Plant Cells/Plant Cytology

● Cells concept
○ Basic structural and functional unit.
○ All living organisms are made up of cells.
○ Cells arise from preexisting cells - Cell division.
■ Mitosis
■ Meiosis
■ Binary Fission
○ Physiological processes are encountered and manifested at cellular level.
■ Respiration, digestion, growth, and development.

● Cell discovery
○ Rober Hooke (1665)
■ Made his own microscope.
■ Tiny compartments in cork tissue (Cells).
○ R. J. H. Dutrochet (1824)
■ Osmosis (movement of water across the cells), effect of light on
plants.
○ Robert Brown (1833)
■ Nucleus, cytoplasmic streaming/cyclosis (movement of cytosol and
organelles), Brownian movement (bombardment of particles inside the
cell).
○ Matthias Schleiden (1838)
■ Cofounder of cell theory, all plant parts are composed of cells.
○ Theodor Schwann (1839)
■ Cell theory: All living organisms are composed of cells.

● Two basic types of cells

○ Prokaryote
■ “Pro” - Before + “Karyon” - Nucleus
■ Cells without nucleus and other membrane bounded organelles.
■ E.g. Eubacteria, cyanobacteria (blue green bacteria) and
archaebacteria (extreme environment).
■ Very simple but they have their own genetic makeup or DNA (naked
because it is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane, and has no
histones).
○ Eukaryote
■ “Eu” - True + “Karyon” - nucleus
■ Cells with nucleus and other membrane bounded organelles.
■ E.g. protists (seaweeds), fungi, plants, animals
■ Animal cell - no cell wall, plastid, vacuole, and glyoxysome.

Membranes
● Regulate the passage of molecules in and out because of their relative structure.
● Divides the cell into numerous compartments.
● Act as surfaces which hold enzymes.
● Allows movement of molecules in and out of the cell (Exocytosis/Endocytosis).
● Selectively permeable/Semi-permeable membrane/Differentially permeable.
 ● Dynamic and constantly changing.
○ As the nature of the membrane changes, the nature of the cell changes.
● Cell Membranes or Plasmalemma
○ Fluid Mosaic Model:
■ Considered as a heterogeneous membrane, intrinsic proteins can
diffuse laterally like lipids while other proteins are bound to adjacent
proteins.
■ The cell membrane is called heterogeneous membrane due to the
presence of many biological compounds.

○ Composition of Plasma Membrane

■ Trilaminar structure
■ Composition includes:
● Phospholipids:
○ Phosphate head (Hydrophilic)
○ Lipid tail (Hydrophobic)
● Proteins:
○ Intrinsic/Extrinsic protein (Transport Protein) - Can
diffuse laterally like lipids. Allows some materials to
pass through.
● Cholesterol
● Carbohydrates:
○ Glycoproteins - Protein joined with crabohydrate.
○ Glycolipid - Carbohydrate joined with phospholipid.
■ Fluid Mosaic Model
● Proteins and cholesterol embedded.
■ Composed of Proteins (60%) and Phospholipid bilayer (40%).

