SPECIAL SENSES  Cleanse, protect, moisten, lubricate the eye

Special senses include:  Extrinsic eye muscles

 Smell  Six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye
 Taste  Produce gross eye movements
 Sight
 Hearing • Internal Structures: The Eyeball
 Equilibrium
Special sense receptors
 Large, complex, sensory organs (eyes, ears)
 Localized clusters of receptors (taste buds,
olfactory epithelium)
Part I: The Eye and Vision
 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the
eyes
 Each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers
carrying information to the brain
Anatomy of the Eye Three layers, or tunics, form the wall of the eyeball
 Fibrous layer: outside layer
 Vascular layer: middle layer
 Sensoryneural layer: inside layer

 Humors are fluids that fill the interior of the eyeball

 Lens divides the eye into two chambers
 Sclera:White connective tissue layer, Seen
anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
 Cornea; Transparent, central anterior portion,
Allows for light to pass through, Repairs itself
easily, The only human tissue that can be
transplanted without fear of rejection
 Lens-divides the eye into anterior and posterior
 Accessory structures include the:  Physiologic conditions
 Extrinsic eye muscles  Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on the retina
 Eyelids o Conjunctiva
 Lacrimal apparatus-lacrimal gland + ducts  Myopia (nearsightedness)
 Eyelids -Meet at the medial and lateral commissure  Distant objects appear blurry
(canthus)  Light from those objects fails to reach the retina and
 Eyelashes- Tarsal glands (aka meibomian) are focused in front of it
produce an oily secretion that lubricates the eye  Results from an eyeball that is too long
 Ciliary glands- are located between the eyelashes
 Conjunctiva- Membrane that lines the eyelids and  Hyperopia (farsightedness)
eyeball, Connects with the transparent cornea,
 Near objects are blurry, whereas distant objects are
Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye and keep it
clear
moist
 Distant objects are focused behind the retina
• External and Accessory Structures  Results from an eyeball that is too short or from a
“lazy lens”
 Tears contain:
 Astigmatism
 Dilute salt solution
 Mucus o Antibodies  Images are blurry
 Lysozyme (enzyme that destroys bacteria)  Results from light focusing as lines, not points, on
the retina because of unequal curvatures of the
 Function of tears cornea or lens
Part II: The Ear: Hearing and Balance  Located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal
 Tuft of hair cells covered with cupula (gelatinous
 Ear houses two senses
cap)
 Hearing  If the head moves, the cupula drags against the
 Equilibrium (balance) endolymph
 Hair cells are stimulated, and the impulse travels
 Receptors are mechanoreceptors the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum
 Different organs house receptors for each sense
Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits
Anatomy of the Ear
 Deafness is any degree of hearing loss
 The ear is divided into three areas
 Conduction deafness results when the transmission
 External (outer) ear of sound vibrations through the external and middle
 Middle ear ears is hindered
 Internal (inner) ear  Sensorineural deafness results from damage to the
nervous system structures involved in hearing
 mechanoreceptor is a sensory receptor that  Ménière’s syndrome affects the inner ear and
responds to mechanical pressure or distortion causes progressive deafness and perhaps vertigo
(sensation of spinning)
Part III: Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste
 Chemoreceptors o Stimulated by chemicals in solution
 Taste has five types of receptors
 Smell can differentiate a wider range of chemicals
 Both senses (smell & taste) complement each other and
respond to many of the same stimuli
 Olfactory receptors are in roof of nasal cavity
• (ORs), also known as odorant receptors, are
expressed in the cell membranes of olfactory
receptor neurons and are responsible for the
detection of odorants (i.e., compounds that have an
odor) which give rise to the sense of smell.
 External ear is involved only in collecting sound
waves Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste
 Middle ear is Involved only in the sense of hearing
 Taste buds house the receptor organs
 Internal (inner) ear - Includes sense organs for
hearing and balance  Locations of taste buds
 Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are called the • Most are on the tongue
vestibular apparatus • Soft palate
 It has two functional parts • Superior part of the pharynx
• Cheeks
1. Static equilibrium
 Gustatory cells are the taste receptors
 Maculae—receptors in the vestibule
• Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in
 Report on the position of the head saliva
 Help us keep our head erect
 Send information via the vestibular nerve to the  Five basic taste sensations
cerebellum of the brain  Sweet receptors respond to sugars, saccharine,
2. Dynamic equilibrium some amino acids
 Sour receptors respond to H+ ions or acids
 Crista ampullaris  Bitter receptors respond to alkaloids
