Skeletal system

Unit- ii

Systems responsible for support and movement

General objective

At the end of this teaching session student should be able to gain knowladge about anatomy and
physiology of skeletan

Specific objectives

list five types of bones and give an example of each

i. outline the general structure of a long bone

ii. describe the structure of compact and cancellous bone tissue
iii. describe the development of bone
iv. outline hormonal regulation of growth of bone
v. state the functions of bones.
Terminology related to the skeleton

i Depressions and openings-

fissure- narrow cut between nearby parts of bones through which blood vessels or nerves pass.

foramen- opening through which blood vessels, nerves, or ligament pass.

Fossa- narrow depression .

Sulcus- groove a long bone surface that accommodates a blood vessels, nerve, or tendon.

Meatus- tube like opening

ii Processes

Condyle- large round protuberance at the end of the bone.

Facet- smooth flat articular surface.

Head- rounded articular projection supported on the neck of a bone

Crest- prominent ridge or extended projection.

Epicondyle- projection above a condyle

Line (linea)- long narrow ridge or border (less prominent than a crest

Spinous process- sharp, slim projection.

Trochanter- very large projection

Tubercle- small, rounded projection.

Tuberosity- large, rounded,usually roughened projection

The skeleton

it is the bony framework of body.

It forms cavities and fossae that protect some structures, forms the joints and gives attachment to
muscles.

The skeleton is described in two parts:

 Axial part

 Appendicular part (the appendages attached to the axial skeleton).

BONE

Bone is a strong a type of connective tissue. It consists of:

 water (25%)

 organic parts including osteoid ( carbon containing part of the matrix ûÕØæ×) and
bone cells (25%)

 inorganic constituents, mainly calcium phosphate ( 50% )

Types of bones

Bones are classified as long, short, irregular, flat and sesamoid.

Long bones.

These consist of a shaft and two extremities.

As name suggests length is much greater than width. Ex femur, tibia and fibula.

Short, irregular, flat and sesamoid bones.

These have no shafts or extremities and are various in shape and size.

Examples include:

short bones — carpals (wrist)

irregular bones—vertebrae and some skull bones

flat bones — sternum, ribs and most skull bones

sesamoid bones — patella (knee cap)

Bone structure

General structure of a long bone

These have a diaphysis or shaft and two epiphyses or extremities.

Diaphysis is composed of compact bone with a central medullary canal, containing fatty yellow bone
marrow à`ðÆú¸_.

Epiphyses consist of outer covering of compact bone with cancellous bone inside.

Diaphysis and epiphyses are separated µ<ùß µ<ù<$ by epiphyseal cartilages, which ossify à`ð ý<ð {`µØù<$
when growth is complete.

Thickening of a bone occurs by deposition õ`ùßûõß æÚδ of new bone tissue under periosteum

Long bones are almost completely covered by a vascular membrane, periosteum.

Periosteumm, Outer layer is fibrous and inner layer is osteogenic containing osteoblasts (forming cells)
and osteoclasts (destroying cells),

Hyaline cartilage replaces periosteum on the articular &ùßø$ù surfaces of bones forming synovial joints

periosteum covers whole bone except within joint cavities, allows attachments of tendons and is
continuous with joint capsule.

Hyaline cartilage replaces periosteum on bone surfaces that form joints.

Structure of short, irregular, flat,sesamoid bones

These have a quite thin outer layer of compact bone with cancellous bone inside containing red bone
marrow.
They are enclosed by periosteum except inner layer of cranial bones where it is replaced by dura mater.

Microscopic structure of bone

Compact (cortical) bone

naked eye, compact bone appears solid but on microscopic examination large numbers of Haversian
systems or osteons are seen .

These consist of a central Haversian canal, containing blood and lymph vessels and nerves, surrounded
by concentric rings or plates of bone (lamellae)

Between these are spaces, tiny spaces, containing tissue fluid and spider-shaped osteocytes (mature mßK;

bone cells).

Canalicul kd,sldj link the holes with each other and with central Haversian canal.

The tissue fluid nourishes bone cells.

The areas between Haversian systems contain interstitial lamellae, remains of adult systems partially
broken down during remodelling or growth of bone.

The 'tubular' arrangement of lamellae gives bone greater strength than a solid structure of same size

Cancellous (trabecular, spongy) bone

To naked eye, cancellous bone looks like a honeycomb.