All biological membranes are selectively or differentially permeable

● Phospholipid bilayer:
○ Small nonpolar molecules - Gases, CO2, O2 (Simple Diffusion/Diffusion).
○ Small uncharged polar molecules - H2O (Osmosis), ethanol and urea.
● Protein Channel
○ Ions and charged molecules (Active transport/Facilitated diffusion).
Summary of Transmembrane Movement
● Membrane Types
○ Impermeable membrane
■ Does not allow anything to pass through.
○ Freely permeable membrane
■ Allows everything to pass through.
○ Selectively permeable membrane
■ All biological membranes.
■ Selective
● Transmembrane Movement
○ Osmosis
■ Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area
of high water concentration to an area of lower water concentration.
■ Follows concentration gradient. ↑H2O → ↓H2O
■ Tonicity - The ability of the solution to affect the movement of water
inside and outside of the cells. Affected by the amount of solute
concentration in the solution.
● Isotonic
○ “Iso” - Equal
○ Solution having an equal solute concentration when
compared to the cell’s protoplasm.
○ The solution and the cell have the same concentration.
○ 0.89% (NSS - normal saline solution) - No net
movement of water. The amount of water that will enter
the cell will be the amount of water that will leave the
cell. Cells would neither decrease nor increase in size.
● Hypotonic
○ A solution having a greater water potential.
○ Having a greater water concentration than the cell.
Lower solute concentration than the cell.
○ The movement of water is from high water to low water
concentration.
○ Endosmosis - Water from the solution will get inside the
cells. The cells will increase in size (Swell/Turgid).
○ < 0.89%
● Hypertonic
○ A solution having lower water concentration than the
cell. Has higher solute concentration.
○ The water from the cell will move out.
○ Plasmolysis - The protoplasm will shrink away from the
cell wall (Plasmolyzed).
○ > 0.89%

★ Turgor pressure
- The cell wall exerts an equal pressure that is directed to the cell membrane to keep
it from bursting.

○ Facilitated Diffusion
 ■ Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
■ Hydrophilic, charges molecules.
○ Active transport
■ Against concentration gradient.
■ The cell will use Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) in order to prevent the
normal flow of molecules (↑concentration → ↓↑concentration).
■ ATP expenditure
○ Exocytosis
■ Bulk Transport
■ Movement of molecules/particles outside of the cell.
○ Endocytosis
■ Bulk Transport
■ Movement of molecules/particles inside of the cell.

Selectively Permeable
● Diffusion
○ Movement of molecules across the phospholipid bilayer.
○ Hydrophobic substances
■ Cross membrane.
■ Ex.:oil, fats, greasy substances - simple diffusion (passive transport)
○ Charged substances – move through intrinsic proteins which act as channels
(facilitated diffusion).
○ Molecular pumps (protein) – bind molecules from 1 side and release it to the
other using ATP (Active Transport).

★ Channels are permanently open to allow the movement of molecules (channel

mediated).
★ Channels may be carrier mediated so they are not permanently open but they may
change the confirmation to allow the movement of molecules.
★ Uniport
- The direction is only one direction.
★ Active transport
- Movement of molecules against the concentration gradient (low concentration
to high concentration).
★ Types of Active Transport
- Primary transport (Pump-mediated)
➔ Uniport - Only one molecule is transported, uses ATP.
➔ Cotransport - 2 molecules are transported in 2 different directions, in
and out of the cell, equal concentration, uses ATP.
- Secondary Transport (Carrier-mediated)
➔ Antiport- The transport of 2 molecules occurs in opposite directions.
➔ Symport - The transport of 2 molecules is in the same direction.
A plant cell consists of three general parts:
1. Cell wall
○ The outermost covering.
○ Protects the cellular contents and limits cell size.
○ Composed of cellulose (a polymer made up of molecules of the sugar,
glucose is the most important).
○ Other important parts are lignins (secondary wall) which add rigidity, and
waxes such as cutin (epidermis), and suberin (phellem or cork cells), which
reduce water loss from cells.
○ A layer of cutin is called cuticle which provides protection and prevents
excessive water loss.

2. Protoplast
○ Consist of the cell membrane and the rest of the organelles.
○ In botany, a plant cell without a cell wall.
3. Cell inclusion
○ In the form of vacuole (largest organelle, 80-95% is occupied by the vacuole)

● All plant cells have cell walls except sperm cells of some seed plant
● Cellulose crystallized to form strong cell walls.
● Hemicellulose
○ Produced by dictyosomes/golgi apparatus (organelle), brought to cell wall by
dictyosome vesicles.
● Primary cell wall is usually thin. (thin or thick?)
● Secondary cell wall - between the primary cell wall and plasma membrane.
○ Thicker, impregnated with lignin. (lignified secondary wall)
● The cell wall (types) are permanent, not degraded nor depolymerized unlike
microtubule/microfilament.
 ● Middle lamella/pectin layer – made of pectin, attaches the wall to the adjacent cell.

