MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their predominant function is

contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are
responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the result
of muscle contraction.

FUNCTIONS

1. Movement of the body - Contraction Of skeletal

muscles is responsible for the overall movements
of the body. Such as walking, running, and
Manipulating objects with the hands.
2. Maintenance of posture - Skeletal muscles
constantly maintain tone, which keeps us sitting
or standing erect.
3. Respiration - Muscles of the thorax carry out the
movements necessary for respiration.
4. Production of Body Heat - When skeletal muscles
contract, heat is given off as a by-product. This
released heat is critical to the maintenance of
body temperature.
5. Communication - Skeletal muscles are involved in
all aspects of communication, including speaking,
writing, typing, gesturing, and facial expressions.
6. Constriction of organs and vessels - The contraction of smooth muscle within the walls of
internal organs and vessels causes those structures to constrict. This constriction can help
propel and mix food and water in the digestive tract, propel secretions from organs, and
regulate blood flow through vessels.
7. Contraction of the heart - The contraction of cardiac muscle causes the heart to beat,
propelling blood to all parts of the body.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement

 There are about 600 muscles in the human body. Three basic muscle types are found in
the body.
o Skeletal muscle - The specialized tissue that is attached to bones and allows
movement. 
o Cardiac muscle - the muscle specific to the heart. The heart contracts and relaxes
without our conscious awareness.
o Smooth muscle - located in various internal structures including the digestive tract,
uterus, and blood vessels such as arteries. Smooth muscle is arranged in layered
sheets that contract in waves along the length of the structure. Another common
term is involuntary muscle since the motion of smooth muscle happens without
our conscious awareness.
  The brain, nerves and skeletal muscles work together to cause movement, this is
collectively known as the neuromuscular system.
 Muscles have a range of functions from pumping blood and supporting movement to lifting
heavy weights or giving birth. Muscles work by either contracting or relaxing to cause
movement. This movement may be voluntary (meaning the movement is made
consciously) or done without our conscious awareness (involuntary).

Characteristics of Muscles

 Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber)
 Contraction and shortening of muscles is due to the movement of microfilaments
 All muscles share some terminology
o Prefixes myo and mys refer to “muscle”
o Prefix sarco refers to “flesh”
 Microfilament- motility and shape
 Intermediate - form desmosomes, wires, resist pulling forces
 Microtubules - overall shape and distribution of organelles
 Flesh- skeletal muscles

Muscle Fiber Structure

1. The largest human muscle fibers can be 1 foot long and range from 1 cm to 30 cm, 0.15 in
diameter.
2. Sarcolemma- Cell membrane of the muscle fiber.
3. Sarcoplasm - Cytoplasm of muscle fiber.
4. Myofibrils – Bundles of protein filaments in sarcoplasm.
5. Actin and myosin microfilaments - Protein in myofibrils.
6. Transverse or T tubules – Tube-like inward folds.
 Occur at regular intervals
 Associated with enlarged portions of the smooth ER
 called sarcoplasmic reticulum
7. Sacroplasmic reticulum - has high concentration of calcium ions, which plays a major role
in muscle contraction
 Enlarged portions are called terminal cisternae
 T tubules connect to the connect the sarcolemma to the cisternae to form a triad

Comparison of Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles

Skeletal Muscle General Anatomy

1. Tendon - Connects a muscle to a bone.

2. Aponeruoses - Broad sheet-like tendons.
3. Retinaculum - A band of connective tissue that holds down tendons at each wrist and
ankle.
4. Origin - Point of attachment, most stationary or fixed end of the muscle, can be multiple
and each is called head
5. Insertion – end of muscle attachment and undergoes greatest movement.
6. Belly – part of muscle between origin and insertion.
7. Action – specific body movement a muscle contraction causes
8. Agonist – action of a single muscle or group
9. Antagonist – opposes agonist
 Ex. Biceps brachii flexes elbow (agonist ) triceps brachii extend elbow (antagonist)
10. Synergist – muscle that work together.
 Ex. Deltoid, biceps brachii, pectoralis major flex the shoulder. Biceps brachii and
Brachialis flex the elbow
11. Prime mover – muscle that plays major role in accomplishing a movement.
12. Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place relative to the body while a usually more
distal bone is moved.

Skeletal Muscle
Characteristics

 Most are attached by tendons to bones.