Microscopic examination reveals a framework formed from trabeculae udjr ( 'little beams'), which consist
of a few lamellae iqia;rh and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi .

spaces between trabeculae contain red bone marrow that nourishes osteocytes.

Bone cells

There are three types of bone cell

I. osteoblast
II. ostecytes
III. Osteoclast
Osteoblasts

Responsible for deposition of both inorganic salts and osteoid in bone tissue.

Growing, repairing or remodelling, by this cell e.g.

In deeper layers of periosteum

In centres of ossification of immature bone

At the ends of diaphysis adjacent to epiphyseal cartilages of long bones

• At the site of a fracture.

As they deposit new bone tissue around themselves,

They eventually become surrounded in tiny pockets (lacunae, ) in the growing bone,

Osteoclasts

They stop forming new bone at this stage .

These cells break down bone, releasing calcium and phosphate.

They are very large cells with up to 50 nuclei, which have formed from synthesis of many monocytes

continuous remodelling of healthy bone tissue

Is the result of balanced activity of the bone’s osteoblast And osteoclast populations.

Osteoclasts are found in areas of the bone where there is active growth, repair or remodelling, e.G.

Under periosteum, maintaining bone shape during growth and to remove excess callus formed during
healing of fractures

Round the walls of the medullary canal during growth and to canalise callus during healing

Osteocytes

These are mature bone cells that monitor and maintain bone tissue, and are nourished by tissue fluid in
canaliculi that radiate from the central canals

Development of bone tissue

called osteogenesis or ossification, this begins before birth and is not complete until about the 21st year
of life.

Long, short and irregular bones develop in fetus from rods of cartilage, cartilage models.

Flat bones develop from membrane models and sesamoid bones from tendon models.

During ossification, osteoblasts secrete osteoid, which gradually replaces initial model;(cartilage)

then this osteoid is progressively calcified, also by osteoblast action.

As bone grows, osteoblasts become surrounded in the matrix of their own making and become
osteocytes

In mature bone, a well balance of osteoblast and osteoclast activity maintains normal bone structure.
If osteoclast activity exceeds osteoblast activity, bone becomes weaker.

if osteoblast activity outstrips osteoclast activity, bone becomes stronger and heavier

Development of long bones

ossification begins are small areas of osteogenic cells, or centres of ossification in cartilage model.

This is accompanied by development of a bone collar at about 8 weeks of gestation.

growth takes place in three steps

I. Growth in length:
II. Growth in thickness
III. Remodeling of bone:
i Growth in length:

Grows in length by multiplication of cells in the epiphyseal plate of cartilage.

Cartilage cells divide and increase in number.

Zone of active division in epiphyseal plate of cartilage lies towards epiphysis (end of bone).

This means that newly formed cartilage cells will push older, larger cells towards diaphysis (shaft of
bone).

Eventually these cartilage cells are replaced by osteocytes (bone cells), thus increasing length of bone.

After puberty, when epiphyseal plate of cartilage no more exists, growth in length of a bone stops
completely

ii Growth in thickness:

A long bone grows in thickness by multiplication of cells in the deeper layer of periosteum.

The cells lying in the deeper layer of periosteum are known as osteoblasts .

These cells divide continuously and form the osteocytes, thus increase the thickness of bone

iii Remodeling of bone:

growth take place by deposition of new bony tissue on surface and at ends.

process of bone deposition by osteoblasts is called surface growth.

Appositional growth can result in maintain the shape, the unwanted bone must be removed.This job is
done by octeoclasts.

The process is called remodeling and increasing size of marrow cavity.

Hormonal regulation of bone growth

1 Growth hormone(A/P) and the thyroid hormones, (thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine,_)

• during infancy and childhood; deficient or excessive secretion of these results in

abnormal development of skeleton

2 Testosterone and oestrogens

influence physical help maintain bone structure throughout life.

Rising levels of these hormones are responsible for growth spray of puberty, but later stimulate closure
of epiphyseal plates

So that bone growth lengthways stops (although bones can grow in thickness throughout life).

Oestrogens are responsible for wider female pelvis that develops during puberty, and for maintaining
bone mass in adult female.

Falling oestrogen levels after menopause can put postmenopausal women at higher risk of bone
fracture

3 Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone

Control blood levels of calcium by regulating its uptake into and release from bone.

