Module No.

2
The Cell
Discussion
What is a cell?

The cell is the lowest level of structure capable of performing all the activities of
life. All organisms are composed of cells, the basic unit of structure and function.

Robert Hooke, an English scientist, first described and named cells in

1665, when he observed a slice of cork (bark from an oak tree) with a microscope that
magnifies 30 times (30 x), believing that the tiny boxes or cells that he saw were unique
to cork. Hooke never realized the significance of his discovery. His contemporary, a
Dutchman named Anton van Leeuwenhoek, discovered organisms we now know to be
single-celled. Using a grain of sand that he had polished into the magnifying glass as
powerful as 300x, Leeuwenhoek discovered a microbial world in droplets of pond
water and also observed the blood cells and sperm cells of animals. In 1839, nearly two
centuries after the discoveries of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek, cells were finally
acknowledged as the ubiquitous units of life by Mathias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann, two German biologists. In a classic case of inductive reasoning- reaching a
generalization based on many concurring observations-Schleiden and Schwann
summarized their microscopic studies and those of others by concluding that all living
things consist of cells. This generalization from the basis of what is known as the cell
theory was later expanded to include the idea that all cells come from cells. The ability
of cells to divide to form new cells is the basis for all reproduction and the growth and
repair of multicellular organisms including, humans.

All cells are enclosed by a membrane that regulates the passage of materials
between the cell and its surroundings. Every cell contains DNA, the heritable material
that directs the cell's many activities.
The cell is considered the smallest structure in biology that has all the
properties of living things. These are critical to making sense out of biology:
understanding of cells, basics of cell structure, and function.

ORGANELLES
Organelles are well-defined as large scale structures that have a particular set
of functions in the cell. Some organelles such as cilia, centrioles, ribosomes, and the
membrane infoldings of some prokaryotes are not isolated from the cytoplasm of the
cell. But in eukaryotes, many of the organelles are called "membrane-bound"
organelles: organelles surrounded by a plasma membrane or even a double
membrane.
Indeed, the concept of membrane-bound organelles is crucial in that many texts
restrict the definition of organelles as membrane-bound structures within a cell.
However, this leaves out important structures in prokaryotes such as the bacterial
flagella and membrane infoldings found in bacteria. Also, people who study bacteria
 usually consider such non-membrane bound structures as the ribosome to be
organelles.
Membrane-bound organelles are crucial in the organization of eukaryotic cells.
These organelles allow different sets of chemical reactions to separate from each other
so that they do not interfere. It is much like a chemical factory where the different
chemicals are kept in separate vats and the different reaction pathways involved in
manufacturing compounds are kept isolated from each other.
The compartmentalization of the cytoplasm by membrane-bound organelles
not only prevents interference between different reaction pathways but allows the cell
to provide radically different environments that allow each reaction to operate most
efficiently.

BASIC CELL STRUCTURES.

All cells have at least three things in
common:
 Cell membrane. All cells have a
phospholipid based cell
membrane. The cell membrane is
selectively permeable in that it
allows some materials to pass
into or out of the cells but not others.
 Cytoplasm. Cells are filled with a complex collection of substances in a water-
based solution. This substance is called cytoplasm. Across all cells, there are
several common features to all cell cytoplasm. For example, all cells have
ribosomes. Also, in all cells, the first steps in cellular respiration take place in
the cytoplasm.
 DNA. All cells contain DNA. In the simplest cells, the DNA is in one loop more
loop-like structures free in the cytoplasm. In some cells, (like in the human
body) the DNA is isolated from the cytoplasm in a special structure called a
nucleus. Remember, not all cells have a nucleus!

Typical Plant Cell Typical Animal Cell Typical Protist Cell

COMPONENTS OF CELLS WITH SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS

Cell membrane
 A complex barrier of lipid
molecules separating the cell
from its external environment.
 These molecules can move apart to
allow larger particles to move in or out
of the cell.
 The "selectively permeable" cell
membrane regulates what
passes into and out of the cell.
It allows the cell to maintain a
"balance" between what is
inside the cell and outside.
 Some substances, like water,
move freely through the cell membrane by a process known as osmosis.

