CELL ORGANELLES

PROF.DR. SHAYMA`A JAMAL AHMED

PROF. GENETIC ENGINEERING
& BIOTECHNOLOGY
Objectives:
At the end of this lecture the student will be
able to:
 Define The cell organelles .
 Compare between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
 List the types of organelles.
 Describe the Mitochondrial Inheritance .
 Recognize to the Mitochondrial diseases .
 Recognize to the clinical features of the
diseases in this lecture.
 Cell organelles:
 In cell biology: an organelle is a specialized subunit
within a cell that has a specific function, and it is
usually separately enclosed within it`s own lipid
bilayer.
 The name organelle comes from the idea that these
structures are to cells what an organ is to the body
(hence the name organelle, the suffix -elle being a
diminutive).
 Organelles are identified by microscopy.
 There are many types of organelles, particularly in
eukaryotic cells.
 While prokaryotes do not possess organelles.
 Types of Cells:
 The prokaryotic cell is a simple cell. It has no
nucleus, and no membrane-bound organelles.
The genetic material of a prokaryotic cell is
found in a region of the cell known as the
nucleoid.
 Bacteria are a fine example of prokaryotic cells
and divide by a process known as binary fission;
they duplicate their genetic material, divide in
half, and produce two identical daughter cells.
 The eukaryotic cell is much more complex. It
.
contains a nucleus, which functions as the
control center of the cell, directing DNA
replication, transcription, and cell growth.
Eukaryotic organisms may be unicellular or
multicellular.
 One of the key features of eukaryotic cells is
the presence of membrane-bound
organelles, each with it`s own duties.
 Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Typical organisms bacteria, archaea fungi, plants, animals

Typical size ~ 1–5 µm[10] ~ 10–100 µm[10]

nucleoid region; no true true nucleus with double

Type of nucleus
nucleus membrane

linear molecules
DNA circular (usually) (chromosomes) with
histone proteins
Ribosomes 50S and 30S 60S and 40S
.
Cytoplasmic
very few structures
highly structured by
endomembranes and a
structure
cytoskeleton

flagella and cilia containing

Cell movement flagella made of flagellin microtubules; lamellipodia
&filopodia containing actin

one to several thousand (though

Mitochondria none
some lack mitochondria)

Chloroplasts none in algae and plants

single cells, colonies, higher

Organization usually single cells multicellular organisms with
specialized cells

Mitosis (fission or budding)

Cell division Binary fission (simple division)
Meiosis
 Types of organelles
Prokaryotic Organelles:
 Plasma membrane:
1- This is a selective barrier around a cell
composed of a double layer of phospholipids.
2- Part of this selectivity is due to the many
proteins that either rest on the exterior of the
membrane or are embedded in the
membrane of the cell.
3- Each membrane has a different
combination of lipids, proteins, and
carbohydrates that provide it with its unique
characteristics.
Cell wall: This is a wall or barrier that
.
functions to shape and protect cells. This
is present in all prokaryotes.

Ribosomes: These function as the host

organelle for protein synthesis in the
cell. They are found in the cytoplasm of
cells and they are composed of a large
unit and a small subunit.
.
 Eukaryotic
. Organelles:
 Ribosomes:
As in prokaryotes, eukaryotic.
1) ribosomes serve as the host organelle for
protein synthesis.
2) Eukaryotes have bound ribosomes, which
are attached to endoplasmic reticula and
form proteins that tend to be exported from
the cell or sent to the membrane.
3) There are also free ribosomes, which exist
freely in the cytoplasm and produce proteins
that remain in the cytoplasm of the cell.
4) Eukaryotic ribosomes are built in a structure
called the nucleolus.
.

Prokaryotic ribosomes Eukaryotic ribosomes

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:
.
This is a membrane-bound organelle involved in
lipid synthesis, detoxification, and carbohydrate
metabolism.
 Liver cells contain a lot of smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER) because they host a lot of
carbohydrate metabolism (glycolysis).
 The liver contains much SER for another
reason—it is the site of alcohol detoxification.
 It is given the name "smooth" endoplasmic
reticulum because there are no ribosomes on its
cytoplasmic surface.
.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

 This membrane-bound organelle is

termed "rough" because of the presence
of ribosomes on the cytoplasmic surface
of the cell.
 The proteins produced by this organelle
are often secreted by the cell and carried
by vesicles to the Golgi apparatus for
further modification.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum:
Golgi apparatus:
 Proteins, lipids, and other macromolecules
are sent to the Golgi to be modified by the
addition of sugars and other molecules to
form glycoproteins.
 The products are then sent in vesicles to
other parts of the cell, directed by the
particular changes made by the Golgi,
in other words: storage & packaging of
materials that will be exported from the cell.
Golgi apparatus:
Gaucher Disease:
 Nucleus: This is the control center of the cell. In
.
eukaryotic cells, this is the storage site of genetic
material (DNA).
It is the site of replication, transcription, and
posttranscriptional modification of RNA. It also
contains the nucleolus, the site of ribosome
synthesis.
 Vacuole: This is a storage organelle that acts as a
vault.
Vacuoles are quite large in plant cells but small in
animal cells.
.