Calcitonin increases calcium uptake into bone (reducing blood calcium)

Parathormone decreases it (increasing blood calcium).

Influence Exercise for bone development

Although bone growth lengthways permanently stops once epiphyseal plates have ossified, thickening
of bone is possible throughout life.

Weight-bearing exercise stimulates thickening of bone, strengthening it and making it less accountable
to fracture.

Lack of exercise reverses these changes, leading to weaker bones.

Diet and bone

For Healthy bone tissue requires adequate dietary calcium and vitamins A, C and D.

Also smaller amounts of other minerals such as phosphate, iron and manganese,

Vitamin -A is needed for osteoblast activity.

Vitamin C is used in collagen synthesis,

vitamin D is required for calcium and phosphate absorption from intestinal tract.

Healing of bone

Bone # are simple , compound, pathological

broken ends of bone are joined by deposition of new bone.

 This occurs in several stages

I. A haematoma forms between ends of bone and in surrounding soft tissues.

ii There follows development of acute inflammation and accumulation of inflammatory exudate,

containing macrophages that phagocytose haematoma and small dead fragments of bone Fibroblasts
migrate to site;

granulation tissue and new capillaries develop.

iii Large numbers of osteoblasts secrete spongy bone, which unites broken ends, and is protected by an
outer layer of bone and cartilage;

new deposits of bone and cartilage is called a callus.

Over next few weeks, callus matures, and cartilage is gradually replaced with new bone.

Iv Reforming of bone continues and gradually medullary canal is reopened through callus(in weeks or
months).

In time bone heals completely with callus tissue completely replaced with mature compact bone Often
the bone is thicker

joint and articulation

A joint is site at which any two or more bones articulate or come together.

Some joints have no movement (fibrous), some only slight movement (cartilaginous) and some are
freely movable (synovial).

Classification of Joints

Joints can be classified according to their structures or according to their functions.

i structure, - fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial.

ii function, - immoveable, slightly moveable, or freely moveable.

Accodin to structure,

i fibrous Joints
Fibrous joints are held together with dense fibrous connective tissue.

Most are immoveable, but some are slightly moveable.

Eg Sutures -are immoveable joints found in skull. During middle age the bones of skull tend to
completely fuse.

ligaments- Some joints are held together exclusively by ligaments.

For example, the tibia and fibula are held together by a broad ligamentous sheet called an interosseus
ligament.

This joint is considered slightly moveable.

ii Cartilaginous Joints

Cartilaginous joints are held together with cartilage.

As with fibrous joints, movement is generally limited.

eg

Epiphyseal plates are immoveable joints made of hyaline cartilage.

A symphysis is a slightly moveable joint held together with fibrocartilage.

intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis.

iii Synovial Joints

Synovial joints have characteristic features that enable a wide range of movements

They are classified according to range of movement possible

General structure of synovial joint

Articular surfaces of bones are covered with articular cartilage.

There is a “space” called joint cavity between two articulating bones.

The joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid.

There is an outer fibrous layer composed of dense connective tissue, and this is continuous with
periosteum.

Inner synovial membrane composed of loose connective tissue.

Synovial joints are stabilized by reinforcing ligaments.

Synovial joints are richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels.
Other intracapsular structures

Some joints have structures inside capsule, but outside synovial membrane, which assist in
maintenance of stability,

e.g. fat pads and menisci in the knee joint.

When these structures do not bear weight they are covered by synovial membrane.

Extracapsular structures

Ligaments blend with capsule provide additional stability at most joints.

Muscles or their tendons also provide stability and stretch across joints they move.

When muscle contracts it shortens, pulling one bone towards other.

Synovial joint are classified according to range of movement possible or to shape of articulating parts of
bones involved.

i Ball and socket.- head or ball of one bone articulates with a socket of another and shape of bones
allows for a wide range of movement.

Movement of ball socket

 flexion-, Bending, usually forward but rarely backward,

 extension- Straightening or bending backward

 adduction,-Movement towards midline of the body

 abduction,- Movement away from the midline of body

 rotation - circumduction.

Examples are the shoulder and hip.

ii Hinge joints.-

These allow movements of flexion and extension only.

