Cells are the basic, fundamental unit of life.

So, if we were to break apart an organism to the

cellular level, the smallest independent component that we would find would be the cell.
Explore the cell notes to know what is a cell, cell definition, cell structure, types and functions of
cells. These notes have an in-depth description of all the concepts related to cells.
Table Of Contents

What is a Cell? Cell Definition

Discovery Characteristics Of Cells

Cell Structure Types Of Cells

Cell Theory Functions Of A Cell

Cells are the fundamental unit of life. They range in size from 0.0001 mm to nearly 150 mm
across

Cell Definition
“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for
all of life’s processes.”
Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can replicate
itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.
Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane. Also present
in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. Moreover,
cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.

What is a Cell?
A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure to
the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first Biologist
who discovered cells.
All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many
cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building blocks of
all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken from the food
into energy.
Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are of
different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of cells
of different shapes and sizes.
Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to organism, the count
of cells may vary. Humans have the number of cells compared to that of bacteria.
Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to carry out life
processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material of the organisms is
also present in the cells.

Discovery of Cells
Discovery of cells is one of the remarkable advancements in the field of science. It helps us know
that all the organisms are made up of cells, and these cells help in carrying out various life
processes. The structure and functions of cells helped us to understand life in a better way.

Who discovered cells?

Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of bottle cork under a
compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures that reminded him of small rooms.
Consequently, he named these “rooms” as cells. However, his compound microscope had limited
magnification, and hence, he could not see any details in the structure. Owing to this limitation,
Hooke concluded that these were non-living entities.
Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope with higher
magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells exhibited some form of movement (motility).
As a result, Leeuwenhoek concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually,
after a host of other observations, these entities were named as animalcules.
In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the cell structure.
He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.

Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and
cell growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
  Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by
synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.
Also Read: Nucleus

Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular structure,
there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes
Explore: Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic Cells
Main article: Prokaryotic Cells

1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called
the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. They
are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to
sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

Eukaryotic Cells
Main article: Eukaryotic Cells

1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.

2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant
cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells
do not.

Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out
life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and
cell organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

Cell Membrane
  The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such
as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permit the movement of
selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects
the cellular component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and
injuries.

Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes,
are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest
of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out
life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows:

Cell Organelle and its Functions

Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and
cellular reproduction

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell
organelles.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23 pairs
of chromosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a
primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.

Golgi Bodies

Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials within the cell

Ribosome

Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell

Mitochondria

The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s
energy currency

Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and helps in cell renewal.
Therefore, it is known as the cell’s suicide bags

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment chlorophyll

Vacuoles

Vacuoles stores food, water, and other waste materials in the cell

Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden,
and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:
  All living species on Earth are composed of cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the following
postulates:

 Energy flows within the cells.

 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

Functions of Cell
A cell performs these major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The
cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and
structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present
in the vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply
and facilitate the growth in an organism.

Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by
active and passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol
diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive
transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where
the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.

Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the
cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as
the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the
daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells. Thus, we can understand why
cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life. This is because they are responsible
for providing structure to the organisms and performs several functions necessary for carrying
out life’s processes.
Respiration is one of an essential process carried out by all living organism to survive. When you
run to catch your school bus, you find yourself to be breathing faster. It is because your body
requires extra energy for running, which was provided by respiration. This resulted in rapid
breathing. Breathing is an integral part of respiration but as a whole, it is a phenomenon that
keeps our body going.
In simple terms, respiration is the process through which the nutrients we eat are converted into
useful energy. As we know, the cell is the structural and functional unit of life and each cell
requires energy to perform their functions. Therefore, respiration that takes place at the smallest
level of our body i.e cellular level is called cellular respiration. The process ensures that each cell
performs its function perfectly.
Let us have a detailed look at the cellular respiration that takes place in humans.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions occurring inside the cells to convert
biochemical energy obtained from the food into a chemical compound called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). Metabolism refers to a set of chemical reactions carried out for maintaining
the living state of the cells in an organism. These can be divided into two categories:

 Catabolism – the process of breaking molecules to obtain energy.