 Cells are multinucleate.
 Striated—have visible banding.
  Voluntary—subject to conscious control.

Connective
Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal Muscle

 Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue

o Endomysium—encloses a single muscle fiber.
o Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle
(bundle) of muscle fibers.
o Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal
muscle.
o Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium.

Skeletal Muscle Attachments

 Epimysium blends into a connective tissue

attachment
o Tendons—cord-like structures (muscle to bone; Ligament- bone to bone)
 Mostly collagen fibers
 Often cross a joint due to toughness and small size
 Aponeuroses—sheet-like structures (broad sheet-like tendons)
o Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue coverings
 Sites of muscle attachment
o Bones
o Cartilages
o Connective tissue coverings

Smooth Muscle Characteristics

 Lacks striations
 Spindle-shaped cells
  Single nucleus
 Involuntary—no conscious control
 Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
 Smooth muscle fibers are spindle-shaped (wide in the middle and tapered at both ends,
somewhat like a football) and have a single nucleus.
 Found mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs (such as stomach, urinary bladder,
respiratory passages) Spindle-shaped fibers which are uninucleate.
 Contractions are slow and sustained.
 Although they do not have striations and sarcomeres, smooth muscle fibers do have actin
and myosin contractile proteins, and thick and thin filaments. These thin filaments are
anchored by dense bodies.

Cardiac Muscle Characteristics

 Striations
 Usually has a single nucleus
 Branching cells
 Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc
 Involuntary
 Found only in the walls of the heart
 Contracts at a steady rate set by pacemaker
 Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart. Highly coordinated contractions of cardiac
muscle pump blood into the vessels of the circulatory system. Similar to skeletal muscle,
cardiac muscle is striated and organized into sarcomeres, possessing the same banding
organization as skeletal muscle. Contractions of the heart (heartbeats) are controlled by
specialized cardiac muscle cells called pacemaker cells that directly control heart rate.
Although cardiac muscle cannot be consciously controlled, the pacemaker cells respond to
signals from the autonomic nervous system (ANS) to speed up or slow down the heart rate.
The pacemaker cells can also respond to various hormones that modulate heart rate to
control blood pressure. This group of cells is self-excitable and able to depolarize to
threshold and fire action potentials on their own, a feature called autorhythmicity; they do
this at set intervals which determine heart rate. Because they are connected with gap
junctions to surrounding muscle fibers and the specialized fibers of the heart’s conduction
system, the pacemaker cells are able to transfer the depolarization to the other cardiac
muscle fibers in a manner that allows the heart to contract in a coordinated manner.

Skeletal Muscle Functions

 Produce movement
 Maintain posture
 Stabilize joints
 Generate heat

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

 Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane

 Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum—specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Sarcolemma - plasma membrane

 Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct bands (long organelles inside muscle cell)
o I band = light band
 Contains only thin filaments
o A band = dark band
 Contains the entire length of the thick filaments

 Sarcomere—contractile unit of a muscle fiber

 Organization of the sarcomere
o Myofilaments
 Thick filaments - myosin filaments
 Thin filaments - actin filaments
 Thick filaments - myosin filaments
o Composed of the protein myosin
o Has ATPase enzymes
 o Myosin filaments have heads (extensions, or cross bridges)
o Myosin and actin overlap somewhat
 Thin filaments - actin filaments
o Composed of the protein actin
o Anchored to the Z disc
 Sarcomere – contractile unit of a muscle fiber
  At rest, within the A band there is a zone that lacks actin filaments
o Called either the H zone or bare zone
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
o Stores and releases calcium
o Surrounds the myofibril

 Thick - myosin
 Thin – actin

Stimulation and Contraction of Single Skeletal Muscle Cells

 Excitability (also called responsiveness or irritability)—The ability to receive and respond

to a stimulus. The capacity of skeletal muscle to respond to a stimulus. Normally, the
stimulus is from nerves that we consciously control.
 Contractility—The ability to shorten when an adequate stimulus is received. The ability of
skeletal muscle to shorten with force. When skeletal muscles contract, they cause the
structures to which they are attached to move. Skeletal muscles shorten forcefully during
contraction, but they lengthen passively. Either gravity or the contraction of an opposing
muscle produces a force that pulls on the shortened muscle, causing it to lengthen.
 Extensibility—The ability of muscle cells to be stretched. Means that skeletal muscles
stretch. After a contraction, skeletal muscles can be stretched to their normal resting
length and beyond to a limited degree.
 Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching. The ability of skeletal
muscles to recoil to their original resting length
after they have been stretched.

