GEN BIOLOGY

THE CELL THEORY

Cell Theory Postulates

-All living things are composed of one or more cells.

-Cell is the basic unit of life.

-All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

CELL- Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of trillions of
cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into
energy, and carry out specialized functions.

Random Cell Fact: It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area of a dot on the letter “i”

Robert Hooke (1665)- discovered “cells” while looking at a thin slice of cork.

• Hooke the thousand tiny chambers “cells” because they reminded him of a monastery’s tiny rooms

• He described the cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb

• He thought that cells only existed in plants and fungi

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1673)- Used a handmade microscope to observe pond scum & discovered
single-celled organisms

• Leeuwenhoek published his observations on tiny living organisms which he named ‘animalcules’.

• He also observed blood cells from fish, birds, frogs, dogs, and humans

• Therefore, it was known that cells are found in animals as well as plants
• It was believed that Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe under his microscope the structure of a red
blood cell of different animals as well as a sperm cell

Robert Brown (1831)- Brown was able to compare diverse kinds of plant specimens under the
microscope.

• He markedly indicated that there is a common thing about themthey are all composed of cells, and
inside the cell is a dark dense spot which he termed as the nucleus

Development of Cell Theory

Matthias Schleiden (1838)- German Botanist, concluded that all plant parts are made of cells
Theodor Schwann (1839)- German physiologist, who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all
animal tissues are composed of cells.
Rudolf Virchow (1858)- German physician, after extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded that
cells must arise from preexisting cells
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cytology- the branch of biology dealing with the structure, function, multiplication, pathology, and life
history of cells.

-Cell biology includes both the; prokaryotic cells- the simple cells like the bacteria and eukaryotic cells-
the complex cells like plants and animals.

-A cell consists of three major parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the
cytoplasm.

Cell (Plasma) Membrane- separates the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside
the cell, intracellular.

• It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls the passage of materials into and out of the cell.

Nucleus- • formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the control center of the cell.

• Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the
cell.

Nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and is the site of ribosome
formation.

Cytoplasm- the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical reactions.

Subcellular organelles- within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or
even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures.

-are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell.

-The different subcellular organelles are centrioles, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome,
microtubules, mitochondrion (singular of mitochondria), ribosomes

Centrioles- they contain the microtubules that help separate chromosomes and move them during cell
division among animals.

Endoplasmic Reticulum- it forms an interconnected network of flattened sacs. Like some of the other
organelles found in eukaryotes, ER is enclosed in a membrane. The ER is divided into two regions that
vary in structure and function.

• Smooth ER: it lacks ribosomes, making it to be smooth. It is involved in the synthesis of lipids and
carbohydrates that are used to build the cell membrane.

• Rough ER: it contains ribosomes making it to be called rough. It is involved in the manufacture of
various proteins in the cell.

Golgi Apparatus- it is known as the packaging plant of a cell. The primary function of this organelle is to
process and package the macromolecules, which would include proteins and lipids, after their synthesis
but before they make their way to their destination. In short, it sorts, packages, and distributes
macromolecules.
Lysosome- they are like little stomachs moving around the cytoplasm. They break up waste materials
and cellular debris. They function as a garbage collector of the cell.

Microtubules- are long, hollow tubes that serve as girders and give the cell its shape. They may also help
send signals from the membrane to the nucleus.
Mitochondrion- one of the largest organelles within the cell. It contains the DNA which makes them
semiautonomous. It also contains a double membrane with the inner membrane folding to form cristae.
It is also known as the powerhouse of the cell. It plays an important role in respiration where they
generate ATP. Using their DNA, they can encode some of the components they require to perform their
function. (Mitochondria, plural).

Ribosomes- they are tiny organelles that contains RNA and specific proteins within the cytoplasm. They
directly involved in the manufacture of proteins by using their RNA and amino acids. This process
involves decoding the information contained in the mRNA and using amino acids to produce the
required proteins.

Animal Cell

- 10-30 micrometers in length

- Typically round or irregular in shape

Plant Cell

-10-100 micrometers in length

- Typically rectangular or cubic in shape

CELL TYPES AND MODIFICATION

Biosphere- the part of earth that contains all ecosystems.

Ecosystem- community and its nonliving surroundings.

Community- populations that live together in a defined area.

Population- group of organisms of one type that live in the same area.

Organisms- individual living thing.

Group of Cells- tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Molecules- groups of atoms; smallest unit of most chemical compounds.

4 Main Types of Cells

•epithelial cells •connective tissue cells •muscle cells •nerve cells.

Epithelial Tissue-This type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as coverings or as linings of
organs and cavities. Epithelial tissues are characterized by closely-joined cells with tight junctions (i.e., a
type of cell modification). Being tightly packed, tight junctions serve as barriers for pathogens,
mechanical injuries, and fluid loss.
Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:
• cuboidal—for secretion.

• simple columnar—brick-shaped cells; for secretion and active absorption.

• simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of material through diffusion.

• stratified squamous—multilayered and regenerates quickly; for protection.

• pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells; may just look stacked because of varying height; for
lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification that sweeps the mucus).

Connective tissues hold parts of the body together, such as bones.

• The long tough fiber that hold bones onto other bones are called ligaments, forming joints, while the
tissues which hold muscle to bone are called tendons. Cartilage is another type of connective tissue,
which has widely spaced cells. Blood is regarded as specialized form of connective tissue because it
originates in the bones and has some fibers. Blood is compose of red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.