 Anabolism – the process of synthesizing all compounds required by the cells.
Therefore, respiration is a catabolic process, which breaks large molecules into smaller ones,
releasing energy to fuel cellular activities.
Why Do We Respire?
Every living organism requires energy for their survival. Even when we are eating or sleeping, we
need energy. Do you think you can run fastly if you lack energy? Where does this energy come
from? Yes, it comes from food and it is the process of respiration, that converts the food into
energy.
While breathing, we breathe in air that contains oxygen and we breathe out air rich in carbon
dioxide. As we breathe in, the oxygen-rich air is transported to all parts of our body and ultimately
to each cell. Inside the cell, the food, which contains glucose, is broken down into carbon dioxide
and water with the help of oxygen. The process of breakdown of glucose to release energy,
which can be utilized by our body to perform daily chores like walking, sitting or even thinking, is
known as respiration.

Introduction: Prokaryotes And Eukaryotes

Biotic components of the environment include all forms of life from minute bacteria to towering
giant Sequoias. However, at the microscopic level, all living organisms are made up of the same
basic unit – the cell.
Contents:

 Prokaryotic Cell
 Eukaryotic Cell
 Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
As a result, the cell is referred to as the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. The
word cell has its origins from Latin, and when translated, it means “small room” and was first
observed by Robert Hooke – an English natural philosopher in the year 1665.
He also compared his discovery to the cells in a honeycomb, as they showcase a similar
structure.

An image illustrating the difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells. Note that the
prokaryotic cell is a complete individual organism
Eventual advancements in science and technology shed more light into the cell, with new
findings and discoveries about its structure and cellular components. During the 1950s, scientists
postulated the concept of prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell, with earlier groundwork being laid
by Edouard Chatton, a French Biologist in 1925.
Anatomically, cells vary with respect to their classification, therefore, prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells differ from each other quite drastically. Read on to explore how they differ from
each other.

Prokaryotic Cell
The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “pro“, (meaning: before) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel). It translates to “before nuclei.“
Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient groups of living organisms on earth, with fossil records
dating back to almost 3.5 billion years ago.
These prokaryotes thrived in the earth’s ancient environment, some using up chemical energy
and others using the sun’s energy. These extremophiles thrived for millions of years, evolving
and adapting. Scientists speculate that these organisms gave rise to the eukaryotes.
Prokaryotic cells are comparatively smaller and much simpler than eukaryotic cells. The other
defining characteristic of prokaryotic cells is that it does not possess membrane-bound cell
organelles such as a nucleus. Reproduction happens through the process of binary fission.
Structurally, prokaryotes have a capsule enveloping its entire body, and it functions as a
protective coat. This is crucial for preventing the process of phagocytosis (where the bacteria
gets engulfed by other eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages) The pilus is a hair-like appendage
found on the external surface of most prokaryotes and it helps the organism to attach itself to
various environments. The pilus essentially resists being flushed, hence, it is also called
attachment pili. It is commonly observed in bacteria.
Right below the protective coating lies the cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to the
cell. Further down lies the cytoplasm that helps in cellular growth, and this is contained within the
plasma membrane, which separates the interior contents of the cell from the outside
environment. Within the cytoplasm, ribosomes exist and it plays an important role in protein
synthesis. It is also one of the smallest components within the cell.
Some prokaryotic cells contain special structures called mesosomes which assist in cellular
respiration. Most prokaryotes also contain plasmids, which contains small, circular pieces of
DNA. To help with locomotion, flagella are present, though, pilus can also serve as an aid for
locomotion. Common examples of Prokaryotic organisms are bacteria and archaea. Also, all
members of Kingdom Monera are prokaryotes.
Main Article: Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cell
The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word “eu“, (meaning: good) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to “good or true nuclei.” Eukaryotes are more complex
and much larger than the prokaryotes. They include almost all the major kingdoms except
kingdom monera.
Structurally, eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the plasma membrane.
The cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane and it controls the entry and exit of certain
substances.
The nucleus contains DNA, which is responsible for storing all genetic information. The nucleus
is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. Within the nucleus exists the nucleolus, and it plays a
crucial role in synthesising proteins. Eukaryotic cells also contain mitochondria, which are
responsible for the creation of energy, which is then utilized by the cell.
Present in only plant cells, chloroplasts are the subcellular sites of photosynthesis. Endoplasmic
reticulum helps in the transportation of materials. Besides these, there are also other cell
organelles that perform various other functions and these include ribosomes, lysosomes, Golgi
bodies, cytoplasm, chromosomes, vacuoles and centrosomes.
Examples of eukaryotes include almost every unicellular organism with a nucleus and all
multicellular organisms.
Main Article: Eukaryotic Cells

