DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL BANGALORE EAST

Cambridge International

Organization and Maintenance of

Organism

Chapter 2
 CELL STRUCTURE
The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic
structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms.
A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building
blocks of life".
If a very thin slice of a plant stem is cut and studied under a
microscope, it can be seen that the stem consists of thousands
of tiny, box-like structures. These structures are called cells.
Thin slices of this kind are called sections.
If you cut along the length of the structure, you are taking a
longitudinal section.
If you cut across the structure, you make a transverse section.
If a very thin slice of a plant stem is cut and studied under a
microscope, it can be seen that the stem consists of thousands
of tiny, box-like structures. These structures are called cells.
Thin slices of this kind are called sections.
If you cut along the length of the structure, you are taking
a longitudinal section.
If you cut across the structure, you make a transverse section.
Transverse section of Longitudinal section
kidney tubule through the tip and
bottom of plant
Types of organism on the basis of no of cell.
ANIMAL CELL
 ANIMAL CELL
All living organisms are made of cells, there are several different types of
cells, some of them sharing some common features. Human are made
up of eukaryotic cells. All eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and
membrane bound organelles. A more detailed structure of cells called
the ultrastructure can be obtained by using a microscope.
Cell membrane
This is a thin layer of cytoplasm around the outside of the cell. It stops
the cell contents from escaping and also controls the substances which
are allowed to enter and leave the cell. In general, oxygen, food and
water are allowed to enter; waste products are allowed to leave and
harmful substances are kept out. In this way the cell membrane
maintains the structure and chemical reactions of the cytoplasm.
 Cytoplasm
Under the ordinary microscope (light microscope), cytoplasm
looks like a thick liquid with particles in it. In the cytoplasm, a
great many chemical reactions are taking place which keep the
cell alive by providing energy and making substances that the
cell needs. The liquid part of cytoplasm is about 90% water
with molecules of salts and sugars dissolved in it. Suspended
in this solution there are larger molecules of fats (lipids) and
proteins . Lipids and proteins may be used to build up the cell
structures, such as the membranes. Some of the proteins are
enzymes. Enzymes control the rate and type of chemical
reactions which take place in the cells. Some enzymes are
attached to the membrane systems of the cell, whereas others
float freely in the liquid part of the cytoplasm.
Nucleus surrounded by a double membrane called the envelope
containing pores which enable molecules to enter and leave the
nucleus, the nucleus also contains chromatin and a nucleolus
which is the site of ribosome production. Most cells contain one
nucleus, which is usually seen as a rounded structure enclosed in
a membrane and embedded in the cytoplasm.

The function of the nucleus is to control the type and quantity of

enzymes produced by the cytoplasm. In this way it regulates the
chemical changes which take place in the cell. As a result, the
nucleus determines what the cell will be, for example, a blood
cell, a liver cell, a muscle cell or a nerve cell. The nucleus also
controls cell division.

A cell without a nucleus cannot reproduce. Inside the nucleus are

thread-like structures called chromosomes, which can be seen
most easily at the time when the cell is dividing.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum which is a series of flattened sacs
enclosed by a membrane with ribosomes on the surface.
RER folds and processes proteins made on the ribosomes.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is a system of membrane bound
sacs. SER produces and processes lipids.
Golgi apparatus is a series of fluid filled, flattened & curved sacs
with vesicles surrounding the edges. The Golgi apparatus
processes and packages proteins and lipids. It also produces
lysosomes.
Mitochondria are usually oval shaped, bound by a double
membrane called the envelope. The inner membrane is folded to
form projections called cristae with matrix on the inside
containing all the enzymes needed for respiration.
Centrioles are hollow cylinders containing a ring of microtubules
arranged at right angles to each other. Centrioles are involved in
cell division.
Ribosomes are composed of two sub units and are the site of
protein production
Lysosome is a vesicle containing digestive enzymes bound by a
single membrane.
PLANT CELL
 PLANT CELL
Most mature plant cells have a large, fluid-filled space called a
vacuole. The vacuole contains cell sap, a watery solution of sugars,
salts and sometimes pigments. This large, central vacuole pushes
the cytoplasm aside so that it forms just a thin lining inside the cell
wall. The vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called the
tonoplast.
The cell wall (plant cells) is made of cellulose microfibrils. Its role
is to strengthen the cell and prevent bursting due to osmosis.
In the cytoplasm of plant cells are many organelles called plastids.
These are not present in animal cells. If they contain the green
substance chlorophyll, the organelles are called chloroplasts.
Colourless plastids usually contain starch, which is used as a food
store.
 ONION PEEL CELL – MICROSCOPIC VIEW