Cytoplasm
 A thick, aqueous solution of salts surrounding the organelles inside the
cell membrane.
 Nutrients and minerals spread through the cytoplasm to all parts of the
cell.
 The constant motion of this gel-like substance is called cytoplasmic
streaming.

Nucleus
 The structure inside the cell that directs cell activities
 Contains the DNA of a cell
 On the outside of some cells, bacteria, and plants, this structure
functions for support and protection
 There are pores in the cell wall allowing substances to come in contact
with the cell membrane.
 Types of cell walls:
 Primary cell wall - Formed during cell growth. It is composed
of parallel layers of cellulose and pectin. This structure allows the
cell to expand as it grows. While it does provide support, it is not
nearly as strong as the secondary cell wall.
 Secondary cell wall - formed after cell growth stops.
 It is composed of interwoven cellulose and lignin fibers. This
structure is sturdy.
 It gives plants their "woody" characteristic.
 Cellulose from plants is the major substance composing the
paper.
Ribosome
The sites of protein synthesis in a cell.
 These small, spherical structures are the most numerous organelles in
almost all cells.
 Some ribosomes produce protein to be used within the cell.
 Some produce a protein that is "exported" to other parts of an organism.
Endoplasmic reticulum
 A membrane system of folded sacs and tunnels in the cytoplasm
 Rough "ER" is covered with ribosomes. It is common in cells that export
proteins and directs the proteins flow.
 Smooth "ER" has few or no ribosomes. It functions as a pathway for
molecules to follow.
Golgi Apparatus
 A stack of membranes or sacs that acts to prepare substances for export
from the cell.
 Once the Golgi apparatus has enclosed the final product in a vesicle, or
pouch, the product is sent through the cell membrane.
Mitochondria
 Respiration centers of a cell.
 Large organelles are scattered through most cells
 Numerous in cells that use a lot of energy like liver and muscle cells.
Lysosome
 Digestive centers of a cell.
 They produce many different types of enzymes and digest things from
food particles to a cell's worn-out parts.
Vacuole
 Most common in plant cells, they are storage sites within a cell.

Plastid
 Pigment producing organelle in cells.

Summary of Organelles

Cell Part Function

Energy center or "powerhouse" of the cell. Turns

Mitochondria
food into useable energy (ATP)

Ribosomes Make protein

Golgi Apparatus Processes, packages and secretes proteins

Lysosome Contains digestive enzymes, breaks things down

Endoplasmic Reticulum Transport, "intracellular highway"

 Vacuole Stores water or other substances

Uses sunlight to create food, photosynthesis (only

Chloroplast
found in plant cells)

Provides additional support (plant and bacteria

Cell Wall
cells)

Two major kinds of cells are prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. These can be
distinguished by their structural organization. The cells of the microorganisms are
commonly called bacteria are prokaryotic. All other forms of life are composed of a
eukaryotic cell that is divided by the internal membrane into many different functional
compartments or organelles. In eukaryotic cells, the DNA is organized along with a
certain protein structure called chromosomes contained within a nucleus, the largest
organelle of most eukaryotic cells. Surrounding the nucleus in the cytoplasm, a thick
fluid in which are suspended the various organelles that perform most of the cell’s
functions. Some eukaryotic cells, including those of plants, have tough walls external
to their membrane, Animal lack walls.
In the much simpler prokaryotic cell, the DNA is not separated from the rest of
the cell is a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells also lack the cytoplasmic organelles typical of
eukaryotic cells. Almost all prokaryotic cells (bacteria) have a tough external cell wall.
Although eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells contrast sharply in complexity. Cells vary
widely in size, shape, and specific structural features but all are highly ordered
structures that carry out complicated processes necessary for maintaining life.

Types of Cells.

In the living world, there are two basic types of cells, prokaryote and eukaryote cells.

 Prokaryotic cells include what we commonly refer to as bacteria. Prokaryotic

cells have DNA. But it is not isolated from the rest of the cell inside of a nucleus.
Instead, the DNA is a single loop-free in the cytoplasm. Besides, prokaryotes
 often have small loops of DNA called plasmids that can be transferred to other
cells.
 Eukaryotic cells generally are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus containing the DNA as well as various other
membrane-bound organelles. Some of these organelles are pretty much
universal in eukaryotes. These include mitochondria, rough and smooth ER,
the nucleus. Other organelles are restricted to one or more kingdoms. For
example, chloroplasts are restricted to the Kingdoms Protista and Plantae.