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Though these two classes of cells are quite different, they do possess some common
characteristics. For instance, both possess cell membrane and ribosomes, but the similarities
end there. The complete list of differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are
summarized as follows:

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular

Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 μm in Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in
diameter diameter

Cell wall Usually present; chemically complex in When present, chemically simple in
nature nature

Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have a nucleoid Present

region in the cell

Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and spherical in Present. Comparatively larger in size
shape and linear in shape

DNA arrangement Circular Linear

Mitochondria Absent Present

Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present

Endoplasmic Absent Present

reticulum

Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are absent Lysosomes and centrosomes are
present

Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis

Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size

Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual

Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

Cell Wall and Cell Membrane

A cell is the structural and functional working unit of life and also been described as building
blocks and fundamental unit of an organism. The term cell was coined by an English
scientist Robert Hooke in the year 1665. The shape and size of the cells vary according to
their functions and compositions. There are different types of cells and can be differentiated
based on the presence and absence of few cell organelles.
Table of Contents

 Cell Wall
 Cell Membrane
 Difference between Cell Wall and Cell Membrane

 Conclusion
 Important Questions for Cell Wall and Cell Membrane

Cell Wall
The cell wall is present only in plants, fungi and bacteria. The image above represents a plant
cell wall
The cell wall is the outermost covering of plant cells. It is present outside the cell membrane
and is tough, flexible and sometimes rigid in its texture. It is mainly composed of
cellulose, long fibres of carbohydrates including hemicellulose, lignin and pectin.
The main functions of the cell wall are:
1. Protecting the cell against physical damage and invading pathogens.
2. Regulates and controls the direction of cell growth.
3. Providing the strength, structural support and maintaining the shape of the cell.
4. Functions as a storage unit by storing carbohydrates for use in plant growth,
especially in seeds.
5. It allows entry of smaller molecules through it freely.
Explore More: Plant cell
 Cell Membrane is present in all organisms including plants
The cell membrane is also known as the plasma membrane. It is the outermost covering of
animal cells. It is a semi-permeable membrane composed of lipids and proteins. The main
functions of the cell membrane include:
1. Protecting the integrity of the interior cell.
2. Providing support and maintaining the shape of the cell.
3. Helps in regulating cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis.
4. The cell membrane also plays an important role in cell signalling and communication.
5. It acts as a selectively permeable membrane by allowing the entry of only selected
substances into the cell.
Also Read: Animal Cell

Difference between Cell Wall and Cell Membrane

One of the fundamental differences between the plasma membrane and the cell wall is in the
type of organisms that they are found. The cell wall is present only in plants and the cell
membrane is present in every living organism including plants.

CELL WALL CELL MEMBRANE

Present only in plants and in some fungi, Present in all types of cells, in humans, animals,
bacteria, algae. plants, bacteria, etc.
It is the outermost part of the plant cell It is the outermost covering the animal cells

It is made up of pectin, chitin, lignin, It is a lipid bilayer. And is composed of lipoproteins

glycoproteins, glycolipids, sugar, and cellulose. and carbohydrates.

The cell wall is 0.1 μm to several μm in thickness The cell membrane is 7.5–10 nm in thickness

It is the thick and rigid structure with a fixed It is a thin and delicate structure. It is flexible to
shape. change the shape as needed.