They are elbow, knee, ankle, joints between atlas and occipital bone, and interphalangeal joints of
fingers and toes

iii Pivot joints

Movement is round one axis (rotation)

e.g. proximal and distal radioulnar joints and joint between atlas and odontoid process of axis

Gliding joints.-

Articular surfaces slip over each other,

e.g. sternoclavicular joints, acromioclavicular joints and joints between carpal bones and those
between

the tarsal bones.

v Condyloid (sandle)

Movements take place round two axes, permitting flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and
circumduction,

e.g. wrist, temporomandibular, metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints.

Nerve and blood supply

Nerves and blood vessels crossing a joint usually supply

the capsule and the muscles that move it.

Functions of bones

provide framework of the body

give attachment to muscles and tendons

permit movement of the body as a whole and of parts of the body, by forming joints that are moved by
muscles

form the boundaries of the cranial, thoracic and pelvic cavities, protecting the organs they contain

contain red bone marrow in which blood cells develop: haematopoiesis

provide a reservoir of minerals, especially calcium phosphate.

Main synovial joints of the limbs

i Shoulder joint

Ball and socket joint is formed by glenoid cavity of scapula and head of the humerus.

Capsular ligament is very loose inferiorly to allow for free movement normally possible at this joint.

Extracapsular structures consist of:

Coracohumeral ligament, extending from coracoid process of scapula to humerus

Glenohumeral ligaments, which blend with and strengthen capsule

Transverse humeral ligament, retaining biceps end on in intertubercular groove

Muscles and movements

 Coracobrachialis muscle.

lt arises from coracoid process of scapula,expanses across in front of shoulder joint and is inserted into
middle third of humerus. flexes shoulder joint.

 Deltoid muscle.

originate from clavicle, acromion process and spine of scapula and radiate over shoulder joint to be
inserted into deltoid tuberosity of humerus.

It forms anterior fibres cause flexion, middle or main part abduction and posterior fibres extend
shoulder joint.

ii Elbow joint

This hinge joint is formed by trochlea and capitulum of humerus and trochlear notch of ulna and head
of radius.

Extracapsular structures consist of anterior, posterior, medial and lateral strengthening ligaments

Biceps muscle. lies on anterior aspect of upper arm. proximal end it is divided into two parts .
coracoid process of scapula and bicipital groove of humerus to arm.

It is It helps to stabilise and bend shoulder joint and at elbow joint it assists with flexion and supination.

Brachialis muscle.

This lies on anterior aspect of upper arm deep to biceps

It originates from shaft of humerus, extends across elbow joint and is inserted into ulna just distal to
joint capsule. It is main flexor of elbow joint.

Triceps muscle. This lies on posterior aspect of humerus.

arises from three heads, one from scapula two from posterior surface of humerus.

insertion is by olecranon process of ulna.

assists in adduction of arm and extends the elbow joint.

iv Proximal and distal radioulnar joints

proximal joint is a pivot ,formed by rim of head of radius rotating in radial notch of ulna, and is in same
capsule as elbow joint

Annular ligament is a strong extracapsular ligament that encircles head of radius and keeps it in contact
with radial notch of ulna(head)

The distal radioulnar joint is a pivot joint between distal end of radius and head of ulna

Muscles and movement

Pronator teres.—

It arises from medial epicondyle of humerus and the coronoid process of ulna and passes obliquely
across forearm and articulates with carpal bones.-Pronation

It also separates inferior radioulnar joint from wrist joint.

Supinator muscle.

Its fibres arise from lateral epicondyle of humerus and upper part of ulna and are inserted into lateral
surface of upper third of radius.- Supination:

Extracapsular structures -consist of medial and lateral ligaments and anterior and posterior radiocarpal
ligaments

v Wrist joint

condyloid joint between distal end of radius and proximal ends of scaphoid, lunate and triquetral.

Extracapsular structures consist of medial and lateral ligaments and anterior and posterior radiocarpal
ligaments.

Muscles

Flexor carpi radialis. - It flexes wrist joint,

Flexor carpi ulnaris. - It flexes wrist,

extensor carpi ulnaris, adducts joint

Extensor carpi radialis- extend and abduct the wrist

Vi Hip joint

it by cup-shaped acetabulum of innominate bone and head of femur.

Cavity is deepened by acetabular labrum, a ring of fibrocartilage attached to rim of acetabulum.

Ligament of head of femur extends from shallow depression in middle of head of femur to
acetabulum.

It conveys a blood vessel to head of femur.

