ZOOL1: General Zoology

I.‎‎Introduction to Zoology
➔ What is Zoology?
derived from Latin words, zion “animals” and logia “study”, basically the study of animals.
Zoology is the field of biology that involves the study of animals. It encompasses all
aspects of scientific knowledge about animals like embryonic development, evolution,
behavior, ecological distribution, and classification.
➔ HIstory of Zoology
People have been interested in learning about animals since ancient times.
- Prehistoric man needed to study the animals and plants in his environment in
order to exploit (utilize, make use) them and survive.
- The domestication of animals forced man to take a systematic and measured
view of animal life.
➢ Aristotle
The prominent ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle took detailed notes on animal
observations and inspired other scientists for many hundreds of years and is
widely regarded as the Father of Zoology.
○ The 16th to 21st centuries exhibited an advanced approach to zoology.
■ Many universities were founded in Europe in the 16th century, and by the
mid-17th century, divisions were founded in universities that focused
entirely on animal research.
■ In the 19th century, the microscope became commonplace in scientific
research, and this opened up a whole new realm of possibilities.
■ Technological advancements in the 21st century paved the way for
endless scientific discoveries.
➔ Notable Personalities
★ Aristotle - widely regarded as the Father of Zoology
★ Pliny the Elder - compiled Historia naturalis, an encyclopedic compilation of both
myth and fact regarding celestial bodies, geography, animals and plants, metals,
and stones.
★ Antonie van Leeuwenhoek - Father of Microbiology and one of the pioneers of
microscopy.
★ Theodore Schwann, Matthias Schleidein, Rudolf Virchow - Cell Theory
★ Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck - Theory of Organic Evolution
★ Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus) - Father of Modern Taxonomy; he introduced
the binomial nomenclature for naming organisms (scientific names).
★ Charles Darwin - Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection (survival of the
fittest).
★ Hugo de Vries - Mutation Theory
★ Gregor Mendel - Father of Genetics
★ Louis Pasteur - Father of Modern Bacteriology
★ Hans Spermann - made scientific advancements related to embryology.
★ Ernst Haeckel - Father of Ecology.

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 ➔ Branches of Zoology
○ Zoography - the study of animals and their habitat.
○ Comparative Anatomy - the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of
different types of animals.
○ Animal Physiology - the study of the bodily processes that occur in animals that
allow them to maintain homeostasis and survive.
○ Ethology - the study of animal behavior.
○ Taxonomy - classification of animals based on their shared characteristics.
○ Zoometry - deals with measurements (length or size) of animal parts.
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II.‎Animal Cells and Osmosis

➔ Origin of the Cell
○ Zacharias Janssen
■ invented the compound microscope.
○ Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
■ one of the pioneers of studying cells.
■ gunk of his teeth
■ animalcules
■ father of modern microbiology
○ Robert Hooke
■ coined the term “cell theory”
■ “cellula” - cells
■ concluded that “cells are the basic structural and functional unit of all
living organisms.”
○ Matthias and Schleiden and Theodore Schwann
■ Matthias Jakob Schleiden was a botanist
■ All organisms are composed of cells
■ Cells are the basic unit of life.
■ Theodore Schwann was an anatomist and physiologist. He published a
book that all organisms are composed of cells.
○ Rudolf Virchow - cells come from other pre-existing cells.
➔ Modern Cell Theory
➢ The cell represents the elementary unit of construction and function in living
organisms.
➢ All living organisms consist of one or more cells.
➢ All cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.
➢ Energy flow– metabolism and biochemistry– happens within cells.
➢ Cells contain genetic information in the form of DNA passed on from cell to cell
during division.
➢ In organisms of similar species, all cells are fundamentally the same.
➢ The living organism’s activities depend upon the combined actions of individual,
independent cells.

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 ➔ What are cells?
➢ The fundamental organizational and functional unit of living organisms.
➢ The basic unit of life.
➢ Types of cells: a stem cell has the ability to develop into a different type
specialized cells like:
○ Muscle cell
○ Fat cell
○ Bone cell
○ Blood cell
○ Sex cell
○ Immune cell
○ Epithelial cell
○ Nervous cell
➢ Two types of cell:
1. Prokaryotes
- Lacks nuclei and other membrane bound organelles.
- 2 domains; archaea and eubacteria.
2. Eukaryotes
- Has nucleus and cells with membrane bound nucleus containing
DNA. It has organelles (little organs)
- Has a network of specialized structures called microfilament and
microtubules organized into the cytoskeleton which gives shape to
the cell and allow intracellular movement.
➔ What are organelles?
➢ Can only be observed under a microscope.
➢ Have specific functions.
➢ Found throughout cytoplasm.
➔ The Animal Cell
An animal cell is an irregularly shaped eukaryotic, or nucleus containing cell with a
flexible membrane. Within the cell are small molecular structures called organelles which
perform different jobs inside the cell. Animal cells range from 10-30 micrometers in size,
smaller than the diameter of human hair. It’s different from other cells because they do
not have a cell wall, which allows them to take on various shapes. With this flexibility,
animal cells have evolved and diversified into the animal kingdom we know today.
➔ Organelles
○ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
■ Complex membrane bound labyrinth of flattened sheets, sac, and tubules
that branches and spreads throughout the cytoplasm.
■ Continuous from the nuclear envelope to plasma membrane.
■ Series of channels that helps various materials to circulate throughout the
cytoplasm.
■ Rough endoplasmic reticulum is attached with ribosomes.
● Storage of other proteins and point of attachments for ribosomes.
■ Smooth endoplasmic reticulum doesn’t have attached ribosomes.