It protects the cell from the external It protects and maintains the internal environment of
environment. the cell.

The cell wall is metabolically inactive The cell membrane is metabolically active.

The cell wall grows in thickness over time.

It is of the same thickness for the lifetime of the
Further, it occupies the whole cell in the plant as
organism.
the cell ages and dies.

The membrane is selectively permeable and controls

The cell wall is fully permeable to smaller
the movement of the substance into and outside the
molecules with the size of 30-60 kDa.
cell.

Functions include permeability, signal reception,

Functions include protection from the external
motility conduction, cell division, sexual
environment.
reproduction, etc.

Also Read: Difference Between Plant cell and Animal cell

Conclusion
The cell wall and cell membrane are two organelles that are an important part of living
organisms. However, the former is found only in plants, fungi and in some bacteria.
Traditionally, a cell well is defined as the layer of polysaccharides that exists outside the
plasma membrane. It is rigid and serves structural and supportive functions. On the other
hand, the cell wall in fungi is made from another material called chitin, which is also found in
the exoskeletons of arthropods.
The cell membrane is present in all living organisms, including plants. It is the outermost
layer of the cell in animals and encloses other cellular organelles within. Unlike the cell wall,
the cell membrane is flexible and its shape can be changed as needed. Also, it is
metabolically active and has selective permeability.
Important Questions for Cell Wall and Cell Membrane
1. What is the main function of the cell wall?
The cell wall is the outermost layer in a plant cell. It provides structural support and rigidity
for the plant body.
2. What is the function of the cell membrane?
Unlike the cell wall, the cell membrane is present in all living organisms, including plants.
The main role of the cell membrane is to provide protection to the cell from its surroundings.
3. Are cell walls and cell membranes the same thing?
Cell walls are distinctly different from cell membranes. For instance, the cell wall is present
only in plants, fungi and some bacteria. The cell membrane, on the other hand, is present in
all living organisms including plants.
4. What is the role of the plasma membrane?
The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane. It provides protection for the cell and
its cellular components from the external environment. It is selectively permeable and
regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.
5. What is the primary component of the cell wall?
The primary component of the cell wall varies with different organisms. In the plant cells,
cellulose is the primary component of the cell wall, in bacteria the primary component of the
cell wall is peptidoglycan and in fungi the primary component of the cell wall is chitin.

Osmosis Definition
Osmosis is the diffusion of a solvent through a differentially permeable membrane. In biological
systems, the solvent will usually be water. Osmosis will occur whenever the water concentrations
are different on either side of a differentially permeable membrane.
Osmosis can be defined as the movement of water molecules from a higher water concentration
area to the area of less water concentration through a semipermeable membrane. In other
words, it can be defined as the diffusion of water molecules through a semipermeable
membrane. It is a special case of diffusion of water (High to low). For example, water in the roots
of plants is transported through osmosis.
What is Diffusion?
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules of a substance from a region of their higher
concentration to a region of their lower concentration. Net movement means there are more
molecules moving in one direction than in the opposite direction.
Example: Opening a bottle of perfume in a room will result in the gradual diffusion of the perfume
from the region of higher concentration (the bottle) out into the room. Diffusion will continue until
the perfume has a more or less uniform concentration throughout the bottle and room.
The passive movement of matter; the spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its
concentration, pressure, or temperature gradient. Matter essentially moves (or diffuses) from an
area of higher free energy to an area of lower free energy until chemical equilibrium is achieved.
In simple words, the movement of matter from high concentration area to low concentration area.
For example, perfume diffuses into the air spreading the aroma.
Even though the process of diffusion and osmosis are almost similar, there are some notable
differences between them. Few key differences are listed below.

Difference between diffusion and osmosis:

Osmosis Diffusion

It occurs in all states of matter i.e., solids, liquids or

It happens only in the liquid state.
gases.

It should be movement of only water or solvent

Any type of substance that moves from higher
through semipermeable membrane from lower
concentration area to lower concentration area.
concentration to higher concentration.