The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

 Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor

neuron (nerve cell) to contract.
 Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the
skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that neuron.
 Sarcolemma - plasma membrane
  Neuromuscular junction - Association site of axon terminal of the motor neuron and
muscle.

 Synaptic cleft
o Gap between nerve and muscle
o Nerve and muscle do not make contact
o Area between nerve and muscle is filled with interstitial fluid
 Action potential reaches the axon terminal of the motor neuron
 Calcium channels open and calcium ions enter the axon terminal

Transmission of Nerve Impulse to Muscle

 Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic vesicles to release their contents (acetylcholine, a
neurotransmitter) by exocytosis.
 Neurotransmitter—chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse in the axon
terminal.
o The neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is acetylcholine (ACh).
 Acetylcholine attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma of the muscle cell.
 In response to the binding of ACh to a receptor, the sarcolemma becomes permeable to
sodium (Na+).
 Sodium rushes into the cell generating an action potential and potassium leaves the cell.
 Once started, muscle contraction cannot be stopped.
 Cell membrane of a muscle cell is called the sarcolemma.
  Depolarization - muscle contraction

The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction

 Activation by nerve causes myosin heads (cross bridges) to attach to binding sites on the
thin filament.
 Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the thin filament and pull them toward the
center of the sarcomere.
 This continued action causes a sliding of the myosin along the actin.
 The result is that the muscle is shortened (contracted).
 Explain how muscles in the human body contract to produce force.

The SARCOMERE consists of a bundle of myosin-containing thick filaments flanked and

interdigitated with bundles of actin-containing thin filaments. The striated appearance of muscle
results from the alternation of thick-filament-containing (A-Band) and thin-filament-containing (I-
band) regions. 

1. Z disks - separate one sarcomere from the next.

 A network of protein fiber that forms a stationary anchor for actin myofilaments to
attach.
 One sarcomere extends from one z disk to the next.
2. I bands – light staining bands.
 Contains a disk and extends towards the center of myosin
 Consist of only actin filaments
3. A bands - central dark staining bands.
 Extends length of each myosin microfilament within sarcomere
 Actin and myosin overlap at ends of A bands
4. H zone - light staining region in A bands.
 Only myosin filaments
5. M line – consist of protein filaments that anchor myosin filaments into place.
  Stimulation of muscle fibers by motor neuron causes actin to slide past myosin in H
zone.

Diagrams of Sarcomere Shortening

Changes in the sarcomeres observed as muscle tissue

shortened. They observed that during contraction,
one zone of the repeated sarcomere arrangement,
the ‘A band’, remained relatively constant in length. 

The ‘A band’ contains thick filaments of myosin

which suggests that the myosin remained central and
constant throughout the length while other regions
of the sarcomere shortened. The investigators
observed that the ‘I’ band, which is rich in thin
filaments made of actin, changed its length along
with the sarcomere. 

In a relaxed muscle cell, the regulatory proteins

forming part of the actin myofilaments prevent
myosin binding (see a). When an action potential
(AP) sweeps along its sarcolemma and a muscle
cell is excited, calcium ions (Ca2+) are released
from intracellular storage areas (the sacs of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum).

Muscle Activation

The motor nerve stimulates a motor impulse to pass down a neuron to the neuromuscular
junction. It stimulates the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium into muscle cells. In a relaxed
muscle cell, the regulatory proteins forming part of the actin myofilaments prevent myosin binding
(see a). When an action potential (AP) sweeps along its sarcolemma and a muscle cell is excited,
calcium ions (Ca2+) are released from intracellular storage areas (the sacs of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum).

The flood of calcium acts as the final trigger for

contraction, because as calcium binds to the
regulatory proteins on the actin filaments, the proteins undergo a change in both their shape and
their position on the thin filaments. This action exposes myosin-binding sites on the actin, to which
the myosin heads can attach (see b), and the myosin heads immediately begin seeking out
binding sites.

Muscle Contraction

Calcium floods into the muscle cell and it binds with troponin allowing actin and myosin to bind. 
The myosin and actin cross-bridges bind and contract using ATP. Recharging: ATP is resynthesized
which allows actin and myosin to maintain their strong binding state.