★ Apple - Very rich in pectin.

● Plasmodesmata
○ Tiny connection between 2 cells.
○ Allows communication between neighbouring cells or adjacent cells.
○ One cell exchanges materials or important organic molecules through
plasmodesmata.
○ Fine holes in primary walls, has plasma membrane, tubule (desmotubule)
attached to Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER).
○ Primary Pit Field
■ Areas with clustered plasmodesmata, increase transport of materials
between cells.
○ “All protoplasm within a plant is part of 1 interconnected mass called
symplast.”
○ “Individuality of plant cell is diminished because the cells are sharing almost
the same molecules or compounds.’’
○ Plant = symplast (Protoplasm)+ apoplast (intercellular space + wall)
○ Apoplast
■ Permits rapid diffusion of gases.
○ The movement for diffusion of gases for photosynthesis occurs via the
apoplastic movement.

● Cytoplasm/Cytosol
○ Fluid portion containing the nucleus and the rest of the organelles
○ Material left after the removal of nucleus and vacuole.

Organelles of the Plant Cell

● Nucleus
○ More genetic material than prokaryotic plasmid.
○ Histones with the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to pack the genetic material
into compact chromosomes.
○ Nuclear envelope formed of a double membrane (outer and inner
membrane).
○ The fluid portion is nucleoplasm (karyoplasm or karyolymph).
 ○ The nucleolus synthesizes RNA.
○ The pores are called nuclear pores, for transport of substances from nucleus
to protoplasm.
○ Polysomes = ribosomes + mRNA.

○ Nucleoplasm
■ Ass. Of DNA, enzymes, histones, RNA, water.
■ Chromatin = DNA + histone
■ Nucleus & nucleoplasm are different in different ages of cell. Why?
■ Rapidly div cell= more DNA; young cell = small with large nuclei.
■ Mature cells = large with small nucleus.

● Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

○ Connected to the outer membrane of the nucleolus.
○ Carries large molecules like protein that are not transported by diffusion.
○ System of narrow tubes and sheets of membrane which form a network
throughout the cytoplasm.
○ Acts as a highway that transports materials in different parts of the cell.
○ Rough ER
■ Attached to the ribosome.
■ For protein synthesis.
■ Protein produced as storage products like legumes; remains in ER.
■ Protein to be secreted (mucilage, nectar); detach, move to plasma
membrane, fuse with it and release its contents by exocytosis.
○ Smooth ER
■ Not attached to ribosomes.
■ Lipid synthesis and membrane assembly.
■ Abundant in cells which produce large amounts of fatty acids.
● Cutin/ wax on epidermal cells.
● Oil (palm , coconut, fragrances).
● Dictyosomes/Golgi Apparatus
○ Packaging areas for secretion,
○ Modifies material secreted by cell (protein modification)
■ Ex. Addition of sugar to protein to form glycoprotein.
○ Stacks of thin vesicles held together by a flat/curved array.
○ 2 faces:
■ Forming face/Cis face – Where vesicles accumulate, embedded.
■ Maturing face/Trans face – Where vesicles are released, contents
have been processed
○ GOLGI Body
■ Association of hundreds of dictyosomes

○ Cisternae
■ Found between the forming and maturing face.
■ Stacks of wide thin flattened vesicles formed by ER vesicles which
accumulated & fused together at 1 side of dictyosome.
● Movement of protein:

★ Autophagy
- Destruction of worn out parts of the cells.