Diffusion is applied to all states of matter.

It is applied only for the solvent part of the solution.

This phenomenon does not require semipermeable

It requires semipermeable membrane.
membrane.
Osmosis depends on the rate of reduction of free
It only depends on the free energy of the substance.
energy of one solvent.

Influenced by the solute potential Not influenced by solute potential

Hydrostatic pressure or turgor pressure will not

It is opposed by hydrostatic or turgor pressure.
occur in diffusion.

In this process, concentration of solvent is not

Concentration of whole substance will be equalized.
equalized.

Factors like solute potential, water potential and Factors like solute potential, water potential and
pressure potential will not affect osmosis. pressure potential will not affect diffusion.

Importance of Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion is essential for many organisms as it is a feature of a number of processes which
control and supply vital substances to the body in order for basic survival. A few of these are
discussed below. Gas exchange is one of these processes.

 It is when much-needed oxygen is obtained by the body in order for respiration to take
place and the waste CO2 is taken out of the body. In us mammals, the exchange takes
place in the lungs which contain many alveoli.
 The importance of osmosis is to keep an equilibrium between the outside and inside
environment.
 For example, from the soil to the root hairs of the plant for the osmosis of water.
The Soil has more concentration of water, therefore, it moves from soil to a region of low
concentration (ie. Plant)
More than 8.7 million species are living on the planet. Every single species is composed of a cell
and it includes both single-celled and multicellular organisms.
The cells provide shape, structure and carries out different types of functions to keep the entire
system active. The cell contains different functional structures which are collectively called
Organelles, and they are involved in various cellular functions.
Also Read: Difference between organ and organelle
Let us learn more in detail about the different types and functions of Cell Organelles.
Table of Contents

 What are Cell Organelles?

 List of Cell Organelles and their Functions
 Plasma Membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Nucleus
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Mitochondria
 Plastids
 Ribosomes
 Golgi Apparatus
  Microbodies
 Cytoskeleton
 Cilia and Flagella
 Centrosome and Centrioles
 Vacuoles
 A Brief Summary on Cell Organelles
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of a living organism. According to cell theory
postulates, a cell is the basic building block of life, which makes anything alive and is self-
sufficient to carry out all the fundamental functions of an organism.
Explore more about Cells.

What are Cell Organelles?

The cellular components are called cell organelles. These cell organelles include both membrane
and non-membrane bound organelles, present within the cells and are distinct in their structures
and functions. They coordinate and function efficiently for the normal functioning of the cell. A
few of them function by providing shape and support, whereas some are involved in the
locomotion and reproduction of a cell. There are various organelles present within the cell and
are classified into three categories based on the presence or absence of membrane.
Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-
membrane-bound cell organelles. They are present both in prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic
cell.
Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic
Reticulum are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are double
membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
Let us learn more in detail about the different cell organelles in brief.
List of Cell Organelles and their Functions

Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or Cytoplasmic Membrane. It is a
selectively permeable membrane of the cell, which is composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins.
The plasma membrane is present both in plant and animal cell, which functions as the
selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective materials in and out of the
cell according to the requirement. In an animal cell, the cell membrane functions by
providing shape and protects the inner contents of the cell. Based on the structure of the plasma
membrane, it is regarded as the fluid mosaic model. According to the fluid mosaic model, the
plasma membranes are subcellular structures, made of a lipid bilayer in which the protein
molecules are embedded.
Also refer to the Difference Between Cell Membrane and Plasma Membrane

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells. They are jelly-like substances, found
between the cell membrane and nucleus. They are mainly composed of water, organic and
inorganic compounds. The cytoplasm is one of the essential components of the cell, where all
the cell organelles are embedded. These cell organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for
controlling all metabolic activity taking place within the cell and are the site for most of the
chemical reactions within a cell.
Nucleus

