PLB PLANT BIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO CELL

Cell: the study of cell in terms of structure, function and chemistry is called cytology
In 1591, a Dutch merchant called Anton Leeuwenhoek invented single lens microscope with
which he observed tiny moving creature in a body of water which he referred to as animal cell. The
invention of microscope led to the discovery of cell.
In 1665, an English scientist, Robert Hooke observed that the cork layer of wood consist of
several compartments which he termed cells. He observed a multitude of pores that look like wall
compartments of the honey comb which he believed consisted of dark regions of non-living
material.
In 1838, a German botanist, Matthias Schleiden was the first to clearly state that a living
thing is made up of cells.
In 1839, a zoologist, Theodor Schwann was the first to clearly state that animals consist of cells.
In 1855, Rudolf Virchow identified the nucleus and postulated that the nucleus control and
coordinate the activities of a cell. The observation of these researchers led to the development of
cell theory.
CELL THEORY
1. All living things are made up of cells
2. The cell is the smallest and fundamental unit of life
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells
4. Cell contains genetic materials which are passed from generation to generation by cell division.
5. All cells have a similar chemical composition e.g. protein, nucleic acid, carbohydrate and lipid.
6. The metabolic process associated with life occurs within the cells.
Cell is the functional, structural and fundamental unit of a living organism.
TYPES OR CLASSIFICATION
There are two major categories of cell. They are:
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell
The main difference between these two categories is that prokaryotic cells do not have a
nuclear membrane. Its nucleic material consists of a single chromosome and it lies in the cytoplasm.
In prokaryotic cell, membrane consist of organelles
Eukaryotic cells on the other hand include all other such as the protista, fungi, plants and
animal. The nucleus in the eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a nuclear envelope and contains
nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm found in the nuclear membrane and the nucleus consists of fluid and
organelles.
CELL SIZES AND SHAPES
Cells can be remarkably different in sizes, shapes and function. Some cells are visible e.g.
eggs of birds. However, most cells are microscopic. The size of the cell is measured in micrometer
(um). E.g. bacteria cell range from 0.22 -0.3 um
Liver cells are about 20 um and plant cell could be greater than 40um. Cells also come in
different shape. Egg. Spindle shape, aster shape, and oval shape, spherical and cylindrical shape.
Some cells change their shape. E.g. Amoeba, micro-phaets, others have typical shape. E.g.
spermatozoa and epidermal cells. The shapes of the cells are evolved to help them carry out specific
functions

CELL STRUCTURE
Despite that, there are many different types of cells different shapes and sizes. The concept of
generalized is adopted. These include features from all kinds of cell and are basically divided into
three parts.
1. Cell membrane: A selective barrier which encloses the cell.
2. Cytoplasm: It separates the plasma membrane and the nucleus
3. Nucleus: It contains the genetic material of a fine network of thread called chromatids which is
DNA associated with particular protein. At the time of cell division, this chromatid becomes
shortened to form chromosomes.
CELL MEMBRANE
This membranous layer that encloses the cell. It separates the materials outside the cell (extra
cellular) from the materials inside the cell (intracellular). It defines cell boundaries. It maintains cell
integrity. It regulates exchange of material between the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid due to
selective permeability. It is important in intercellular communication and cell identity.
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane is made of phospholipids bilayer comprising of phospholipids, glycolipid and
cholesterol. In addition to membrane protein. Cell membrane may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
CYTOPLASM
It is the jelly-like fluid in the cell. It is the medium of chemical reaction. It provides platform
upon which other organelles can operate within the functions of cell such as expansion, growth and
replication are carried out in the cytoplasm. It comprises the cytosome and all the organelles
excluding the nucleus and cytoskeleton.
CYTOSOME
These are little organelles suspended in the cytoplasm. Each organelle has specific shape and
metabolic tasks. Some are surrounded by two envelopes and a large number have a single envelope
MITOCHONDRION
They could be cylindrical, broad shaped or spherical usually about 8um long. It is the centre
of aerobic respiration in eukaryotic cells. It is a double membrane bounded organelle. The outer
membrane is smooth and it’s permeable while the inner membrane is highly folded into crista with a
large surface area. The space enclosed within the crista forms a matrix which contains circular DNA
called mtDNA. The inner membrane is the site for ATP synthesis.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
This is a system of flattened cavity (cisternae) which is lying in the membrane. It is the site of
synthesis of many substances. Its cavity also functions as transporting system whereby substances
can be moved to other parts of the cells. There are two types
1. RER: It contains numerous ribosomes on the outer surface. The ribosome synthesis proteins. ER
is involved in packaging of materials to other organelles such as lysosomes.
2. SER: it has no ribosome on its surface. Its cisternae are more tabular and branched respectively.
It is the site of steroid and phospholipids synthesis. It is also involved in detoxification. It helps in
storage of calcium and its mediation in skeletal muscles.
NUCLEUS
It is a double membrane bounded organelle that contains nucleoplasm. They are permeable
due to the presence of nuclear pore. It is the centre of integration in the cell. It contains genetic
materials in form of nucleic acid. E.g. RNA and DNA. It controls the activity of the cell.
NUCLEOPLASM
It is full of chromatin materials therefore making the nucleus the centre. The dark region
within the nucleus is called nucleolus which is associated with ribosome synthesis.
GOLGI BODY/APPARATUS
This is a series of flattened sac-like structures. The main function is to modify and package
proteins and lipids after the synthesis.
LYSOSOMES
They are tiny spherical structures. Its main function is to break down substances in the cell.
This is because they contain hydrolytic enzymes that are capable of digesting organic matters. They
also help in the digestion of worn out cells and organelles by the process called autolysis.
PEROXISOMES
They contain oxidative enzymes. Their main function is removal of toxic materials from the
cell (detoxification)
RIBOSOMES
Single membrane bounded abundant organelles. It is the site for protein synthesis. They are
consisted of proteins and ribosomonal ribonucleic. Ribosomes are manufactured in the nucleolus at
the nucleus. They are associated with endoplasmic reticulum. It could be at 70s or 80s form.
VACOULE
It is a spherical one membrane (tonoplast) bounded organelle containing sap usually in large
plant cell and small but numerous in other cells. In plant cells, tonoplast helps in maintenance of
turgidity in the cell.