Prokaryotes typically do not have membrane-bound organelles but, the cell membrane
may, as in photosynthetic bacteria, have intricate folding to increase surface area for
various chemical processes. Also, many bacteria move using a structure called a
bacterial flagellum. It is quite different than the flagella found in eukaryotes in that it
has a rotating base like a wheel that supplies torque to the rest of the flagellum.

These cells are a type of prokaryotic cell called cyanobacteria.

Many eukaryote cells have flagella and cilia that are hair or whip-like organelles that
move the cells. In all eukaryotes, so far as is known these organelles have a similar
structure, unlike the prokaryote flagellum the eukaryote flagellum moves by using
energy internally rather than by torque transfer from the base.
Eukaryotes such as plants and fungi will have cell walls in addition to the always
present cell membrane.

A Unifying Concept: The History Of Cell Theory

After the first observations of life under the microscope, it took two centuries of
research before the 'cell theory', the idea that all living things are composed of cells or
their products, was formulated. It proved even harder to accept that individual cells
also make up nervous tissue. With the invention of the microscope at the beginning of
the seventeenth century, it became possible to take a first glimpse at the previously
invisible world of microscopic life. A bewildering array of new structures appeared
before the astonished eyes of the first microscopists. The Jesuit priest Athanasius
Kircher (1601–1680) showed, in 1658, that maggots and other living creatures
developed in decaying tissues. In the same period, oval red-blood corpuscles were
described by the Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680), who also
discovered that a frog embryo consists of globular particles.
Another new world of extraordinary variety, microorganisms, was revealed by
the exciting investigations of another Dutchman, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–
1723). The particles that he saw under his microscope were motile. Assuming that
motility equates to life, he concluded in a letter of 9 October 1676 to the Royal Society
that these particles were indeed living organisms. In a long series of papers, van
Leeuwenhoek then described many specific forms of these microorganisms (which he
called "animalcules"), including protozoa and other unicellular organisms.

But the first description of the cell is generally attributed to Robert Hooke (1635–
1702), an English physicist who was also a distinguished microscopist (below). In 1665
Hooke published Micrographia, the first significant work devoted to microscopical
observation, and showed what the microscope could mean for naturalists. He
described the microscopic units that made up the structure of a slice of cork and coined
the term "cells" or "pores" to refer to these units. Cella is a Latin word meaning a small
room'. Latin-speaking people applied the word Cellulae to the six-sided cells of the
honeycomb. By analogy, Hooke applied the term "cells" to the thickened walls of the
dead cells of the cork. Although Hooke used the word differently to later cytologists
(he thought of the cork cells as passages for fluids involved in plant growth), the
modern term 'cell' comes directly from his book 6.
Under the microscope: drawings of the instruments used by Robert Hooke (left)
and the cellular structure of cork according to Hooke (right) (reproduced from
Micrographia, 1665).

The Cell THEORY

Hints at the idea that the cell is the basic component of living organisms emerged
well before 1838–39, that was when the cell theory was officially formulated. Cells
were not seen as undifferentiated structures. Some cellular components, such as the
nucleus, had been visualized. The occurrence of these structures in cells of different
tissues and organisms hinted at the possibility that cells of similar organization might
underlie all living matter.

The abbot Felice Fontana (1730–1805) glimpsed the nucleus in epithelial cells in
1781 but this structure had probably been observed in animal and plant cells in the
first decades of the eighteenth century. The Scottish botanist Robert Brown (1773–
1858) was the first to recognize the nucleus (a term that he introduced) as an essential
constituent of living cells (1831). In the leaves of orchids, Brown observed "a single
circular areola, generally somewhat more opaque than the membrane of the cell.
This areola, or nucleus of the cell as perhaps it might be termed, is not confined to the
epidermis, being also found not only in the pubescence of the surface... but in many
cases in the parenchyma or internal cells of the tissue. Brown recognized the general
occurrence of the nucleus in these cells and thought of the organization of the plant in
terms of cellular constituents.
Meanwhile, technical improvements in microscopy were being made. The principal
drawback of microscopes since van Leeuwenhoek's time was what we now call
'chromatic aberration', which diminishes the resolution power of the instrument at
high magnifications. Only in the 1830s were achromatic microscopes introduced,
allowing more precise histological observations. Improvements were also made in
tissue-preservation and -treating techniques.