Relaxation

Relaxation takes place when stimulation of the nerve stops.  Calcium is then pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum which breaks the link between actin and myosin. Myosin and actin return
to their unbound state causing the muscle to relax. Alternatively, relaxation (failure) also occurs
when ATP is no longer available.

Contraction of Skeletal Muscle

 Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”.

 Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the same interval.
 Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses.
 Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening.
 The all-or-none law is a principle that states that the strength of a response of a nerve
cell or muscle fiber is not dependent upon the strength of the stimulus. If a stimulus is
above a certain threshold, a nerve or muscle fiber will fire.
 Graded responses can be produced by changing:
o The frequency of muscle stimulation.
o The number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time.
 A response that varies directly with the strength of the stimulus.
 A series of action potentials to the muscle fibers is necessary to produce a muscle
contraction that can produce work. Normal muscle contraction is more sustained, and
it can be modified by input from the nervous system to produce varying amounts of
force; this is called a graded muscle response. 
Types of Graded Responses

 Twitch
o Single, brief contraction
o Not a normal muscle function
o The twitch is the basic unit of an electrically evoked contraction in intact skeletal
muscle. The twitch can reflect the response of a single active muscle fibre, or the
summed responses of many muscle fibres activated by the same stimulus
o Response of a skeletal muscle to a single stimulation (or action potential)
o When an action potential travels down the motor neuron, it will result in a
contraction of all of the muscle fibers associated with that motor neuron. The
contraction generated by a single action potential is called a muscle twitch. 
o The latent period is a short delay (1-2 msec) from the time when the action
potential reaches the muscle until tension can be observed in the muscle. This is
the time required for calcium to diffuse out of the SR, bind to troponin, the
movement of tropomyosin off of the active sites, formation of cross bridges, and
taking up any slack that may be in the muscle.
o The contraction phase is when the muscle is generating tension and is associated
with cycling of the cross bridges, 
o The relaxation phase is the time for the muscle to return to its normal length. The
length of the twitch varies between different muscle types and could be as short as
10 ms (milliseconds) or as long as 100 ms (more on this later).
o If all of the motor units fired simultaneously the entire muscle would quickly
contract and relax, producing a very jerky movement. Instead, when a muscle
contracts, motor units fire asynchronously, that is, one contracts and then a
fraction of a second later another contracts before the first has time to relax and
then another fires and so on. So, instead of a quick, jerky movement the whole
muscle contraction is very smooth and controlled. 

Types of Graded Response

 Summing of contractions
o One contraction is immediately followed by another
o The muscle does not completely return to a resting state due to more frequent
stimulations
o The effects are added
o Eg. Epilepsy/ seizure
o When multiple electrical stimuli are applied to a muscle at a sufficiently high
frequency, twitches merge into higher force contractions, a process referred to as
summation. Summation is influenced by the time between successive stimuli (i.e.
the inter-pulse interval, IPI), twitch force and twitch duration. Twitch summation is
a non-linear process. In a pair of twitches, the force attributable to the second
twitch is typically higher than the force attributable to the first twitch if the second
twitch is initiated before the muscle has completely relaxed from the first twitch.

 If the fibers are stimulated while a previous twitch is still

occurring, the second twitch will be stronger. This
response is called wave summation, because the
excitation-contraction coupling effects of successive
motor neuron signaling is summed, or added together
 At the molecular level, summation occurs because the
second stimulus triggers the release of more Ca++ ions,
which become available to activate additional sarcomeres
while the muscle is still contracting from the first stimulus. Summation results in greater
contraction of the motor unit.

 Unfused (incomplete) tetanus

o Some relaxation occurs between contractions but nerve stimuli arrive at an even
faster rate than during summing of contractions.
o Unless the muscle contraction is smooth and sustained, it is said to be in unfused
tetanus.

 If the frequency of motor neuron signaling increases,

summation and subsequent muscle tension in the
motor unit continues to rise until it reaches a peak
point. The tension at this point is about three to four
times greater than the tension of a single twitch, a
state referred to as incomplete tetanus. During
incomplete tetanus, the muscle goes through quick
cycles of contraction followed by a short relaxation
phase.