 Salty receptors respond to metal ions
 Responds to angular or rotational movements of the
 Umami receptors respond to the amino acid
head
glutamate or the beefy taste of meat
Part IV: Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses  Effector – muscle fibers or glands that responds to
the efferent impulses by either making an action for
 Special sense organs are formed early in
example contracting, if gland it secretes
embryonic development
 Maternal infections during the first 5 or 6 weeks of Two types reflex arcs
pregnancy may cause visual abnormalities as well
as sensorineural deafness in the developing child  Monosynaptic – one synapse only ex. Simple
 The infant has poor visual acuity (is farsighted) and patellar or knee jerk reflex
lacks color vision and depth perception at birth  Polysynaptic – more complex reflexes which involve
 The eye continues to grow and mature until age 8 one or more association neurons in the reflex
or 9 pathway
 Age-related eye issues Somatic reflexes: important in balance, locomotion
o Presbyopia—“old vision” results from decreasing lens A. Spinal reflexes
elasticity that accompanies aging
 Stretch reflex – by tapping a tendon
 Causes difficulty to focus for close vision
 Lacrimal glands become less active Two types:
 Lens becomes discolored
 Dilator muscles of iris become less efficient,  Patellar – knee jerk reflex; happens when you tap
causing pupils to remain constricted patellar ligament which is found just below the
knees with the hammer; assess L2 and L4 of the
• Taste and smell are most acute at birth and decrease in spinal cord (provides sensation to the front part of
sensitivity after age 40 as the number of olfactory and the thigh and the inner side of lower leg; also
gustatory receptors decreases controls movement of hip and knee muscles)
HUMAN REFLEX PHYSIOLOGY  Calcaneal tendon – ankle jerk reflex; tapped on the
Achilles tendon with a reflex hammer; assess to
Program action that our body does is called reflexes. They sacral (S1 AND S2) s1 usually affects the hip and
are rapid, predictable, involuntary, motor responses to grown area; s2 affects the back of your thigh
stimuli. Reflexes usually occur in neural pathway called the
 Superficial cord reflexes – aka abdominal and
reflex arc.
plantar reflexes; usually initiated stimulating
THE REFLEX ARC receptors in the skin and in the mucosa; usually
both depend on brain participation and cord level
REFLEXES reflex of the arc
Two types:  Plantar – soles of your foot; assess corticospinal
tract (major voluntary tract)
 Autonomic – involuntary control without conscious  Babinski sign – toes flare or move upward
control. Activate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,  Cranial nerve reflex test
glands of the body; also help regulate body  Corneal test – mediated through trigeminal nerve
functions such as digestion and blood pressure specifically cranial nerve V (transmitting sensory
 Somatic – stimulate the skeletal muscles (withdraw information toeh ksinl sinuses and mucous
hand when you touch hot surfaces) membranes in the face; also stimulates movement
Reflex arc: 5 functional components in jaw muscles) absence of this reflex often
indicated damage in brain stem
 Receptor – site that receives the stimulus  Muscle spindle
 Sensory neuron – conducts the afferent (neurons
Autonomic reflexes
that carry nerve impulses/signals toward the CNS
or brain) impulses to the CNS; once the stimuli  Pupillary reflexes – retina of the eye is the receptor
travels to the sensory neuron it will go to integration  Optics nerve - contains afferent fibers
center  Oculomotor – efferent fibers
 Integration center – consists of one or more  Effector – smooth muscles of the iris
synapses; impulses between two neurons; center  Stimuli is light (when shone in the eyes it will
between sensory and motor neuron constrict)
 Motor neurons – conducts efferent impulses (away  Dilate – mydriasis, myosis – magliit
from the CNS)
  Consensual reflexes: optic nerve (cranial nerve II)  Inferior oblique – elevating eye or movement
and oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III) assigned upward and turning it laterally; cranial nerve III
for eye movement like constriction  Superior oblique – depresses eye or downward and
 Contralateral response – reflex occurred on the turning it laterally; cranial nerve IV or trochlear
other side when the other has been stimulated
Internal eye anatomy – walls of the eye is constructed in
 Ipsilateral – occurred on the same side and other
three layers
eye too
 Special senses are large 1. Fibrous layer – contains sclera and cornea
 Eyes - eyebrows (prevent sweat from entering the o Sclera - opaque white connective tissue
eyes) that forms the white of your eye; help
 Eyelids – protects the eye and spread; lacrimal fluid maintain the shape of eyeballs and help
or tears through blinking provide an attachment point for extrinsic
 Tarsal glands – secrets the oily secretion that eye muscle
lubricates the surface of the eye o Cornea – continuous with sclera; bulge
 Ciliary gland – secretes oily secretion that lubricates anteriorly; forms a clear window that is the