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 ● Site for lipid production, detoxification of molecules, and storage of
calcium ions in muscle cells.
■ Double membrane.
■ Lumen.
○ Ribosomes
■ Free floating or connected to the ER.
■ Site for protein synthesis.
■ Contains protein and a special kind of ribonucleic acid called ribosomal
RNA (rRNA).
■ Attached or free floating, they are in clusters connected by a strand of
another kind of ribonucleic acid called messenger RNA (mRNA). They are
called polyribosomes or polysomes.
○ Golgi Apparatus: Packaging, Sorting, and Export
■ a.k.a. Golgi complex
■ Collection of membranes associated physically and functionally with the
ER in the cytoplasm.
■ Composed of flattened stacks of membrane bound cisternae.
■ Proteins that ribosomes synthesize are sealed off in little packets called
transfer vehicles (from ER to Golgi Apparatus and fuse with it).
■ The proteins are chemically modified depending on its destinations; they
are packed into secretory vesicles which are released into the cytoplasm
close to the plasma membrane.
○ Lysosomes: Digestion and Degradation
■ Lyso: dissolving; soma: body.
■ Membrane-bound spherical organelles that contain enzymes called acid
hydrolases which are capable of digesting organic molecules (lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides) under acidic conditions.
■ From ER transported to Golgi Apparatus for processing and secretion by
the Golgi apparatus in the form of lysosomes that fuse with phagocytic
vesicles exposing the vesicle’s contents to lysosomal enzymes.

○ Microbodies: A Diverse Category of Organelles

■ The distribution of enzymes into microbodies is one main way of how
eukaryotic cells organize their metabolism.
■ Isolates the chemical activities from the rest of the cells.
○ Mitochondria: Power Generator
■ Are double membrane bound organelles that are spherical to elongate in
shape.
■ Separated inner and outer membrane.
■ The inner membrane folds and doubles itself to form cristae.
■ Cristae increase the surface area for chemical reactions that trap usable
energy for the cell.

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 ■ The space between the cristae is called the matrix, it contains the
ribosomes, circular DNA, and other material.
■ Usually multiply when a cell needs to produce more energy.
○ Cytoskeleton: Microtubules, Intermediate Filaments, and Microfilaments.
○ Cilia and Flagella: Movement
■ Cilium: eyelashes; Flagellum: small whips
■ Elongated appendages on the surface of some cells by which the cells
propel themselves.
■ Cilium may also act as a signal-receiving antenna for the cell.
■ Flagella are 5 to 20 times as long as cilia and have similar structures; they
enclose a matrix: axoneme or axial filament.
○ Centrioles and Microtubules: Organizing Centers
■ These duplicates before the cell division are involved in chromosome
movement and help organize the cytoskeleton.
○ Vacuoles: Cell Maintenance
■ Occur in different shapes, sizes, and have various functions.
■ Stores food.
○ Vaults: A Newly Discovered Organelle
■ Shaped like octagonal barrels.
■ One cell may contain thousands of vaults.
■ The function of it may be related to its shape leading to a cellular truck.
■ They can dock at the nuclear pores, pick up molecules synthesized in the
nucleus, and deliver it to the various places within the cell.
■ Though they are picking up mRNA from the nucleus and transporting it to
the ribosomes for protein synthesis.
○ The Nucleus: Information Center
■ Contains the DNA, controls and acts as the information center for the
eukaryotic cell.
■ Two major functions:
1. Directs chemical reactions in the cell by transporting genetic
information from DNA to RNA.
2. Stores genetic information and transfers it during cell division from
one cell to the other.
○ Nuclear Envelope: Gateway to the Nucleus
■ Membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm and is
continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.
■ Penetrated by nuclear pore through a nuclear envelope.
■ Nuclear pores aren’t simply holes; it was designed to prevent the DNA
from leaving the nucleus but permits RNA to move out.
○ Chromosomes: Genetic Containers
■ The nucleoplasm is the inner mass of the nucleus.
■ Contains genetic materials called chromatin.