• BLOOD —made up of plasma (i.e., liquid extracellular matrix); contains water, salts, and dissolved
proteins; erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RBC), leukocytes for defense (WBC), and platelets for blood
clotting.

• CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (CTP)—made up of loose connective tissue that is found in the skin and
fibrous connective tissue that is made up of collagenous fibers found in tendons and ligaments. Adipose
tissues are also examples of loose connective tissues that store fats which functions to insulate the body
and store energy.

• CARTILAGE —characterized by collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate. Chondrocytes are

the cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate. Cartilage functions as cushion between bones.
• BONE —mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming cells called osteoblasts which deposit
collagen. The matrix of collagen is combined with calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions to make the
bone hard. Blood vessels and nerves are found at a central canal surrounded by concentric circles of
osteons.

Muscle Tissue-These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers that allow the body to move
voluntary or involuntary. Movement of muscles is a response to signals coming from nerve cells.

In vertebrates, these muscles can be categorized into the following:

• Involuntary-muscles not under our conscious control. Example. The muscles in your stomach move
even if we do not let them do so and the action cannot be stopped either. This type of muscle is also
called visceral or smooth muscle.
• Voluntary muscle – made up of long fibers and they move our bones. It is striated in appearance. We
can control them at will. Example. We can raise our legs if we wish. This type of muscle is called skeletal
muscle, since they are attached to the bones.

• Cardiac muscle is a special type of muscle that make up our heart. It is an involuntary muscle that is
striated in appearance.

Nervous/Nerve Tissues- These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and glial cells that
function as support cells. These neurons sense stimuli and transmit electrical signals throughout the
animal body. Neurons connect to other neurons to send signals. The dendrite is the part of the neuron
that receives impulses from other neurons while the axon is the part where the impulse is transmitted to
other neurons.

Types of Neurons

Motor neurons/efferent

• Accept nerve impulses from the Central Nervous System

• Transmit them to muscles or glands

Sensory Neurons/ afferent

• Accept impulse from sensory receptors

• Transmit them to CNS

Interneurons/association
• Convey nerve impulse between various parts of the CNS

Plant Tissues

Meristematic tissues- are tissues responsible for the production of new cells. It is compose of immature
cells and regions of active in cell division.

Permanent tissues- These are composed of mature and differentiated cells. Cells of this tissue have lost
their ability to divide and they have specialized structure to perform specific functions.

Kinds of Meristems

•Apical meristems- Found at the tips of stems and roots and are mainly responsible for the increase in
length of stems and roots.

•Lateral meristems- Found in the sides or periphery of roots and stems. Responsible of the increase in
width or diameter of stems or roots.

Kinds of Permanent Tissues

•Simple permanent tissue – consist of only one type of cells ( eg. Parenchyma)

•Complex permanent – consist of more than one type of cells ( eg. Xylem and phloem)

Parenchyma cells

• Cells alive at maturity

• With thin cell walls

• May have lignified secondary wall

• can be developmentally reprogrammed to form into different cell types (eg.transfer cell-for sugar
loadíng)
Functions:
1.Storage

2.Photosynthesis
3.Secretion

may contain starch grains, oil droplets, water, and salts

Collenchyma Cells

• flexible type of cell

• provides support to nonwoody part of the plant (stem surface)

• enables continuous flow of water and nutrients from the soil

• elongated and has an uneven thickness of the cell wall

• not uniformly found throughout plant body

walls of collenchyma cells are composed of alternating layers ofpectin and cellulose

Sclerenchyma cells
• rigid because of thick secondary walls strengthened with lignin

• Highly-lignified cell walls

•Dead at maturity

• Found in several parts of the plant

that needs rigidity and strength

2 types:

• Sclereids- short cells that are variable in shape,common in the shells of nuts and fruit walls.
• Fibers-long, tapered cells that often occur in groups or clumps, are particularly abundant in the wood,
inner bark, and leaf ribs.
Simple Permanent Tissues

• Epidermis- This is an external tissue which consist of a single layer of living cells. It serves as the
protective outer covering of the leaves, young roots and young stems. It produce cutin to protect plants
against loss of water.

• Parenchyma- This is an internal tissue and consist of living cells with thin cell wall. Found in the soft
parts of roots, stems, leaves and flowers. Most of the chlorophyll of leaves are in the cells of parenchyma
tissue. It is where photosynthesis occurs. The functions of parenchyma of stems and roots is food
manufacturing and food storage. Ex. Fleshy tissues of fruits and vegetables.
• Collenchyma- This is also an internal tissue. The collenchyma cells are structurally similar to
parenchyma cells except that their walls are irregularly and compactly arranged. The collenchyma is a
strengthening or supportive tissue and functions to store food.

• Sclerenchyma- Also an internal tissue consist of thick-walled, dead cells . The cells have uniformly thick
heavily lignified secondary walls. They function mainly for support. Plant fibers are sclerenchyma cells.
Found also in stone cells of chico fruit and in seed coat of coconut shells.

Complex Permanent Tissues Vascular tissues

•Xylem – primarily functions for the transport of water and dissolved substances upward in the plant
body.

•Phloem – primary functions in the transport of organic material such as carbohydrates and amino
acids.