● Mitochondrion
○ Powerhouse of the cell because it produces ATP.
○ Where Cellular Respiration takes place. Respiratory cite of the cell.
○ Is said to be of prokaryotic origin because it has its own DNA (circular- similar
to bacteria DNA).
○ Circular DNA lacks histones, small ribosomes.
○ Formerly believed that it was a primitive prokaryotic cell that was engulfed
by one cell. Prokaryotic cell evolved into a mitochondrion.
○ Respiration is mediated by enzymes bound to the mitochondrial membrane.
○ Cristae
■ Large sheets/tubes formed by folded inner mitochondrial membranes.
■ Important to increase ATP production.
○ Inner Mitochondrial membrane
■ Selectively Permeable with pumps/channels
■ Provides room for a large number of enzymes for more efficient
production of ATP.
■ Matrix – Liquid inside the mitochondrion where reaction takes place.
● Chloroplast
○ “Chloro” - Green
○ Contains Chlorophyll.
○ Main organelle involved in photosynthesis.
○ Has outer membrane and inner membrane (highly folded).
○ Stroma
■ Fluid inside the chloroplast.
■ Where carbohydrates are produced.
○ Ribosomes
○ Circular DNA, not associated with histones
■ Endosymbiotic theory - Chloroplast may have originated from a
primitive prokaryotic cell.
○ Folding of Inner membrane forms: increased surface area, increased space
for pigments insertion.
■ Thylakoid - Single membrane forming stacks of flattened vesicles
called grana. Where the light reaction of photosynthesis takes place.
Selectively Permeable; concentration of chem inside is different from
the stroma
■ Grana – Surrounded by liquid stroma

● Photosynthesis
 ○ Process by which green plants produce their food/energy.
○ Involves active transport of H+ into small space to build up an electrical
charge
○ Light reaction/Photochemical reaction
■ Takes place in the grana/thylakoid.
■ Products: ATP & NADPH.
■ Grana vesicles are needed to acc the protons from the stroma.
○ Dark reaction/Calvin Cycle/Biochemical reaction
■ Occurs in the absence of light.
■ Product: Sugar
■ Take place in the stroma – area where CO2 ---CHO catalyzed by
enzymes.

Leucoplastids
● Colorless plastids.
○ Amyloplast
■ Stores starch.
○ Aleuroneplast/Proteinoplast
■ Stores protein.
■ Legumes/Beans.
○ Elaioplast
■ Stores oils and fats.
■ Present in tissues grown without light.

Chloroplast - When a proplastid is exposed to sunlight,

Chromoplast - When chloroplast secretes many colored lipids.
Leucoplast - When a proplastid is not exposed to sunlight.

● Leucoplastids:

Peanut Potato

Starch + Iodine = Iodostarch

● Chromoplastids/Colored plastids:

` Tomato Red Bell Pepper

Gumamela Anthocyanin - Water soluble pigments

● Storage Products
○ Sugar is polymerized to starch grains (inside chloroplast).
○ Root, bark, wood (can't photosynthesize).
■ Proplastid transformed to amyloplast (store starch)
■ Potato, yam/ube, squash, starchy seeds.

A. Potato
B. Potato
C. Corn
D. Pea
E. Rice
F. Oat
G. Wheat
H. Banana

○ Highly colored chromoplast

■ Produced from thylakoid when chloroplast produces high amounts of
colored lipids.
○ Fe
■ When stored attached to protein (phytoferritin) in plastids
(aleuroneplast or proteinoplast)
Amyloplastid Chromoplastid

● Ribonucleic Acid/RNA
○ Molecules found within the cytoplasm and outside the nucleus.
○ Used for coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes for the protein
synthesis.

● RNA vs. DNA

○ DNA
■ Found in the nucleus.
■ Double helix.
■ Composed of deoxyribonucleotides.
 ■ Phosphate, Sugar and Nitrogenous bases
■ Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine
○ RNA
■ Outside the nucleus.
■ Single strand molecule.
■ 4 nitrogenous bases
■ Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil

● Types of RNA
○ Messenger RNA (mRNA)
■ Used for genetic expression.
■ Carries information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm.
○ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
■ The ribosomal RNA combines with protein to form ribosomes.
○ Transfer RNA (tRNA)
■ Transfers amino acids to the ribosome to help build up protein.

Microbodies
● Are about 0.5 to 1.5 micrometer in diameter
● Types:
○ Peroxisomes
■ Serves for detoxification inside the cell.
■ Destruction of the worn out or defective tissues in the cells.
■ Act as free radical scavengers.
■ Contains an enzyme called catalase which converts the harmful
hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen.