Looking at cells
1 Plant cells – preparing a slide of onion epidermis cells .
The onion provides a very useful source of epidermal plant tissue
which is one cell thick, making it relatively easy to set up as a
temporary slide. The onion is made up of fleshy leaves. On the
incurve of each leaf there is an epidermal layer which can be
peeled off.
 ANIMAL CELLS – PREPARING HUMAN CHEEK CELLS
• Human cheek cells are constantly being rubbed off inside
the mouth as they come in contact with the tongue and
food. They can therefore be collected easily for use in a
temporary slide.
HUMAN CHEEK CELLS
DIFFERENCE IN PLANT CELL AND
ANIMAL CELL
SPECIALIZATION OF CELL
Most cells, when they have finished dividing and growing, become
specialised. When cells are specialised:
they do one particular job
they develop a distinct shape
special kinds of chemical change take place in their cytoplasm.
The specialisation of cells to carry out particular functions in an
organism is sometimes referred to as ‘division of labor within
the organism. Similarly, the special functions of mitochondria,
ribosomes and other cell organelles may be termed division of
labour within the cell.
 SPECIALISED C E L L S

ROOT H A I R C E L L N E RV E C E L L

XYLEM C E L L RED BLOOD CELLS

SPECIALISED C E L L S

SPERM C E L L

EGG CELL
 TYPES OF CELL (ON THE BASIS OF
ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL)
Organization of cell to from organism
 TISSUES AND ORGANS

There are some microscopic organisms that consist of one cell only. These
can carry out all the processes necessary for their survival. The cells of the
larger plants and animals cannot survive on their own.
• A tissue is a group of cells with similar structures, working together
to perform a shared function.
• An organ is a structure made up of a group of tissues, working
together to perform a specific function.
• A organ system is a group of organs with related functions, working
together to perform a body function.
• An organism is formed by the organs and systems working
together to produce an independent plant or animal.
 TISSUES

EPITHELIAL CELL KIDNEY TUBULE

MUSCLE CELL GLAND CELL

( S A L I VA R Y )
 ORGAN SYSTEM

C I R C U L AT O R Y S Y S T E M N E RV O U S S Y S T E M
 MEASURING MICROSCOPIC
OBJEC T
Units of measurement

In order to measure objects in the microscopic world, we need to use very

small units of measurement, which are unfamiliar to most people.
According to international agreement, the International System of Units
(SI units) should be used. In this system, the basic unit of length is the
metre (symbol, m). Additional units can be created in multiples of a
thousand times larger or smaller, using standard prefixes. For example,
the prefix kilo means 1000 times.

Units of length used in Microscopy:

1 metre (m) = 1000 millimetres (mm)

1 mm = 1000 micrometres (μm) or microns

1 micron = 1000 nanometres (nm)

 MEASURING
MICROSCOPIC UNIT
The unit of length that is commonly used for microscopic objects is
the micrometer. The prefix micro- is given the symbol of the Greek
letter mµ (µ). A micrometer (µm) is equal to one-millionth of a meter.
Micrometre, also called micron, metric unit of measure for length
equal to 0.001 mm. Its symbol is μm. The micrometre is commonly
employed to measure the thickness or diameter of microscopic
objects, such as microorganisms and colloidal particles.
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