Synovial membrane covers both sides of acetabular labrum and forms a sleeve around ligament
(iliofemoral, ischiofemoral ;pubofemoral)

Muscles

Psoas muscle. - arises from transverse processes and bodies of lumbar vertebrae. It inserted into the
femur. -flexes the hip joint

Iliacus muscle. - It originates from iliac crest, joins tendon of psoas muscle inserted into lesser
trochanter of femur.- flexes the hip joint

Quadriceps femoris. - group of four muscles rectus femoris and three vasti.

origin from ilium and three vasti from upper end of femur. inserted into tibia by patellar tendon. very
strong extensor of the knee joint

Gluteal muscles. - originate from the ilium and sacrum and inserted into femur. (extension, abduction
and medial rotation)

Sartorius muscle- longest muscle in the body ; originates from anterior superior iliac spine inserted into
medial surface of upper part of tibia.( flexion abduction hip joint and flexion at knee.)

Adductor group. - originate from pubic bone and inserted into linea aspera of femur. (adduct medially
rotate thigh.)

Vii Knee joint

largest and most complex joint.

It is a hinge joint formed by condyles of femur, condyles of tibia and posterior surface of patella.

anterior part of capsule is formed by tendon of quadriceps femoris muscle, which also supports to
patella.

two cruciate ligaments that extending from intercondylar notch of femur to intercondylar eminence of
tibia. (stabilise joint.)

Semilunar cartilages lying on top of articular condyles of tibia. They are prevent lateral displacement of
bones, and cushion

Bursae and pads of fat are numerous. They prevent friction between a bone and a ligament or tendon
and between skin and patella.
Synovial membrane covers cruciate ligaments and pads of fat. menisci are not covered with synovial
membrane because they are weight bearing.

External ligaments provide further support, making it a hard joint

 patellar ligament, quadriceps tendon, popliteal ligaments at back of knee and collateral
ligaments to each side.

muscle

Hamstring muscles.- originate from ischium and inserted into upper end of tibia.

They flex the knee joint.

Gastrocnemius muscle –

forms bulk of calf of leg. It arises by two heads, one from each condyle of femur, inserted into
calcaneus by the calcanean tendon (Achillestendon).

It crosses both knee and ankle joints, causing

flexion at the knee and plantarflexion at the ankle.

viii Ankle joint

This hinge joint is formed by distal end of tibia and its malleolus (medial ), distal end of fibula (lateral
malleolus) and talus.

Four important ligaments strengthen this joint: deltoid and anterior, posterior, medial and lateral
ligaments.

Muscles

Anterior tibialis muscle.- originates from upper end of tibia, inserted into middle cuneiform bone by a
long tendon. It is associated with dorsiflexion of the foot

Soleus.-

It originates from heads and upper parts of fibula and tibia. insertion into the calcaneus by calcanean
(Achilles) tendon.

It causes plantar flexion

Gastrocnemius.- This (described above)

plantarflexor

Joints of the foot and toes

There are a number of synovial joints between tarsal bones, between tarsal and metatarsal bones,
between metatarsals and proximal phalanges and between phalanges.

Movements are produced by muscles in leg with long tendons , and by muscles of foot.

The tendons crossing ankle joint are encased in synovial sheaths and are held close to bones by strong
transverse ligaments.

Moving joints of foot these muscles support arches of foot and help to maintain body balance

Assignment

i List out the Main synovial joints of the Limbs

ii Describe the how to inwall the mucsl for function of the synovial joint

Iii compare and contrast the features of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis

The bones of the skeleton are divided into two groups:

I. the axial skeleton

II. the appendicular skeleton

The axial skeleton This part consists of

 the skull,

 vertebral column,

 ribs

 sternum

i Axial skeleton system

Skull - cranium 08 bones

- face 14 bones

hyoid- 01 bone

auditory ossicles 06 bones

vertebral column 26 bones

thorax- sternum 01 bone

ribs 24bones
 total - 80

Ii Appendicular skeleton

Shoulder girdles-

clavicle 02 -

scapula 02

upper limbs -

humerus 02 -

ulna 02

radias 02

- carpals 16

- metacarpals 10

- phalanges 28

total 64

Pelvic girdle-

hip, pelvic bone 02

Lower limbs –

femur 02

patella 02

fibula 02

tibia 02

tarsals 14

metatarsals 10

phalanges 28

t0tal- 62

Whole bone 80+ 62+64= 206

Divided into two divisions:

1. Axial skeleton

The skull

Rests on the upper end of the vertebral column and its bony
structure is divided into two parts:

1 cranium

2 face.

skull

Cranium

Formedby a number of flat and irregular bone

Protect the brain.