 Fused (complete) tetanus

o No evidence of relaxation before the following contractions
o Frequency of stimulations does not allow for relaxation between contractions
 o The result is a smooth and sustained muscle contraction

 If the stimulus frequency is so high that the relaxation

phase disappears completely, contractions become
continuous in a process called complete tetanus. 

 Wave Summation and Tetanus: (a) The

excitation-contraction coupling effects of
successive motor neuron signaling is added
together which is referred to as wave
summation. The peaks in the lower portion of the
image represent stimuli to the muscle cell. (b)
When the stimulus frequency is so high that the
relaxation phase disappears completely, the
contractions become continuous; this is called tetanus.

Muscle Response to Strong Stimuli

 Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated.

 More fibers contracting results in greater muscle tension.
 Muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of energy.
 A skeletal muscle fiber will produce a given amount of force if the stimulus is strong
enough to reach the threshold for muscle contraction. The muscle responds to stronger
stimuli by producing the same force. 

Energy for Muscle Contraction

 Initially, muscles use stored ATP for energy

o ATP bonds are broken to release energy
o Only 4–6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles
 After this initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produce ATP
 Although muscles and engines work in different ways, they both convert chemical energy
into energy of motion. A motorbike engine uses the stored energy of petrol and converts it
to heat and energy of motion (kinetic energy). Muscles use the stored chemical energy of
food we eat and convert that to heat and energy of motion (kinetic energy). We need
energy to enable growth and repair of tissues, to maintain body temperature and to fuel
physical activity. Energy comes from foods rich in carbohydrate, protein, and fat.

Origins of the Energy for Muscle Contraction

The source of energy that is used to power the movement of contraction in working muscles is
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – the body’s biochemical way to store and transport energy.
However, ATP is not stored to a great extent in cells.

The three biochemical systems for producing ATP are, in order:

1. using creatine phosphate

2. using glycogen
3. aerobic respiration.

Glucose can come from several places:

 remaining glucose supply in the muscle cells

 glucose from food in the intestine
 glycogen in the liver
 fat reserves in the muscles
 in extreme cases (like starvation), the body’s protein.

So once muscle contraction starts, the making of more ATP must start quickly. Since ATP is so
important, the muscle cells have several different ways to make it. These systems work together in
phases.

Creatine Phosphate (with oxygen)

All muscle cells have a little ATP within them that they can use immediately – but only enough to
last for about 3 seconds! So all muscle cells contain a high-energy compound called creatine
phosphate which is broken down to make more ATP quickly. Creatine phosphate can supply the
energy needs of a working muscle at a very high rate, but only for about 8–10 seconds.

Glycogen (without oxygen)

Fortunately, muscles also have large stores of a carbohydrate, called glycogen, which can be used
to make ATP from glucose. But this takes about 12 chemical reactions so it supplies energy more
slowly than from creatine phosphate. It’s still pretty rapid, though, and will produce enough energy
to last about 90 seconds. Oxygen is not needed – this is great, because it takes the heart and lungs
some time to get increased oxygen supply to the muscles. A by-product of making ATP without
using oxygen is lactic acid. You know when your muscles are building up  lactic acid because it
causes tiredness and soreness – the stitch.

Aerobic Respiration (with oxygen again)

Within two minutes of exercise, the body starts to supply working muscles with oxygen. When
oxygen is present, aerobic respiration can take place to break down the glucose for ATP. 
Aerobic respiration takes even more chemical reactions to produce ATP than either of the above
two systems. It is the slowest of all three systems – but it can supply ATP for several hours or
longer, as long as the supply of fuel lasts.

Here’s how it works:

You have missed the bus and start running to college for a 9.00am exam: For the first 3 seconds of
your run to college, your muscle cells use the ATP they have within them. For the next 8–10
seconds, your muscles use creatine phosphate stores to provide ATP. Since you haven’t made it to
college yet, the glycogen system (which doesn’t need any oxygen) kicks in. Still not there, so finally
aerobic respiration (that’s ATP using oxygen) takes over.

Energy for Muscle Contraction

 Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)

o Muscle cells store CP
 CP is a high-energy molecule
o After ATP is depleted, ADP is left
o CP transfers a phosphate group to ADP, to regenerate ATP
o CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
o About 1 ATP is created per CP molecule

1. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the immediate source of energy for muscle contraction.  
Some ATP is stored in the muscle fibers, but it gets used up very quickly. 
After this, other pathways must be utilized to produce enough ATP to sustain muscle
contractions.  