In 1838, the botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881) suggested that every
structural element of plants is composed of cells or their products12. The following
year, a similar conclusion was elaborated for animals by the zoologist Theodor
Schwann (1810–1882). He stated that "the elementary parts of all tissues are formed
of cells" and that "there is one universal principle of development for the elementary
parts of organisms... and this principle is in the formation of cells. The conclusions of
Schleiden and Schwann are considered to represent the official formulation of 'cell
theory.' Their names are almost as closely linked to cell theory as are those of Watson
and Crick with the structure of DNA.

According to Schleiden, however, the first phase of the generation of cells was
the formation of a nucleus of "crystallization" within the intracellular substance (which
he called the "cytoblast"), with subsequent progressive enlargement of such condensed
material to become a new cell. This theory of 'free cell formation' was reminiscent of
the old 'spontaneous generation' doctrine (although as an intracellular variant), but
was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak (1815–1865), Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902),
and Albert Kölliker (1817–1905) showed that cells formed through scission of pre-
existing cells7. Virchow's aphorism Omnis cellula e cellula (every cell from a pre-
existing cell) thus became the basis of the theory of tissue formation, even if the
mechanisms of the nuclear division were not understood at the time.

Cell theory stimulated a reductionistic approach to biological problems and became

the most general structural paradigm in biology. It emphasized the concept of the unity
of life and brought about the concept of organisms as "republics of living elementary
units."
As well as being the fundamental unit of life, the cell was also seen as the basic
element of pathological processes. Diseases came to be considered (irrespective of the
causative agent) as an alteration of cells in the organism. Virchow's Cellular pathology
was the most important pathogenic concept until, in this century, the theory of
molecular pathology was developed.
Literally "all cells from pre-existing cells." This saying summarizes what has become
called the cell theory. Today the theory has at least three parts:
 All living things are made up of cells
 All cells come from pre-existing cells.
 There is no spontaneous generation under current conditions.

Today these seem self-evident, but this theory only dates from the mid 19th
century. For example, before the mid-19th century many people believed in
spontaneous generation. It is the idea that living things can develop from non-living
things. People, for instance, used to believe that flies developed from rotten meat or
that bacteria developed from stagnant water. Or frogs developed from the mud at the
bottom of ponds, or that a horse hair put in water would turn into a worm. Slowly,
though scientists cleared up these beliefs until now we accept the notion that under
current conditions, life does not arise from nonlife.
Cell theory is crucial because it provided, and still provides one of the great unifying
theories in biology: one that says despite all the vast diversity of organisms, they are
united at a very fundamental level, namely the presence of cells.

References:
Campbell, N. A., J. B. Reece, and L. G. Mitchell 1999. Biology.
Benjamin/Cumming an input Addison Wesley Longman Inc. 5th ed. 1175 pp.
http://www.biology arizona.edu.
Hhhp.//www.biologie uni.hamburg de.
http://www nature com/cgi taf/Dyna Page.taf
http:// old.jcccc net/pdecelll/basic cell htm.
http://www.hotus publications.com/guide/ky.104 htm.

CELLULAR DIVISION

 All cells are derived from pre-existing cells

 New cells are produced for growth and to replace damaged or old cells
 Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, &
animals)

Keeping Cells Identical

 The instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA, so each new cell
must get a complete set of the DNA molecules

DNA Replication Original DNA

 DNA must be copied or replicated before cell division strand
 Each new cell will then have an identical copy of the DNA
Two new,
Identical Daughter Cells identical DNA
strands

Two identical
daughter cells

Parent Cell
Chromosomes

Prokaryotic Chromosome
 The DNA of prokaryotes (bacteria) is one, circular
chromosome attached to the inside of the cell
membrane

Eukaryotic Chromosomes
 All eukaryotic cells store genetic information in
chromosomes
 Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50 chromosomes in their body cells
 Human body cells have 46 chromosomes or 23 identical pairs
 Each chromosome is composed of a single, tightly coiled DNA molecule
 Chromosomes can’t be seen when cells aren’t dividing and are called chromatin

Compacting DNA into Chromosomes

 DNA is tightly coiled around proteins called histones

Chromosomes in Dividing Cells

 Duplicated chromosomes are called chromatids & are
held together by the centromere

Called Sister Chromatids

Karyotype
 A picture of the chromosomes from a human cell
arranged in pairs by size
 First 22 pairs are called autosomes
 Last pair are the sex chromosomes
 XX female or XY male
Boy or Girl?