Cranium

Mature skull the joint(sutures)

between the bones are immovable

The bones have numerous perforations

Sinuses

Containing air

Present in the sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary and frontal bones.

Communicate with the nasal cavity

Lined with ciliated mucousmembrane.

Sinuses

Give resonance to the voice. Reduce the weight of the skull.

suture

Cranial bone

 Cranium consist of 8 bones

 • frontal -1

• Ethmoid-1

• Sphenoid-1

• Occipital-1

• Parietal-2

• Temporal -2

Facial bone

suture

FONTENELLA

At birth, ossification of the cranial sutures is incomplete.

Three or more bones meet there are distinct membranous areas, or

fontanelles.

Anterior fontanelle, ossified child is between 12 and 18

months

posterior fontanelle, usually ossified 2–3 months

Frontal bone

Bone of the forehead.

Just above the supraorbital marginswithin the bone

Sinuses lined with ciliated mucousmembrane

Open into the nasal cavity

Parietal bones

Form the sides and roof of the skull.

They articulate with each other at the sagital suture,

frontal bone = coronal suture

Occipital bone= lambdoidal suture

The inner surface is concave and is grooved to

accommodate the brain and blood vessels.
Temporal bones

Lie one on each side of the head

form sutures with the parietal, occipital, sphenoid and zygomatic bones

The mastoid part contains the mastoid process,

Articulates with the mandible at the temporomandibular joint

The only movable joint of the skull.

Occipital bone

This bone forms the back of the head and part of the base
of the skull.

The occiput has two articular condyles that form condyloid joints
with the first bone of the vertebral column, the atlas.

Occipital bone

Between the condyles is the foramen magnum (meaning

‘large hole’) through which the spinal cord passes into the cranial
cavity.

Occipital bone

This joint permits nodding movements of the head.

Occipital bone

Between the condyles is the foramen magnum through which

the spinal cord passes into the cranial cavity

Sphenoid bone

This bone occupies the middle portion of the base of the skull

articulates with the occipital, temporal, parietal and frontal bones

Ethmoid bone

Occupies the anterior part of the base of the skull

Form the orbital cavity

 Nasal septum

lateral walls of the nasal cavity.

Ethmoid bone

Forms the roof of the nasal cavity

Numerous small foramina through which nerve fibres of the olfactory nerve

Ethmoid bone

containing many air sinuses lined with ciliated epithelium and with
openings into the nasal cavity.

face

Zygomatic (cheek) bones – 02

Maxilla (originated as 2) - 01

Nasal bones - 02

Lacrimal bones - 02

Vomer bone - 01

Palatine bones - 02

Inferior conchae bones - 02

Mandible bone - 01

Facial bone

Zygomatic (cheek)

originates as two bones that fuse before birth.

form the prominences of the cheeks and part of the

floor and lateral walls of the orbital cavities

Maxilla

Originates as two bones that fuse before birth.

Forms the upper jaw

Anterior part of the roof of the mouth

 Lateral walls of the nasal cavity

alveolar ridge

maxillary sinus

Nasal bones

Two small flat bones

Form the greater part of the lateral and superior

surfaces of the bridge of the nose.

Lacrimal bones

Two small bones

Posterior and lateral to the nasal bones

Form part of the medial walls of the orbital cavities.

Foramen for the passageof the nasolacrimal duct

Vomer

Thin flat bone

Extendsupwards from the middle of the hard palate to form most

of the inferior part of the nasal septum.

Palatine bones

L-shaped bones.

Posterior part of the hard palate

Part of the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.

Form part of the orbital cavities

Inferior conchae

Scroll-shaped bone,

lateral wall of the nasal cavity

 increase the surface area in the nasal cavity

Mandible (lower jaw bone)

Only movable bone of the skull.

A curved body with the alveolar ridge

Containing the lower teeth and a ramus

Hyoid bone

Isolatedhorseshoe-shaped bone

Just above the larynx and below the mandible .