The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the largest
organelle, which functions as the control centre of the cellular activities and is the storehouse of
the cell’s DNA. By structure, the nucleus is dark, round, surrounded by a nuclear membrane. It is
a porous membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a wall between cytoplasm and nucleus.
Within the nucleus, there are tiny spherical bodies called nucleolus. It also carries another
essential structure called chromosomes.
Chromosomes are thin and thread-like structures which carry another important structure called
a gene. Genes are a hereditary unit in organisms i.e., it helps in the inheritance of traits from one
generation (parents) to another (offspring). Hence, the nucleus controls the characters and
functions of cells in our body. The primary function of the nucleus is to monitor cellular activities
including metabolism and growth by making use of DNA’s genetic information. Nucleoli in the
nucleus are responsible for the synthesis of protein and RNA.
Also read about the Nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They are the
transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials throughout the cell.
There are two different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules, and

vesicles, which are found throughout the cell and are involved with protein manufacture.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle, associated with the
production of lipids, steroids, and also responsible for detoxifying the cell.

Also, read about Endoplasmic Reticulum

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce energy-rich molecules for
the cell. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally in several organisms. It is a double
membrane-bound, sausage-shaped organelle, found in almost all eukaryotic cells.
The double membranes divide its lumen into two distinct aqueous compartments. The inner
compartment is called ‘matrix’ which is folded into cristae whereas the outer membrane forms a
continuous boundary with the cytoplasm. They usually vary in their size and are found either
round or oval in shape. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cell, produces
energy in the form of ATP and helps in the transformation of the molecules.
For instance, glucose is converted into adenosine triphosphate – ATP. Mitochondria have their
own circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes (the 70s), and a few other molecules that help in
protein synthesis.
Also read about Mitochondria

Plastids
Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which contain pigments. Based on the type of
pigments, plastids are of three types:
  Chloroplasts – Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles, which usually vary
in their shape – from a disc shape to spherical, discoid, oval and ribbon. They are
present in mesophyll cells of leaves, which store chloroplasts and other carotenoid
pigments. These pigments are responsible for trapping light energy for photosynthesis.
The inner membrane encloses a space called the stroma. Flattened disc-like chlorophyll-
containing structures known as thylakoids are arranged in a stacked manner like a pile of
coins. Each pile is called as granum (plural: grana) and the thylakoids of different grana
are connected by flat membranous tubules known as stromal lamella. Just like the
mitochondrial matrix, the stroma of chloroplast also contains a double-stranded circular
DNA, 70S ribosomes, and enzymes which required for the synthesis of carbohydrates
and proteins.
 Chromoplasts – The chromoplasts include fat-soluble, carotenoid pigments like
xanthophylls, carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their characteristic color –
yellow, orange, red, etc.
 Leucoplasts – Leucoplasts are colorless plastids which store nutrients. Amyloplasts
store carbohydrates (like starch in potatoes), aleuroplasts store proteins, and elaioplasts
store oils and fats.
Also read about Plastids

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are nonmembrane-bound and important cytoplasmic organelles found in close
association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are found in the form of tiny particles in a
large number of cells and are mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd of protein. They are
named as the 70s (found in prokaryotes) or 80s (found in eukaryotes) The letter S refers to the
density and the size, known as Svedberg’s Unit. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of
two sub-units. Ribosomes are either encompassed within the endoplasmic reticulum or are freely
traced in the cell’s cytoplasm. Ribosomal RNA and Ribosomal proteins are the two components
that together constitute ribosomes. The primary function of the ribosomes includes protein
synthesis in all living cells that ensure the survival of the cell.
Also read about Ribosomes

Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus also termed as Golgi Complex. It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is
mainly composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. This cell organelle is
primarily responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipid to targeted
destinations. Golgi Apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of a cell and are present in both plant
and animal cells.
Also read about the Golgi Apparatus

Microbodies
Microbodies are membrane-bound, minute, vesicular organelles, found in both plant and animal
cell. They contain various enzymes and proteins and can be visualized only under the electron
microscope.
Also read about Microbodies