the surface of the eye; usually found in eyelash major light bending or refracting medium of
follicle; infection sty the eye; where light enters
 Conjunctiva – secreting mucous to lubricate the
eye; conjunctivitis or pink eye or sore eyes 2. Vascular layer – external layer or middle layer
(inflammation) o Choroid – blood vessel rich layer and dark
 Medial and lateral commissures – junction where membrane that function to nourish outer
the eyelids meet layer of the eye; contains melanin that
 Lacrimal apparatus - contains lacrimal gland and helps absorb excess light entering the eye
lacrimal sac; protects the eye by keeping it moist; o Ciliary body – encircles the lens which
blinking spreads the fluid contains ciliary muscle
 Lacrimal gland – secretes tears or lacrimal fluid o Ciliary muscle – alters the shape of the
(contains mucous antibodies and lysozymes lens with contraction and relaxation
 Lacrimal canaliculi – two tiny canals that are located o Ciliary zonule – halo fine fibers which
in the eyelids; allows lacrimal fluid to drain into the attached the lens to the ciliary body
lacrimal sac; o Iris – pigmented structure which contains
 Lacrimal sac – located in the middle orbital wall smooth muscle such as sphincter populae
,allows fluid to drain in nasolacrimal duct (constriction of the eyes) and dilated
 Lacrimal duct – drains to nasal cavity populae (dilation of the eyes); controls the
amount of light entering the eye by
Extrinsic eye muscles – controls movement of eyeball and changing the size of pupil diameter
also hold the eyes in the orbit o Pupil – round central opening of the iris;
 6 types divided into two rectus or recti and oblique allows light ot enter the eye
 4 recti and 2 oblique o Lens – divides the eye into two segments;
anterior segment (contains clear watery
Rectus Muscles fluid called aqueous humor; continually
formed by; maintain intraocular pressure);
 Lateral rectus muscles – moves the eyeball
posterior segment (vitreous humor which is
laterally; controlled by cranial nerve VI aka
gel like in consistency; reinforces posterior
abdocense
part of eyeball and helps to keep the retina
 Medial rectus muscle – moves eyes medially or pressed firmly against the wall of eyeball
towards the midline example crossing eyes;
controlled by cranial nerve III aka oculomotor 3. Sensory layer – retina
 Superior rectus muscle – responsible for elevating o Retina – divided into two
eye and turning it medially; controlled by cranial o Pigmented layer – outer layer of retina that
nerve III
composed of pigment cells that acts as
 Inferior rectus – depressed or down and turning it
phagocytes by cleaning up cell debris;
medially; controlled by cranial nerve III absorbing light and prevent it from
Oblique Muscles scattering in the eye; focus
o Neural layer - thicker inner layer which is
composed of three main types of neurons;
 photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion Presbyopia – old vision; older age; decrease in the elasticity
cells of natural lens, which make it difficult to focus on close vision
o Photoreceptors – outer layer contains rods and lead to blurred vision problem
and cones; distributed over the entire
Visual acuity – sharpness of vision; measured by Snellen
retina except when the optic nerve leaves
eye chart(consists of letters)
the eyeball (optic disc or blind spot)
o Fovea centralis – minute pit with 0.4 mm in Colorblindness – caused by the deficiency in your cones or
diameter; portion of retina which only color of photoreceptors cells
contains the cones; lateral to the blind
spot; area of the greatest quality (image)  one cone – responsible for absorbing red
o Rods – specializes for dimming of light wavelength of visible light
o Cones – color photoreceptors that permit  another – blue
sharp vision in good light  another one – green
o Rods and cones begin electrical event  Ishihara color plate – test color plate
which pass photoreceptor (contains rods EYE REFLEX
and cones) to bipolar cells and ganglion
cells (when stimulated it will generate Intrinsic muscle – internal muscles controlled by autonomic
nerve impulses which ultimately transmit to nervous system; cillary body which alters the lens curvature;
brain and results to the vision) and the radial and circular muscles of your iris which controls
the pupil size and regulate the amount of light entering the
Intrinsic muscles – responsible for eye movement eye
 around the eyes are adipose tissues which serves Accommodation reflex – near response; three part reflex that
to protect the eyes and as a cushion also brings near objects into focus through lens thickening and
 refraction, visual acuity, and astigmatism papillary constriction and inward rotation of the eye or eye
 light rays are usually refracted or bent as they convergence; movement of eyes either constrict or dilate
ecnounte4r the cornea the lens and the vitreous
humor of the eyes which causes the refraction Extrinsic Muscle – oblique and recti; control eyeball
movement
 the image forms in the retina
Accommodation – the ability to focus specifically for close  ex. Convergence reflex – responsible for medial
objects e.g. less than 20 ft eye movement for near vision