There are 3 ways to generate new ATP after the original supply is used up: Direct
Phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
2. Aerobic Respiration
3. Anaerobic Glycolysis and lactic acid formation
 Direct Phosphorylation uses the Creatine Phosphate stored in muscles to reattach a
phosphate group to the ADP left behind after ATP gets used for energy.  This storage
supply lasts less than 15 seconds and only creates 1 new ATP per molecule.  It is not very
efficient.

 Aerobic respiration
o Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy (about 32
ATP)
o A series of metabolic pathways occur in the mitochondria
o This is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen
o Carbon dioxide and water are produced
o Breaks down glucose to carbon dioxide and
water, releasing energy (about 32 ATP).  This all
takes place in the mitochondria of the muscle
cells.  This is a slower reaction than Direct
Phosphorylation, and it requires continuous
oxygen.
o Anabolism = build
o Catabolism= breaks

 The citric acid cycle —also known as the Krebs cycle or the TCA cycle —is a series of
chemical reactions to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived
from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The Krebs cycle is used by organisms that respire to
generate energy, either by anaerobic respiration or aerobic respiration. In addition, the
cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that
are used in numerous other reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical
pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest components of metabolism and may have
originated abiogenically. Even though it is branded as a 'cycle', it is not necessary for
 metabolites to follow only one specific route; at least three alternative segments of the
citric acid cycle have been recognized.
 ADH acts as an energy carrier, transferring electrons from one reaction to another.

 Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation

o Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
o Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce about 2 ATP
o Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
 This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
o Huge amounts of glucose are needed
o Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue
(Lactic acid= muscle fatigue)
 Breaks down glucose without oxygen.  It
produces only 2 ATPs and has a waste product
of lactic acid. This reaction is less efficient, but
much faster.  Large amounts of glucose are
needed.

Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit

 When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract even with a stimulus

 Common cause for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt
o Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove oxygen deficit
o Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid
 Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract less
 Eg. Tachycardia

Ionic Imbalances - Certain minerals and electrolytes are necessary for proper muscle function.
If you often experience unexpected muscle fatigue and cramps, you may be deficient in certain
key minerals such as potassium, magnesium, and calcium. These minerals are vital for muscle
function.

Lactic Acid accumulation -

When the oxygen supply
is plentiful, aerobic
respiration takes place.
When oxygen is not
available, cells respire
anaerobically,
and lactic acid is
produced. Lactic acid is a
 waste product which causes muscle pain and fatigue.  If you have been exercising and are out
of breath or hyperventilating, this will lead to anaerobic respiration and therefore lactic acid-
induced muscle fatigue.

Decrease in ATP supply - Adenosine triphosphate is the fuel needed for all
muscle contractions.  Your body has 3 ways of creating that fuel it needs.  However, putting
demands higher than your body is conditioned and prepared will deplete your small storage of
ATP rapidly and put stress on your other pathways for creating the ATP needed for muscle
contraction.  

Types of Muscle Contractions

 Isotonic contractions
o Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions
o The muscle shortens and movement occurs
o maintain constant tension in the muscle as the muscle changes length. Isotonic
muscle contractions can be either concentric or eccentric.
o Example: bending the knee; rotating the arm
 Isometric contractions
o Tension in the muscle’s increases
o The muscle is unable to shorten or produce movement
o In contrast to isotonic contractions,
isometric contractions generate
force without changing the length of
the muscle, common in the muscles
of the hand and forearm responsible
for grip. Using the above example,
the muscle contraction required to
grip but not move a heavy object
 prior to lifting would be isometric. Isometric contractions are frequently used to
maintain posture.
o Sometimes described as yielding or overcoming.
o Example: push against a wall with bent elbows
 Concentric Contractions
o A type of muscle contraction in which the muscles shorten while generating force,
overcoming resistance. For example, when lifting a heavy weight, a concentric
contraction of the biceps would cause the arm to bend at the elbow, lifting the
weight towards the shoulder. Cross-bridge cycling occurs, shortening the
sarcomere, muscle fiber, and muscle.
 Eccentric Contractions
o An eccentric contraction results in the elongation of a muscle while the muscle is
still generating force; in effect, resistance is greater than force generated. Eccentric
contractions can be both voluntary and involuntary. For example, a voluntary
eccentric contraction would be the controlled lowering of the heavy weight raised
during the above concentric contraction. An involuntary eccentric contraction may
occur when a weight is too great for a muscle to bear and so it is slowly lowered
while under tension. Cross-bridge cycling occurs even though the sarcomere,
muscle fiber, and muscle are lengthening, controlling the extension of the muscle.
 Yielding
o A yielding contraction occurs when a muscle contraction is opposed by resistance.
For example, when holding a heavy weight steady, neither raising nor lowering it.
 Overcoming
o An overcoming contraction occurs when a muscle contraction is opposed by an
immovable object, such as the contraction generated in the muscles when pushing
against a wall.
o In both instances, cross-bridge cycling is maintaining tension in the muscle; the
sarcomere, muscle fibers, and muscle are not changing length.