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 ● Chromatin consists of a combination of DNA and protein and is an
uncoiled, tangled mass of chromosomes (colored bodies)
containing hereditary information called genes.
■ During cell division, each chromosome coils tightly which makes
chromosomes visible when viewed through a light microscope.
○ Nucleolus: Pre-assembly Point for Ribosomes
■ Nucleoli, non-membrane bound structure in the nucleoplasm.
■ Pre-assembly points for ribosomes that usually contain proteins and RNA.

➔ Tonicity
Describes how an extracellular solution can change the volume of a cell by affecting
osmosis.
Often directly correlates with the osmolarity of the solution.
➢ Hypotonic
○ Solution with a lower concentration of solute and higher concentration of
water that’s inside the cell.
○ Net movement is from the outside to the inside of the cell.
○ Cytolysis.
➢ Isotonic
○ No net gain of water.
○ No net movement of water.
➢ Hypertonic
○ Higher concentration of solutes and lower concentrations of water.
○ The net movement of water is from inside to outside of the cell.
○ Crenation.
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III. Tissues
➔ Histology
(microscopic anatomy) is the study of tissues and how they are arranged into organs.

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 ➔ Epithelial Tissue
➢ Exist in many structural forms.
➢ Covers or lines something and typically has surface specializations adapted for
their specific roles as well as their shapes and sizes.
○ Absorbs (e.g. lining of the small intestine)
○ Transport (e.g. kidney tubules)
○ Excrete (sweat and endocrine glands)
○ Protect (e.g. skin)
○ Contain nerve cells for sensory reception (e.g. taste buds in the tongue)
These are classified on the basis of shape and number of layers it present.

Basal Surface – surface of an epithelial cell that faces the basement

membrane.

Apical Surface – surface of an epithelial cell that faces away from the
basement membrane.

○ Simple Epithelium
■ contains one layer of cells
■ named by shape of cells
■ all cells touch the basement membrane
○ Stratified Epithelium
■ contains more than one layer
■ named by shape of apical cells
■ some cells rest on top of others and do not touch basement
membrane

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 ➢ Epithelial Tissue Locations
○ covers the body
○ lines the cavities, tubes, ducts, and blood vessels inside the body
○ covers the organs inside body cavities
Four Types of Simple Epithelia
1. Simple Squamous (thin scaly cells)
● single row of thin cells
● permits rapid diffusion of transporting substances
● secrets serous fluid
● alveoli, glomeruli
2. Simple Cuboidal (square or round cells)
● single layer of square or round cells
● absorption and secretion, mucus production, and movement
● liver, thyroid, mammary, and salivary glands
● bronchioles, and kidney tubules
3. Simple Columnar (tall narrow cells)
● single row tall, narrow cells
● oval nuclei in basal half of cell
● brush border of microvilli, ciliated in some organs, may possess
goblet cells
● absorption and secretion: mucus secretion
● lining of G.I. tract, uterus, kidney, and uterine tubes
4. Pseudostratified Epithelium
● not all cells reach the free surface
● shorter cells are covered over by taller ones
● looks stratified (pseudo)
● every cell reaches the basement membrane
● looks multilayered; some not reacher free surface all touch
basement membrane
● nuclei at several layers
● with cilia and goblet cells
● secretes and propels mucus
● respiratory tract and portions of male urethra
Goblet cells – wineglass-shaped mucus secreting cells in simple
columnar and pseudostratified epithelia.
➢ Stratified Epithelia
○ ranges from 2 to 20 or more layers of cells
○ some cells are resting directly on other cells
○ only the deepest layer attaches to the basement membrane

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 Three stratified epithelia are named for the shapes or their surface cells:
1. Stratified Squamous Epithelia
● most widespread epithelium in the body
● deepest layers undergo continuous mitosis
○ their daughter cells push toward the surface and become
flatter as they migrate farther upward
○ Finally die and flake off – exfoliation or desquamation
● two kinds of stratified squamous epithelia
a. Keratinized Stratified Squamous found on skin surface,
abrasion resistant
➢ multiple cell layers with cells becoming flat and
scaly toward surface
➢ epidermis; palms and soles heavily keratinized
➢ resists abrasion, retards water loss through skin:
resists penetration by pathogenic organisms
b. Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous
➢ lacks surface layer of dead cells
➢ same as keratinized epithelium without the surface
layer of dead cells
➢ tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus, and vagina
➢ resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens

➢ Transitional Epithelium
○ multilayered epithelium surface cells that change from round to flat when
stretched
○ allows for filling of urinary tract
○ ureter and bladder
➔ Connective Tissue
➢ A type of tissue in which cells usually occupy less space than the extracellular
material. It binds organs to each other, supporting and protecting organs.
○ Most cells of connective tissue are not in direct contact with each other.
○ High-vascular – richly supplied with blood vessels.
○ Most abundant and widely distributed.
➢ Functions of Connective Tissue
○ Binding of organs –tendons and ligaments
○ Support – bones and cartilage
○ Immune protection – white blood cells attack foreign invaders
○ Movement – bones provide lever system
○ Storage – fat, calcium, phosphorus
○ Heat production – metabolism of brown fat in infants
○ Transport – blood
➢ Components of Fibrous Connective Tissue
○ Fibroblasts produce fibers and ground substance

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 ○ Macrophages phagocytize foreign material and activate immune system
when sense foreign matter (antigen)
○ Leukocytes or white blood cells
■ Neutrophils wander in search of an attacking bacteria
■ Lymphocytes react against bacteria, toxins, and other foreign
material
○ Mast cells are found alongside blood vessels. They secrete heparin that
inhibits clotting and histamine that dilates blood vessels.
○ Adipocytes store triglycerides (fat molecules)
➢ Adipose Tissue
○ Empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed against cell
membrane
○ Energy storage, insulation, cushioning
➢ Bone Tissue
○ Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and
mineralized matrix.
○ Spongy bone
○ Compact bone
○ Has rich blood supply
➢ Blood
○ Fluid connective tissue
○ Transports cells and dissolved matter from place to place
○ Formed elements – cells and cell fragments
○ Erythrocytes – red blood cells - transport O2 and CO2
○ Leukocytes – white blood cells - defense against infection and other
diseases
○ Platelets – cell fragments involved in clotting and other mechanisms
➔ Nervous Tissue
➢ Specialized for communication by electrical and chemical signals.
➢ Consists of Neurons (nerve cells)
○ Detect stimuli
○ Respond quickly
○ Transmit coded information rapidly to other cells
➢ Neuron Parts
○ Neurosoma (cell body) – houses nucleus and other organelles
○ Dendrites
■ Multiple short, branched processes
■ Receive signals from other cells
■ Transmit messages to neurosoma
○ Axon (nerve fiber) – sends outgoing signals to other cells

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 ➔ Muscle Tissue
➢ Elongated cells that are specialized to contract in response to stimulation. Its
primary job is to exert physical force on the other tissues and organs. It created
movements involved in:
○ Body and limb movement
○ Speech
○ Blood circulation
➢ Important source of body heat
➢ Three Types of Muscle Tissue:
1. Skeletal Muscle
● long , threadlike cells – muscle fibers
● most attach to bone
● exceptions – in tongue, upper esophagus, facial muscles, and
some sphincter muscles
● contains multiple nuclei adjacent to plasma membrane
● striations – alternating dark and light bands
● voluntary – conscious control over skeletal muscles
2. Cardiac Muscle
● limited to the heart
● myocytes or cardiocytes are much shorter, branched, and notched
at the ends
● contain one centrally located nucleus surrounded by light staining
glycogen
● striated, and involuntary (not under conscious control)
3. Smooth Muscle
● lacks striations and is involuntary
● relatively short, fusiform cells (thick in middle, tapered at ends)
● one centrally located nucleus
● visceral muscle – forms layers of digestive, respiratory, and
urinary tract; blood vessels, uterus, and other viscera
● propels contents through an organ, regulates diameter of blood
vessels
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IV. Organ and Organ Systems

➔ Organ System
➢ gr. systema , being together is an association of organs that together performs an
overall function.
➢ All parts of the animal body function with one another to contribute to the total
organisms – a living entity or individual.
➢ Control and regulatory mechanisms within an animal maintain a constant internal
environment. This constant state is called homeostasis.

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 ➔ Organ
➢ gr. organnon, an independent part of the body, are the functional units of an
animal’s body that are made up of more than one type of tissue. Examples are
heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, etc.

SYSTEM MAJOR ORGANS PRIMARY FUNCTIONS

Integumentary skin, hair, nails protection and thermoregulation

Nervous brain, spinal cords, nerves regulation of other body systems

Endocrine hormone-secreting glands, such as secretion of regulatory molecules

the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals. called hormones

Skeletal bones, cartilage movement and support

Muscular skeletal muscles movements of the skeleton

Circulatory heart, blood vessels, lymphatic movement of blood and lymph

vessels

Immune bone marrow, lymphoid organs defense of the body against

invading pathogens

Respiratory lungs, airways gas exchange

Urinary kidneys, ureters, urethra regulation of blood volume and

composition

Digestive mouth, stomach, intestine, liver, breakdown of food into molecules

gallbladder, pancreas that enter the body

Reproductive Gonads, external genitalia, continuation of the human species

associated glands and ducts

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