Functions of the skull

Cranium protects the brain

Eye sockets protect the eyes and give attachment to the muscles

Temporal bone protects the inner ear

resonance to the voice

Form the walls of the posterior part of the nasal cavities

Maxilla and the mandible provide alveolarridges in which the teeth

are embedded

mandible controlled by musclesof the lower face, allows

chewing.

Vertebral column

26 bones in the vertebral column.

Twenty-four separate vertebrae extend downwards from the

occipital bone of the skull

Sacrum, formed from five fused vertebrae,

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Contains 33 ring like bones called vertebrae

They are connected by Facet joints

Vertebrae can devided to 5 main regions

 Cervical vertebrae -7

Thoracic vertebrae -12

Lumbar vertebrae -5

Sacral vertebrae -5

Coccygeal vertebrae -4

Characteristics of a typical vertebra

The body.

Broad, flattened, largest part of the vertebra.

Between each pair of bones is a tough pad of

fibrocartilage called the intervertebral disc.

Region-specific vertebral characteristics

Cervical vertebrae

Smallest vertebrae.

The transverse processes have a foramen throughwhich a

vertebral artery passes upwards to the brain.

The atlas

Essentially a ring of bone,

condyloid joints and they permit nodding of the head

The axis

This occupies part of the posterior foramen of the

atlas above, and is held securely within it by the
transverse ligament

the head pivots

Axil vertebrae

Cervical vertebrae

Thoracic vertebrae

12 thoracic vertebrae
 Facets for articulation with the ribs.

Lumbar vertebrae

Largest of the vertebrae

substantial spinous processes for attachment of the musclesof

the lower back

Sacrum

Triangular or wedge-shaped bone

On each side it articulates with the ilium to form a

sacroiliac joint

Inferior tip it articulates with the coccyx.

Coccyx

Terminal vertebrae fused to form a very small triangular

bone

Features of the vertebral column

Intervertebral discs

Consisting of an outer rim of fibrocartilage

central core of soft gelatinous material

Shock-absorbing function

Intervertebral foramina

Throughout the length of the column there is an intervertebral

foramen on each side between every pair of vertebrae,

Ligaments of the vertebral column

Hold the vertebrae together

the transverse ligament holds the odontoid process of the axis in

the correct position in relation to the atlas

Curves of the vertebral column

 Two primaryand two secondary.

The secondary cervical curve develops when the child can hold
up their head

Secondary lumbar curve develops when able to stand

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Contains 33 ring like bones called vertebrae

They are connected by Facet joints

Vertebrae can devided to 5 main regions

Cervical vertebrae -7

Thoracic vertebrae -12

Lumbar vertebrae -5

Sacral vertebrae -5

Coccygeal vertebrae -4

Movement of the vertebral column

Flexion (bending forward),

Extension (bending backward),

Lateral flexion (bending to the side)

rotation.

Functions of the vertebral

Strong bony protection for the delicatespinal cord

Providing access to the spinal cord for spinal nerves, blood vessels
and lymph vessels

movement of the whole column

supportof the skull

Formation of the axis of the trunk, giving attachment to the

ribs, shoulder girdle and upper limbs, and the pelvic

Thoracic cage
 Sternum

Twelve pairs of ribs

Twelve thoracic vertebrae

THE BONY THORAX

Forms the framework of the chest

Components

-Thoracic vertebrae posteriorly

-Ribs laterally

-Sternum and costal cartilage anteriorly

Protects thoracic organs

Sternum

Breast bone

just under the skin in the middle of the front of the

chest.

The manubrium

uppermost section and articulates with the clavicles at the

sternoclavicular joints

With the first two pairs of ribs

Column

 The body or middle portion gives attachment to the ribs.

The xiphoid processis the inferior tip of the bone.

Anteriorly,

the first seven pairs of ribs articulate directly with the

sternum true ribs.

The next three pairs articulate only indirectly. costal cartilages

attach the ribs to the sternum.
The lowest two pairs of ribs, referred to as floating ribs,

Each rib forms up to three joints with the vertebral column.