The Y Chromosome Decides

Y - Chromosome

X - Chromosome
CELL REPRODUCTION

Types of Cell Reproduction

 Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to make 2 new,
identical daughter cells
 Mitosis & binary fission are examples of asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg & sperm) joining to make a new
cell (zygote) that is NOT identical to the original cells
 Meiosis is an example

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

Parent cell

Chromosome

 Prokaryotes such as bacteria divide into 2 doubles

identical cells by the process of binary fission
 Single chromosome makes a copy of itself Cell splits
 Cell wall forms between the chromosomes
dividing the cell
2 identical daughter cells
Prokaryotic Cell Undergoing Binary Fission

Animation of Binary Fission

THE CELL CYCLE

Five Phases of the Cell Cycle

G1 – primary growth phase
S – synthesis; DNA replicated
G2 – secondary growth phase
collectively these 3 stages are called
interphase
M – mitosis
C – cytokinesis

Cell Cycle
Interphase - G1 Stage Original
 1st growth stage after cell division DNA
 Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles
 Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities
 Synthesis stage
 DNA is copied or replicated

Two
Interphase – G2 Stage identical copies
 2nd Growth Stage of DNA
 Occurs after DNA has been copied
 All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g. centrioles)
 Both organelles & proteins are synthesized

What’s Happening in Interphase?

What the cell looks

like

Animal Cell

What’s occurring

Sketch the Cell Cycle

DNA Copied
Cells Cells prepare for Division
Mature

Daughter
Cells
Cell Divides into Identical cells
MITOSIS
 Division of the nucleus
 Also called karyokinesis
 Only occurs in eukaryotes
 Has four stages
 Doesn’t occur in some cells such
as brain cells

Four Mitotic Stages

 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase

Early Prophase
 Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible chromosomes
 Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)

Nucleolus Cytoplasm

Nuclear Membrane
Chromosomes

Late Prophase
 Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken down
 Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly visible
 Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the centromere of each
chromosome
 Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell

Late Prophase

Chromosomes

Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated

Spindle Fiber attached to Chromosome

Kinetochore
Fiber

Chromosome

Review of Prophase

What the cell

looks like

What’s happening

Spindle Fibers
 The mitotic spindle form from the microtubules in plants and centrioles
in animal cells
 Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell to the opposite pole
 Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to the centromere of the
chromosome to which they attach
 Asters are short fibers radiating from centrioles

Sketch the Spindle

Metaphase
 Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the center of the
cell
 Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator Equator of Cell

Pole of the Cell

Metaphase

Review of Metaphase

Anaphase
 Occurs rapidly
 Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by
kinetochore fibers

Anaphase Review
Telophase
 Sister chromatids at opposite poles
 Spindle disassembles
 Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids
 Nucleolus reappears
 CYTOKINESIS occurs
 Chromosomes reappear as chromatin

Comparison of Anaphase & Telophase

Cytokinesis
 Means division of the cytoplasm
 Division of cell into two, identical halves called daughter cells
 In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to divide cell
 In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split cell

Cleavage Furrow in Animal Cell Cell Plate in Animal Cell

Mitotic Stages

Daughter Cells of Mitosis

 Have the same number of chromosomes as each other and as the
parent cell from which they were formed
 Identical to each other, but smaller than parent cell
 Must grow in size to become mature cells (G1 of Interphase)

Identical Daughter Cells

What is the 2n or diploid number?

2
Chromosome number the same, but cells smaller than
parent cell

Draw & Learn these Stages

Draw & Learn these Stages

Name the Mitotic Stages:

Eukaryotic Cell Division

 Used for growth and repair
 Produce two new cells identical to the original cell
 Cells are diploid (2n)


Chromosomes during Metaphase of mitosis

 Prophase Metaphase Anaphase

Telophase Telophase

Mitosis Animation
Name each stage as you see it occur?