○ Glyoxysomes
■ Specialized peroxisomes found in plants (particularly in the fat storage
tissues of germinating seeds) and also in filamentous fungi.
■ Possess the key enzymes of glyoxylate cycle (isocitrate lyase and
malate synthase).
 ■ Found in contact with lipid bodies in cotyledons or endosperm of the
seeds where fatty acids are being converted into carbohydrate
(sugars) during germination.

● Cytoplasm/Hyaloplasm
○ Clear substance composed of water, enzymes, chemical precursors, reaction
products in cytoplasm.
○ Has free ribosomes (not attached to ER), skeletal structures (microtubule,
microfilaments).

● Cytoskeleton
○ “Cyto” - cells + “skeleton” = skeleton of the cells.
○ Framework of the cell.
○ Network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm.
○ Aids in cellular support and movement.
■ Flagella
■ Cilia
■ Spindle fibers
○ Composed of three components
■ Microtubules – 20 to 25 nm in diameter (alpha and beta tubulin -
spindle fibers).
■ Intermediate filaments (fibrous protein).
■ Microfilament – 3 t o 6 nm in diameter (g-actin) .

● Flagella and Cilia

○ Consists of microtubules.
○ Used for cell locomotion.
○ Elaborate microtubule arrangement in flagella and cilia.
○ Outer doublets (has 2 arms of protein called Dynein).
○ Sliding of 1 set of doublet cause the bending, alternate sliding (beating
motion)
○ “9+2” arrangement.
○ Cilia
■ Short, occur in groups.
○ Flagella
■ Longer, in pairs, single or in four.
 ● Centrioles
○ Centrioles in all animal cells and some fungal cells are associated with the
formation of spindle fibers during cell interphase.
○ Mitotic center/centrosome.
○ Spindle fibers move the chromosomes during cell division.

● Vacuole
○ Contains H20, salts and digestive enzymes (animal).
○ Derived from small cavities scattered in the cytoplasm.
■ Small cavities unite to form vacuole.
○ Cell sap/Vacuolar sap, enclosed by the Tonoplast/Vacuolar membrane
(prevents leaking of waste back to cytoplasm).
○ Holds the waste products of metabolism.
○ Anthocyanin (water soluble pigment)
○ Lysosome in animals
○ Functions
■ Maintain turgor pressure.
■ Storage area for nutrients like K.
■ Accumulation of toxic substances.
Materials found in the vacuole
● Ergastic substances
○ 1. Crystals
■ Calcium carbonate - CaCO3
■ Calcium oxalate - CaC2O4
○ 2. Starch and aleurone grains
 ○ 3. Nitrogenous inclusions
■ Crystalloids or protein crystals
○ 4. Granules/fibrous mat
○ Calcium regulates activity of enzymes.
○ Plant cells regulate Calcium concentration in the protoplasm by moving
Calcium into the vacuole where it forms Calcium oxalate crystals.
○
CaC2O4 Crystals
Raphide/Idioblast - Needle-like crystals. Ex.Gabi

Rosette - Flower-like crystals. Ex. Santan pula

Prismatic - Look like broken glass. Ex. Tradescantia spathacea

Styloid - Knife-like crystals. Rarely found in clusters. Ex. Water hyacinth

CaCO3 Crystals
Cystolith - Grape-like/Ampalaya-like crystals.Ex. Balete (Ficus)

● Flower Cells
○ Petal cell
■ Pigment attraction.
■ Chromoplastid pigments.
○ Scent cell
■ Fragrance
■ Chromoplastid pigments.
○ Nectary cell
■ Sugar storage, attraction.
○ Stamen cell
■ Indirectly involved in sperm cell production.
○ Carpal cell (Ovule)
■ Production of egg cells.
○ Fruit cell
■ Sugar, aroma, attraction of fruit-eating animals.

● Other types of cells.