Muscle Tone

 Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed muscle.

 Different fibers contract at different times to provide muscle tone and to be constantly
ready.
 A measure of a muscle’s resistance to stretching while in a passive resting state.
 the maintenance of partial contraction of a muscle, important for generating reflexes,
maintaining posture and balance, and controlling proper function of other organ systems.
 Tone is controlled by the sensory muscle spindle, which measures muscle stretch.
 Tone is not limited to skeletal muscles, but is also a property of cardiac and smooth
muscles.

muscle spindle: A sensory unit associated with muscle tissue that is responsible for
maintaining muscle tone. When stretched, muscle spindles become activated, triggering
impulses to the spinal cord that can generate an immediate reflex. Spindles can also trigger
 impulses to the cerebral cortex providing information about the degree of stretch within the
muscle.

golgi tendon organ: A sensory unit associated with a tendon that is responsible for preventing
damage to the associated muscle.

To maintain tone, spindles also operate a feedback loop by directly triggering motor neurons
linked to their associated muscles. If tone decreases and the muscle stretches the spindle, an
impulse result in a muscle contraction. With this contraction, the spindle is no longer
stretched.

A similar system is found in the tendons attaching muscle to bone. Distinct stretch receptors
called golgi tendon organs assess the level of stretch within the tendon. The sensitivity of the
golgi tendon organ is significantly less than that of the spindle, so it is thought they exist to
prevent damage rather than control muscle tone.

Smooth and cardiac muscles do not have specialized muscle spindles. Tone is maintained
through autonomous feedback from the muscle fibers, neurons, and associated tissues.

Effect of Exercise in Muscles

 Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance

o Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging) results in stronger, more flexible
muscles with greater resistance to fatigue
 Makes body metabolism more efficient
 Improves digestion, coordination
o Resistance (isometric) exercise (weightlifting) increases muscle size and strength

Five Golden Rules of Skeletal Muscle Activity

1. With a few exceptions, all skeletal muscles cross at least one joint.
2. 2. Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies proximal to the joint crossed.
3. 3. All skeletal muscles have at least two attachments: the origin and the insertion.
4. 4. Skeletal muscles can only pull; they never push.
5. 5. During contraction, a skeletal muscle insertion moves toward the origin.

Muscle and Body Movements

 Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an

attached bone.
 Muscles are attached to at least two points
 Origin - Attachment to a moveable bone
 Insertion - Attachment to an immovable bone

Types of Body Movements

 Flexion
 o Decreases the angle of the joint
o Brings two bones closer together
o Typical of bending hinge joints
like knee and elbow or ball-and-
socket joints like the hip.
 Extension
o Decreases the angle of the joint
o Brings two bones closer together
o Typical of bending hinge joints
like knee and elbow or ball-and-
socket joints like the hip.

Types of Body Movements

 Rotation
o Movement
of a bone
around its
longitudinal
axis
o Common in
ball-and-
socket joints
o Example is when you move atlas around the dens of axis (shake your head “no”).
 Abduction
o Movement of a limb away from the midline
 Adduction
o Opposite of abduction
o Movement of a limb toward the midline
  Circumduction
o Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction
o Common in ball-and-socket joints