Ten of the ribs also form joints between the
tubercle of the rib and the transverse process of
(usually) the lower vertebra. The inferior surface of the rib is
deeply grooved, providing a channelalong which intercostal nerves
and blood vessels run. Between each rib and the one below
are the intercostal muscles, which move the rib cage during
breathing. Because of the arrangement of the ribs, and the
quantity of cartilage present in the ribcage,it is a
flexible structure that can change its shape and size during
breathing. The first rib is firmly fixed to the sternum
and to the 1st thoracic vertebra, and does not move
during inspiration. Because it is a fixed point, when the
intercostal musclescontract, they pull the entire ribcage upwards
towards the first rib. The

Two of these joints are formed between facets on the head of

the rib and facets on the bodies of two vertebrae, the
one above the rib and the one below.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

It has 4 major regions

I. Shoulder Girdle

II. upper limbs

III. Pelvic Girdle

IV. Lower limbs

2. Appendicular

SHOULDER GIRDLE

Composed of two bones

Clavicle – collarbone

Scapula – shoulder blade

These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement
Clavicles bone

• Extend horizontally across the superior thorax

• Sternal end articulates with manubrium

• Acromial end articulates with scapula

• only bony link between the upper limb and the axial skeleton.

• Provide attachment for muscles

• Hold the scapulae and arms laterally

• Transmit compression from upper limbs to axial skeleton

Scapula (shoulder blad)

• flat triangular-shaped , lying on superficial to the ribs and separated from them by muscles

• lateral angle is a shallow articular surface, glenoid cavity, which, forms shoulder joint.

• posterior surface runs a spine, which beyond lateral border of scapula and overhangs glenoid
cavity.(is called the acromion process-acromioclavicular joint)

• coracoid process, which upper border of bone, gives attachment to muscles

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB

The arm is formed by a single bone

Humerus

The forearm has two bones

Ulna

Radius

The hand

Carpals – wrist

Metacarpals – palm

Phalanges – fingers

The upper limb

Humerus
 • Head sits within glenoid cavity of scapula, forming shoulder joint.

• Distal to head are two projections of greater and lesser tubercles, and between them bicipital
groove or intertubercular sulcus, occupied by one of tendons of biceps muscle.

• Distal endpresents two surfaces that articulate with radius and ulna to form the elbow joint.

Ulna

main bone of forearm

ulna

• ulna is longer than and to radius

• They articulate with humerus at elbow joint, carpal bones at wrist joint and with each other at
the proximal and distal radioulnar joints, interosseous membrane, connects the bones along
their shafts, stabilising

• olecranon process, extends behind elbow Joint acts as lever for muscles that extends forearm

Radius

• Superior surface of the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum

• Medially – head of the radius articulates with the radial notch of the ulna

• Contributes heavily to the wrist joint

 Distal radius articulates with carpal bones When radius moves, the hand moves with it

Carpal (wrist) bones

• There are eight carpal bones arranged in two rows of four.

• proximal row: scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform

• distal row: trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate

• closely fitted together and held in position by ligaments - limited movement

• proximal row are wrist joint and distal row joints with metacarpal bones.

• large of rounded bones allows movement of fingers in all directions

Metacarpal bones (bones of the hand)

• These five bones form palm of hand.

• proximal ends articulate with carpal bones and distal ends with phalanges
 • They are numbered from the thumb side inwards.

Phalanges (finger bones)

There are 14 phalanges, three in each finger and two in thumb.

articulate with metacarpal bones and with each other, by hinge joints.

BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE

Hip bones composed of 3 pair of fused bones

Ilium

Ischium

Pubis bone

Innominate (hip) bones

Each innominate bone consists of three joined bones: the ilium,ischium and pubis.

On its lateral surface is a acetabulum, which forms hip joint with almost-head of femur

Ilium

• upper flattened part of bone and it presents iliac crest, anterior curve called anterior superior
iliac spine.

• Ilium forms a synovial joint which sacroiliac joint

Pubis

• Anterior part of bone and it articulates with pubis of other hip bone at a cartilaginous joint, -
symphysis pubis.

Ischium

• inferior and posterior part.

• The rough inferior projections of ischia, the ischial tuberosities,bear weight of body when
seated.

• The union of the three parts takes place in the acetabulum

True and False Pelves

• Bony pelvis is divided into two regions

• False (greater) pelvis – bounded by a lae of the iliac bones

 • True (lesser) pelvis – inferior to pelvic brim

• Forms a bowl containing the pelvic organs

Pelvic Structures and Childbearing

• Major differences between male and female pelves

• Female pelvis is adapted for childbearing Pelvis is lighter, wider, and shallower than in
the male

• Provides more room in the true pelvis