Nucleus Vacuole
 Chloroplast:
.
 This is the site of photosynthesis and energy
production in plant cells.
 Chloroplasts contain many pigments, which
provide leaves with their color.
 Chloroplasts are divided into inner portion
and outer portion. The inner fluid portion is
called the stroma, which is surrounded by
two outer membranes.
Chloroplast:
 Cytoskeleton:
. The skeleton of cells consists of three types
of fibers that provide support, shape, and
mobility to cells: microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
1 – Microtubules:
 are constructed from tubulin and have a lead
role in the separation of cells during cell
division.
 Microtubules are also important components
of cilia and flagella, which are structures that
aid the movement of particles .
.2- Microfilaments:
are constructed from actin, play a big
part in muscular contraction.
3- Intermediate filaments:
are constructed from a class of
proteins called keratins and are
thought to function as reinforcement
for the shape and position of
organelles in the cell.
Cytoskeleton

.
.
 Peroxisomes:
.
1-are single-membrane structures found in all
eukaryotic cells. They are small, membrane-
bound structures that use molecular oxygen
to oxidize organic molecules.
2-These are organelles containing enzymes
that produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-
product while performing various functions,
such as breakdown of fatty acids and
detoxification of alcohol in the liver.
3- also contain an enzyme that converts the
toxic hydrogen peroxide by-product of these
reactions into cell-friendly water.
.
Lysosome:

 are special types of vacuoles .

 contain enzymes for use in the
hydrolytic breakdown of
macromolecules .
 Three ways to enter a lysosome –
phagocytosis , autophagy, and
receptor-mediated endocytosis.
.
Mitochondria:
1. Found in ALL eukaryotic cells (even in plant
cells)
2. Site of aerobic respiration
1. sugars + O2 - - > ATP + CO2 + H2O
2. So it called “powerhouse of the cell”
3. Contain DNA which codes for mitochondrial
proteins, ribosomes, etc.
.4. Divide by a process similar to binary fission
when cell divides.
5. Enclosed in a double membrane system.
1. Inner Membrane forms the Cristae
(invaginations into interior region)
Site of energy generation(houses of energy)
2. Matrix is the soluble portion of the mitochondria
A. Site of carbon metabolism
B. Location of mDNA
C. Site of mitochondrial protein synthesis
.
.
Mitochondrial Inheritance:
 Mammalian cells contain mitochondria which have their
own circular deoxyribonucleic acid (mtDNA). Mitochondria
are only passed on in the cytoplasm of the egg so that a
child inherits all mitochondria from his mother.
 There are some diseases that are some diseases that are
associated with mutations in mitochondrial DNA. A woman
with such a mutation will therefore pass it on to all her
children whilst a man with the same mutation will not pass
it on to any of his children.
 There is often a wide range of severity of disease in carriers
of mitochondrial mutations. Mitochondrial inheritance is
characterized by:
1-Maternal transmission only.
2-Extreme variability in the same family.
Genetic features of mtDNA:
The genetics of mtDNA differ from that of DNA in the
following unique properties:
1-The mitochondrial genome is maternally inherited:
The mother transmits her oocyte mtDNA to all of her
offspring & her daughters transmit their mtDNA to the next
generation. This is due to the fact that during fertilization.
The few mitochondria from the sperm that enter the egg
are rapidly eliminated through unknown mechanism.
2-Mitochondria are polypoid:
Each human cell has hundreds of mitochondria each
containing 2-10 mtDNA molecules. At cell division
mitochondria and their genomes are randomly distributed
to daughter cells.
3-The mitochondrial genome has a much faster
.
evolution rate than the nuclear genome:
 The average number of base pair difference between
two human mitochondrial genomes is estimated to be
from 9.5 to 66. This explained by the fact that,
although the mitochondrial gamma-DNA polymerase
may retain a proofreading activity X certain types of
repair enzymes have been identified in mitochondrial
fractions.
 Mitochondria lack an efficient DNA repair system,
based, for instance, on homologous recombination or
removal of pyrimidine dimmers. In addition, the
mitochondrial genome lacks protective proteins like
histones, and is physically associated with the inner
mitochondrial membrane, where highly mutagenic
oxygen radicals are generated as by-products of
OXPHOS.
4- .
Normally, the mitochondrial genotype
of an individual is composed of a single
mtDNA species:
A condition known as homoplasmy.
However, the intrinsic propensity of
mtDNA to mutate randomly can
occasionally determine a transitory
condition known as heteroplasmy, where
the wild-type & the mutant genomes co-
exist intracellular.
MITOCHONDRIAL DISEASES:
Assorted myopathies and neuropathies observed clinically in
recent years:
 neurologic disorders
 ragged red fibers in muscle biopsies
 weakness exacerbated by exercise
 seizures
 (muscle jumps)
 dementia with early onsetmovement disorders
 stroke-like symptoms
 retinopathy
 hearing loss
 partial blindness
 migraine headaches
.

Combined oxidative
phosphorylation
deficiency 5
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Thank you .