Emetropic eye – 20/20 vision; or normal eye; can EARS: two functions for hearing and equilibrium
accommodate properly; light is properly converged (light is Divided into three major areas
properly meet at the retina) and focused on the retina
 External and middle ear – responsible for sense of
 Visual problems occur either because the lenses hearing; separated by eardrum
are too strong or too lazy or structural problems  Internal ear– for hearing and equilibrium
(eyeball may be too long or too short; cornea may  External ear – auricle or pinna;
have improper curvatures)
Overconverging – lagpas sa retina; farsightedness 1. External acoustic meatus or auditory canal –
contains ceruminous glands (wax secreting gland)
Underconverging – light do not meet/will not pass the retina;  When you hear, it will enter auditory canal
nearsightedness and hit the eardrum producing vibration.
Myopia – nearsightedness; only see close objects; image The vibration will be transmitted to the
focuses infront of the retina only; need concave lens to auditory ossicles via the oval window
cause the llight reaching the eye to diverge or separate 2. Middle ear – tympanic cavity; include:
 Auditory ossicles (contains the hammer,
Hyperopia – farsightedness; image is focused behind the anvil and stirrup; responsible for
retina; convex lenses to boost the converging power of the transmission of vibratory motion to the
lens for close vision fluids of inner ear via oval window
Astigmatism – irregularities in the curvatures of your lens  Auditory tube – pharyngotympanic tube;
and cornea; cylindrically round lenses to compensate in connects middle ear chamber to
inequalities of the curvatures of refracting surfaces nasopharynx; it can be opened temporarily
to equalize the pressure of middle ear
cavity with external air pressure; important
 because the eardrum does not vibrate  Semicircular canal – dynamic equilibrium
properly unless the pressure on both (dizziness)
surfaces Is the same; in order to release  Semicircular ducts are suspended in perilymph
external pressure it opens within bony chambers; contains endolymph and
3. Internal Ear – composed of osseus or bony receptors that are activated by the disturbance of
labyrinth which is usually filled with watery fluid the cilia like cochlear duct
called perilymph  Cilia – receptor cells that causes dynamic
 Membranous labyrinth – floating in the equilibrium
perilymph; system filled with a more  At the base you can see the ampulla – contains the
viscous fluid called endolymph receptor region called the crista ampullaris which
 Bony Labyrinth – composed of cochlea, reacts to angular motion
vestibule, semicircular canals  Crista ampullaris – contains copula (hair cells with
 Cochlea – snail-like structure; spiral organ gelatinous cap)
of; contains receptors for hearing  Festibule – macullae (contains the receptor for
 Cochlear duct – cochlear membranous static equilibrium)
labyrinth with a soft warm like tube that  Static – responds to gravitational pull, upward and
winds through the turns of the cochlea; downward movement and linear or straightforward
separate upper (perilymph called the changes in your speed
scalafistibula) and lower (scalatymphany  Within the macule you can find autolithic membrane
which contains perilymph) chambers of the (gelatinous material that contains autolith)
perilymph containing the cochlear cavity;  Autolith – calcium carbonate located above the hair
filled with endolymph cells
 Endolymph – supports the spinal organ of  Movement of head, autolith will also move to the
corti and contains receptors for hearing direction of the movement; respond to gravitational
and nerve endings of the cochlear division pull
of vestibulocochlear nerve VIII or cranial
nerve VIII
 You can see hair and pectoral mebrane in
SENSE OF SMELL AND TASTE
the spinal corti
 Hair part – receptors that receive sound  SMELL – olfactory epithelium (occupies the roof of
each nasal cavity) – composed of olfactory receptor
Mechanism of hearing begins as the sound waves
cells
pas through external acoustic meatus or auditory canal
 Olfactory receptors cells – bipolar neurons that
(vibration to the eardrum then to the middle ear (anvil,
have cilia or olfactory hair that protrude from the
hammer and stirrup) and into the inner ear where the
epithelium
vibration eventually reaches the spinal organ of corti, which
 Olfactory filaments – where the axons from the
contains the receptors for hearing. The travelling sound
basal ends gather; penetrates cribriform plate of
waves will stimulate the hair cells in the spinal organ corti
ethmoid bone and proceed as olfactory nerves
where they peak. Once stimulated, it will depolarize and
(cranial nerve I) to synapse in your olfactory bulb
begin the chain of nervous impulses to the auditory center of
that is located on either side of
the temporal lobe cortex. Thus, series of events will result to
 Taste buds – sense of taste; mostly tongue, soft
hearing.
palate, pharynx and inner surface of cheeks
 High frequency (high pitch)– close to the oval
windows or scalafistubula or upper chamber
 Lower frequency (low pitch) – farther up to the
basilar membrane near the apex of cochlea
 Deaf person – damaged or undeveloped cochlea or
spiral corti

ANATOMY OF EQUILIBRIUM

 HEARING – spiral corti

 Equilibrium – vestibular contains sac like utricle and
saccule vestibule – responsible for static
equilibrium)