Cytoskeleton
It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous structures that run throughout the
cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. It is found in all living cells, notably in the
eukaryotes. The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of different types of proteins that can divide
rapidly or disassemble depending on the requirement of the cells. The primary functions include
providing the shape and mechanical resistance to the cell against deformation, the contractile
nature of the filaments helps in motility and during cytokinesis.
Also read about Cytoskeleton

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures, present outside the cell wall and work like oars to
either move the cell or the extracellular fluid. Flagella are slightly bigger and are responsible for
the cell movements. The eukaryotic flagellum structurally differs from its prokaryotic counterpart.
The core of the cilium and flagellum is called a axoneme, which contains nine pairs
of gradually arranged peripheral microtubules and a set of central microtubules running parallel
to the axis. The central tubules are interconnected by a bridge and are embedded by a central
sheath. One of the peripheral microtubular pairs is also interconnected to the central sheath by a
radial spoke. Hence there is a total of 9 radial spokes. The cilia and flagella emerge from
centriole-like structures called basal bodies.
Also read about the Difference Between Cilia And Flagella

Centrosome and Centrioles

The centrosome organelle is made up of two mutually perpendicular structures known as
centrioles. Each centriole is composed of 9 equally spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein,
and the fibril is a set of interlinked triplets. The core part of the centriole is known as a hub and is
proteinaceous. The hub connects the peripheral fibrils via radial spoke, which is made up of
proteins. The centrioles from the basal bodies of the cilia and flagella give rise to spindle fibres
during cell division.
Also read about Centrosomes

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are mostly defined as storage bubbles of irregular shapes which are found in cells.
They are fluid-filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. The vacuole stores the food or a variety
of nutrients that a cell might need to survive. In addition to this, it also stores waste products. The
waste products are eventually thrown out by vacuoles. Thus, the rest of the cell is protected from
contamination. The animal and plant cell have different size and number of vacuoles. Compared
to the animals, plant cell have larger vacuoles.
Also read about Vacuoles

A Brief Summary on Cell Organelles

Cell Structure Functions

Organelles

Cell membrane A double membrane composed of lipids and Provides shape, protects the inner
proteins. Present both in plant and animal organelle of the cell and acts as a
cell. selectively permeable membrane.

Centrosomes Composed of Centrioles and found only in It plays a major role in organizing the
the animal cells. microtubule and Cell division.
Chloroplasts Present only in plant cells and contains a Sites of photosynthesis.
green-coloured pigment known as
chlorophyll.

Cytoplasm A jelly-like substance, which consists of Responsible for the cell’s metabolic
water, dissolved nutrients and waste activities.
products of the cell.

Endoplasmic A network of membranous tubules, present Forms the skeletal framework of the cell,
Reticulum within the cytoplasm of a cell. involved in the Detoxification, production
of Lipids and proteins.

Golgi Membrane-bound, sac-like organelles, It is mainly involved in secretion and

apparatus present within the cytoplasm of the intracellular transport.
eukaryotic cells.

Lysosomes A tiny, circular-shaped, single membrane- Helps in the digestion and removes
bound organelles, filled with digestive wastes and digests dead and damaged
enzymes. cells. Therefore, it is also called as the
“suicidal bags”.

Mitochondria An oval-shaped, membrane-bound organelle, The main sites of cellular respiration and
also called as the “Power House of The also involved in storing energy in the
Cell”. form of ATP molecules.

Nucleus A largest, double membrane-bound Controls the activity of the cell, helps in
organelles, which contains all the cell’s cell division and controls the hereditary
genetic information. characters.

Peroxisome A membrane-bound cellular organelle Involved in the metabolism of lipids

present in the cytoplasm, which contains the and catabolism of long-chain fatty acids.
reducing enzyme.

Plastids Double membrane-bound organelles. There Helps in the process of photosynthesis

are 3 types of plastids: and pollination, Imparts colour for leaves,
flowers and fruits and stores starch,
1. Leucoplast –Colourless plastids. proteins and fats.
2. Chromoplast–Blue, Red, and
Yellow colour plastids.
3. Chloroplast – Green coloured
plastids.

