticulum, a continuous membrane system in eukaryotic cells that plays an
important role in the biosynthesis, processing, and transport of proteins and lipids.
Golgi Body/Golgi Apparatus
 The Golgi apparatus is an organelle in eukaryotic organisms that moves molecules from the
endoplasmic reticulum to their destination. The organelle also modifies products of the
endoplasmic reticulum to their final form. The Golgi apparatus is comprised of a series of
flattened sacs that extend from the endoplasmic reticulum.

What is Animal Cell?

 An animal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall and has a true, membrane-bound
nucleus along with other cellular organelles.” Animal cells range in size from a few microscopic
microns to few millimetres. The largest known animal cell is the ostrich egg, which can stretch over
5.1 inches across and weighs about 1.4 kilograms. This is in stark contrast to the neuron in the human
body, which is just 100 microns across.
The shape of animal cells also varies, with some being flat, others oval or rod-shaped. There are also
more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical, concave and rectangular. Most of the cells are
microscopic in size and can only be seen under the microscope.
Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Another defining characteristic is its irregular
shape. This is due to the absence of a cell wall.
Cell Membrane
 A thin semipermeable membrane layer of protein and fats surrounding the cell. Its primary
role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients
and other microscopic entities into the cell.
Nuclear Membrane
 It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred to as the
nuclear envelope.
Nucleus
 It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as nucleolus, nucleosomes
and chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic materials.
Centrosome
 It is a small organelle found near to the nucleus which has a thick centre with radiating
tubules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are produced.
Lysosome (Cell Vesicles)
 They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising digestive enzymes
which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process.
Cytoplasm
 A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell
membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear membrane
is called the nucleoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus
 A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved in
manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell.
Mitochondrion
 They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They are the
powerhouse of a cell as they play an important role in releasing energy.
Ribosome
 They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and they are the sites
of protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of membranous sacs
originating from the nucleus.
Vacuole
 A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and storing
water, food, wastes, etc.
Nucleulos
 The nucleolus is considered as the brain of the nucleus, covering nearly 25% volume of the
nucleus. Primarily, it takes part in the production of subunits that unites to form ribosomes.
Hence, nucleolus plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins and in the production of
ribosomes in eukaryotic cells.
Difference between Plant Cell and Animal Cell
The plant cell is rectangular and comparatively larger than the animal cell. Even though plant and
animal cells are eukaryotic and share a few cell organelles, plant cells are quite distinct when
compared to animal cells as they perform different functions. Some of these differences can be clearly
understood when the cells are examined under an electron microscope.
Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells, meaning they possess a defined nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. They share many common features, such as a cell membrane, nucleus,
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and more.
However, they have some apparent differences. Firstly, plant cells have a cell wall that surrounds the
cell membrane, whereas animal cells do not. Plant cells also possess two organelles that animal cells
lack: chloroplasts and a large central vacuole. These additional organelles allow plants to form an
upright structure without the need for a skeleton (cell wall and central vacuole), and also allow them
to produce their own food through photosynthesis (chloroplasts).
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: What's the Difference?
In 1665, Robert Hook discovered a cell. Some cells have membrane-bound organelles and some do
not have. Depending upon the internal structure of the cell, two types of cells are found in an
organism namely Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic. What is the difference between Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are the two types of cells that exist on Earth. There are several
differences between the two, but the biggest distinction between them is that eukaryotic cells have a
distinct nucleus containing the cell's genetic material, while prokaryotic cells don't have a nucleus and
have free-floating genetic material instead.

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic cell

Size is 0.1- 5.0 um Size is 5-100 um

Nucleus is absent Nucleus is present
Membrane-bound nucleus absent. Membrane-bound Nucleus is present.
One chromosome is present, but not true More than one number of chromosomes is
chromosome plastids. present.
Unicellular Multicellular
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes absent Lysosomes and Peroxisomes present
Microtubules absent Microtubules present
Endoplasmic reticulum absent Endoplasmic reticulum present
Mitochondria absent Mitochondria present
Cytoskeleton absent Cytoskeleton present
Ribosomes smaller Ribosomes larger
Vesicles present Vesicles present
Golgi apparatus absent Golgi apparatus present
Chloroplasts absent; chlorophyll scattered in the Chloroplasts present in plants
cytoplasm
Submicroscopic in size Flagella is present and Microscopic in size, membrane-bound
made up of only one fiber
Cell wall chemically complexed Cell wall is present in plants and fungi and
chemically simpler

Vacuoles absent Vacuoles present

Permeability of Nuclear membrane is not Permeability of Nuclear membrane is selective
present
Sexual reproduction is absent Sexual reproduction is present
 Endocytosis and exocytosis are absent. Endocytosis and exocytosis occurred
It may have pili and fimbriae. Pili and fimbriae are absent
Transcription occurs in the cytoplasm Transcription occurs inside the nucleus.
Examples: Bacteria and Archaea Examples: Protists, Fungi, Plants, and Animals

OBJECTIVES:

 To identify the parts and functions of Plant and Animal Cell

 To discuss the difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Cell
 To know the process of the Krebs and Calvin Cycle

PROCEDURE

CALVIN CYCLE
The Calvin cycle is a process that the plants and algae used to turn carbon dioxide from the air into
sugar. It is a part of photosynthesis wherein plants and the autothrops used to create nutrients from the
sunlight and carbon dioxide. This process is where all living things in Earth depends on it because
carbon cycle gives plants energy and for foods. Additiona,l the herbivores and carnivores also the
depend on it because without it they can have the food, energy and nutrients they needed to survive.
Calvin cycle has four main steps it is the Carbon Fixation, Reduction Phase, Carbohydrate
Formation and the Regenation phase.
Chemical reaction in the sugar generating process is provided by the ATP and NADPH these
chemical compounds with contained the energy plants have to captured from the sunlight.

KREBS CYCLE/CITRIC ACID CYCLE

It saids that the Crebs cycle or Citric acid cycle is refera to the first molecule that forms during the
cycles reaction or the citrate from Citirc acid .
Krebs cycle after its discoverer, Hans Krebs.
It is the central driver of cellular respiration it takes acetyl produced by oxidation of pyruvate and
originally derived from glucose. Playing a starring role in both the process of energy production and
biosynthesis. It finishes the sugar-breaking job started in glycolysis and fuels the production of ATP
in the process. So in Eukaryotes, Citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of mitochondria just like
the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl . In Prokaryotes, this steps both take place in cytoplasm.
And the eight steps of citric acid cycle are; redox, dehydration hydration and the
Decarboxylationation reactions.And then it produces 2 carbon dioxide molecule one GTP or ATP and
it reduced forms of NADH and FADH2. Citric acid cycle produces very little ATP directly and does
not directly consume oxygen and the final product of citric acid cycle is also the first reactants.

https://byjus.com/biology/plant-cell/
https://biologydictionary.net/plant-cell/
https://byjus.com/biology/animal-cell/
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https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cellular-energetics/photosynthesis/a/calvin-cycle