Mitosis in Onion Root Tips

Do you see any stages of mitosis?
Test Yourself over Mitosis
Mitosis Quiz
Identify the Stages

Locate the Four Mitotic Stages in Plants

Uncontrolled Mitosis
 If mitosis is not controlled, unlimited cell division
occurs causing cancerous tumors
 Oncogenes are special proteins that increase the chance
that a normal cell develops into a tumor cell

Cancer cells
MEIOSIS

Formation of Gametes (Eggs & Sperm)

Facts About Meiosis

 Preceded by interphase which includes chromosome replication
 Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis I and Meiosis II
 Called Reduction-division
 Original cell is diploid (2n)
 Four daughter cells produced that are monoploid (1n)
 Daughter cells contain half the number of chromosomes as the original
cell
 Produces gametes (eggs & sperm)
 Occurs in the testes in males (Spermatogenesis)
 Occurs in the ovaries in females (Oogenesis)

More Meiosis Facts

 Start with 46 double stranded chromosomes (2n)
 After 1 division - 23 double stranded chromosomes (n)
 After 2nd division - 23 single stranded chromosomes (n)
 Occurs in our germ cells that produce gametes

Why Do we Need Meiosis?

 It is the fundamental basis of sexual reproduction
 Two haploid (1n) gametes are brought together through fertilization to form
a diploid (2n) zygote

Fertilization – “Putting it all together”

Occurs in Interphase

Replication of Chromosomes
 Replication is the process of duplicating a
chromosome
 Occurs prior to division
 Replicated copies are called sister chromatids
 Held together at centromere
A Replicated Chromosome

Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes

 Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number by half
 Fertilization then restores the 2n number
MEIOSIS: TWO PART CELL DIVISION

Meiosis I: Reduction Division

Prophase I

Tetrads Form in Prophase I

Crossing-Over
 Homologous chromosomes in a tetrad
cross over each other
 Pieces of chromosomes or genes are
exchanged
 Produces Genetic recombination in the
offspring

Homologous Chromosomes During Crossing-Over

Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of different gamete types produced
by independent assortment
Metaphase I

Homologous pairs of
chromosomes align along the
equator of the cell

Anaphase I

Homologs separate and move to opposite

poles.

Sister chromatids remain

attached at their centromeres.

Telophase I

Nuclear envelopes
reassemble.
Spindle disappears.
Cytokinesis divides cell into two.

Meiosis II

Meiosis II produces gametes with one copy of each chromosome and thus one copy
of each gene.
Meiosis II: Reducing Chromosome Number

Prophase II

Nuclear envelop fragments.

Spindle forms.

Metaphase II

Chromosomes align
along equator of cell.

Anaphase II

Equator Sister chromatids separate and

Pole move to opposite poles.
Telophase II

Nuclear envelope assembles.

Chromosomes decondense.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell into two.

Results of Meiosis

Gametes (egg & sperm) form

Four haploid cells with one copy of each

chromosome

One allele of each gene

Different combinations of alleles for

different genes along the chromosome
GAMETOGENESIS (Oogenesis or Spermatogenesis)

Spermatogenesis
 Occurs in the testes
 Two divisions produce 4 spermatids
 Spermatids mature into sperm
 Men produce about 250,000,000 sperm per day

Spermatogenesis in the Testes

Spermatid

Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
 Occurs in the ovaries
 Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies that die and 1 egg
 Polar bodies die because of unequal division of cytoplasm
 Immature egg called oocyte
 Starting at puberty, one oocyte matures into an ovum (egg) every 28 days

Oogenesis in the Ovaries

Oogenesis
COMPARING MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Comparison of Divisions

Mitosis Meiosis

Number of
1 2
divisions

Number of
2 4
daughter cells

Genetically
Yes No
identical?

Chromosome # Same as parent Half of parent

Where Somatic cells Germ cells

When Throughout life At sexual maturity

Role Growth and repair Sexual reproduction

Answers

Name the Stages of Mitosis

Identify the Stages

Locate the Four Mitotic Stages in Plants