Ribosomes Non-membrane organelles, found floating Involved in the Synthesis of Proteins.

freely in the cell’s cytoplasm or embedded
within the endoplasmic reticulum.

Vacuoles A membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelle Provide shape and rigidity to the plant cell
found within the cytoplasm. and helps in digestion, excretion, and
storage of substances.
Important Question on Cell Organelles:
 Which cell organelle is called the Powerhouse of the cell?
Mitochondria is the cell organelle and is called the Powerhouse of the cell as they carry out the
cellular respiration and generate the energy molecules called ATP or Adenosine Triphosphate.

 Where do we find Chloroplasts and Chromoplast pigments in plants?

Chloroplasts and Chromoplasts are the plastids present in all plant cells. Chloroplasts are the
green colour pigments, present in the leaves, green-coloured stems, etc. Chromoplasts are the
colourful pigments present in all colourful parts of the plant like flowers and fruits, etc.
 Why Lysosomes are known as suicide bags?
Lysosomes are called the suicidal bags because they are capable of breaking down or digesting
all the wastes, dead and damaged cells.

 What is Nucleoid?
Nucleoid is a non-membrane, irregular shaped cell organelle present in all prokaryotic cells. They
are the carriers of the genetic material of a cell.

 The largest membrane-bound organelle in eukaryotic cell is?

Organelles are special and organized structures seen in living cells. Some of the membrane-
bound organelles are vacuoles, nucleus, chloroplasts, lysosomes etc. The nucleus is the largest
organelle in the cell.

Difference Between Plant cell and Animal cell

The cell is the fundamental unit of life. All the life activities are carried out by cells. The
organisms are classified based on the number of cells present in them. Unicellular organisms
are single-celled, while multicellular organisms have a large number of cells.
Unicellular organisms are believed to be one of the earliest forms of life on earth. Eventually,
more complex multicellular organisms evolved from these unicellular life forms over the
aeons. Multicellular organisms have specialized cells with complicated cell organelles, which
unicellular organisms typically lack.
In an ecosystem, plants have the role of producers while animals have taken the role of
consumers. Hence, their daily activities and functions vary, so do their cell structure. Cell
structure and organelles vary in plants and animals, and they are primarily classified based on
their function. The difference in their cell composition is the reason behind the difference
between plants and animals, their structure and functions.
Each cell organelle has a particular function to perform. Some of the cell organelles are
present in both plant cell and the animal cell, while others are unique to just one. Most of the
earth’s higher organisms are eukaryotes, including all plant and animals. Hence, these cells
share some similarities typically associated with eukaryotes.
For example, all eukaryotic cells consist of a nucleus, plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, peroxisomes, mitochondria, ribosomes and other cell organelles.
Also Read: Cells

Differences Between Plant Cell and Animal Cell

 Diagram showing the Difference between Plant cell and Animal cell
As stated above, both plant and animal cells share a few common cell organelles, as both are
eukaryotes. The function of all these organelles is said to be very much similar. However, the
major differences between the plant and animal cells, which significantly reflect the
difference in the functions of each cell.
The major differences between the plant cell and animal cell are mentioned below:

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Shape

Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape

Cell Wall

Present Absent

Plasma/Cell Membrane

Present Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Present Present

Nucleus

Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the centre of the cell

Lysosomes

Present but are very rare Present

Centrosomes

Absent Present

Golgi Apparatus

Present Present

Cytoplasm

Present Present

Ribosomes

Present Present

Plastids

Present Absent

Vacuoles
 Few large or a single, centrally positioned vacuole Usually small and numerous

Cilia

Absent Present in most of the animal cells

Mitochondria

Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous

Mode of Nutrition

Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic

Conclusion
Both plant and animal cells comprise membrane-bound organelles, such as endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, the nucleus, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes. They also
have similar membranes, such as cytoskeletal elements and cytosol. The plant cell can also be
larger than the animal cell. The normal range of the animal cell varies from about 10 – 30
micrometres and that of plant cell range between 10 – 100 micrometres.