Special Movements

 Dorsiflexion
o Lifting the foot so that the superior
surface approaches the shin (toward
the dorsum)
 Plantar flexion
o Depressing the foot (pointing the
toes)
o “Planting” the foot toward the sole
 Inversion
o Turn sole of foot medially
o Rotating the ankle so that the sole of
the foot points towards the other
 Eversion
o Turn sole of foot laterally
o Rotating the ankle so that the sole of
the foot points away from the other.
 Supination
o Forearm rotates laterally so palm
faces anteriorly
o Radius and ulna are parallel
 Pronation
o Forearm rotates medially so palm
faces posteriorly
o Radius and ulna cross each other like
an X
 Opposition
o Move thumb to touch the tips of
other fingers on the same hand.
Types of Muscles

 Prime mover—muscle with the major

responsibility for a certain movement
(agonist)
 Antagonist—muscle that opposes or
reverses a prime mover
 Synergist—muscle that aids a prime mover
in a movement and helps prevent rotation
 Fixator—stabilizes the origin of a prime
mover

Rhomboid muscle – fixator

Naming Skeletal Muscles

 By direction of muscle fibers

o Example: Rectus (straight)
 By relative size of the muscle
o Example: Maximus (largest)
 By location of the muscle
o Example: Temporalis
(temporal bone)
 By number of origins
o Example: Triceps (three
heads)
 By location of the muscle’s origin and
insertion
o Example: Sterno (on the
sternum)
 By shape of the muscle
o Example: Deltoid (triangular)
 By action of the muscle
o Example: Flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)

Head and Neck Muscles

 Facial muscles
o Frontalis—raises eyebrows
o Orbicularis oculi—closes eyes, squints, blinks, winks
o Orbicularis oris—closes mouth and protrudes the lips
o Buccinator—flattens the cheek, chews
o Zygomaticus—raises corners of the mouth
  Chewing muscles
o Masseter—closes the jaw and elevates mandible
o Temporalis—synergist of the masseter, closes jaw
 Neck muscles
o Platysma—pulls the corners of the mouth inferiorly
o Sternocleidomastoid—flexes the neck, rotates the head

Muscles of Trunk, Shoulder, Arm

 Anterior muscles
o Pectoralis major—adducts and flexes the humerus
 Intercostal muscles
o External intercostals—raise rib cage during inhalation
o Internal intercostals—depress the rib cage to move air out of the lungs when you
exhale forcibly
 Muscles of the abdominal girdle
o Rectus abdominis—flexes vertebral column and compresses abdominal contents
(defecation, childbirth, forced breathing)
o External oblique—flex vertebral column; rotate trunk and bend it laterally
o Internal oblique—flex vertebral column; rotate trunk and bend it laterally
o Transversus abdominis—compresses abdominal contents

Girdle = encircle

 Posterior muscles
o Trapezius—elevates, depresses, adducts, and stabilizes the scapula
o Latissimus dorsi—extends and adducts the humerus
o Erector spinae—back extension
o Quadratus lumborum—flexes the spine laterally
o Deltoid—arm abduction
 Muscles that arise from the shoulder girdle and cross the shoulder joint to insert into the
humerus include:
o Pectoralis major
o Latissimus dorsi
o Deltoid
Muscles of the Upper Limb

 Biceps brachii—supinates forearm, flexes elbow

 Brachialis—elbow flexion
 Brachioradialis—weak muscle; elbow flexion
 Triceps brachii—elbow extension (antagonist to biceps brachii)
 Muscles of the forearm, which insert on the hand bones and cause their movement
include:
 Flexor carpi—wrist flexion
 Flexor digitorum—finger flexion
 Extensor carpi—wrist extension
 Extensor digitorum—finger extension

Muscles of the Lower Limb

 Muscles causing movement at the hip joint

include:
 Gluteus maximus—hip extension
 Gluteus medius—hip abduction, steadies’ pelvis
when walking
 Iliopsoas—hip flexion, keeps the upper body from
falling backward
when standing erect
 Adductor muscles—
adduct the thighs
 Muscles causing movement at the knee joint
o Hamstring group—thigh extension and knee flexion
 Biceps femoris
 Semimembranosus
 Semitendinosus
 Muscles causing movement at the knee joint
o Sartorius—flexes the thigh
o Quadriceps group—extends the knee
 Rectus femoris
 Vastus muscles (three)
 Muscles causing movement at ankle and foot
o Tibialis anterior— dorsiflexion, foot inversion
o Extensor digitorum longus — toe extension and
dorsiflexion of the foot
o Fibularis muscles—plantar flexion, foot eversion
o Soleus—plantar flexion