GROWTH OF CELL
Cell reproduction occurs in plants, animals and prokaryotes. The site of cell growth in
organisms occurs at the meristems e.g. shoot (apexes) i.e. bud, root tip actively dividing cells. In
animals, somatic region and sex cell region.
CELL DIVISION IN PROKARYOTES
It is an asexual method of reproduction. The chromosomes attach to the cell membrane
makes a copy of the cells and the cell grows to about twice its size. Therefore, the cell is formed
between the chromosomes and the parent cells split into two identical cells (clones) conjunction is
formed between the chromosomes and the parent cells split into two identical cells (clones).
Conjugation is a kind of primitive reproduction.
CELL DIVISION IN EUKARYOTES
They have nucleus and membrane bounded organelles which must be copied exactly so that
the two new cells will be similar. The original parents and two new daughter cells must have
identical chromosomes. DNA must be copied in the S-phase of the cell cycle. Organelles found in
the cytoplasm are copied in the growth phase. Both the nucleus and the cytoplasm must be divided
during cell division in the eukaryotes.
 MITOSIS
It occurs in the somatic cells or vegetative cell of the organisms. It involves four stages which
is also called phases. The features are:
1. Division of the nucleus occurs first
2. Mitosis is an asexual method of reproduction
3. It consist of four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants containing green pigment called chlorophyll utilizes
sunlight energy to synthesis organic food substances notably carbohydrate (sugar) from simple
inorganic raw materials. The word “photosynthesis” was proposed Barnes in 1898. The mechanism
of photosynthesis is a redox reaction.
The two stages involved in photosynthesis include the light stage which is also referred to as
light dependent stage and dark stage which is light independent.
The light reaction takes place in a membrane called “Thylakoid membrane” and both stages
are undergone so that ATP is formed in the light reaction called cyclic A.T.P. formation and non-
cyclic A.T.P. formation.

GENETICS, HEREDITY, GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

Genetics is defined as the scientific study of the scientific study of heredity and variation in
living things. Heredity or inheritance is defined as the transmission and the expression of characters
or traits in organisms from parent to the offspring. Variation is defined as the differences which
exist between parents and their offspring as well as among the offspring.
Each offspring inherit or different combination of characteristics from parents. Plant and
animals have transmittable characters. Transmittable characters in human being include:
1. Body structure or shape
2. Shape of the head, nose and ear.
3. Sizes of nose, head and ear.
4. Colour of skin, hair and eye.
5. Intelligence.
6. Blood grouping.
7. Tongue rolling.
8. Sickle cell anaemia
Transmittable characters in plant include:
1. Height of plant.
2. Size or weight
3. Size of leaf
4. Colour of leaf, flowers, seeds or fruits.
5. Taste of fruit.
6. Resistance to environment factors like diseases, pest and drought.
7. Shape of leaf, fruit and flower.
PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS.
Gregor Mendel, an Australian monk is generally given credit for having discovered the basic
principles of genetics. He did these through keen observation as he raised peas in his garden. These
principles have become the foundation of modern genetics. They are summarized as follows:
1. In every living thing, there is a pair of genes in every cell that controls the appearance of every
trait in that individual. A gene is a unit of hereditary material located on a chromosome. A
chromosome is the rod-like carrier of gene.
2. Individuals receive one gene for each trait from each parent.
3. Genes are transmitted from parent to offspring as an unchanging unit.
4. In the production of reproductive cells, gene pair’s separate and only one gene for each trait is
combined in each gamete. A gamete is a reproductive cell.
5. When an individual has different genes for a trait one usually shows while the other does not.
GENES
They are the unit of genetic material they are responsible for all the traits or characteristics of
plant and animals. Genes occur at specific locations on chromosomes. Chromosomes control certain
enzymes and protein production that contain some plant and animals. The chromosome themselves
are composed of a protein covering surrounding two chains of DNA. These substances serve as the
coding mechanisms for heredity. The two alleles, one each of a pair of chromosomes may be either
alike or different. Pairs of genes that are alike are said to be homozygous whereas those pairs that
are different are called heterozygous. When the two genes in a pair are different and one gene
usually expresses itself and the other remains hidden. The gene that expresses itself is referred to as
DOMINANT GENE; the gene that remains hidden is called RECESSIVE GENE. Sometimes,
neither gene of a pair expresses itself to the exclusion of the other when this happens; the gene pair
is referred to as EXPRESSIVE PARTIAL or INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE. The actual
configuration of genes in an animal or plant is called the GENOTYPE. On the other hand,
phenotype is the term that describes the physical appearance of the animal or plant. All this is
important when exploring the basics of genetics. Some traits are controlled by genes that are located
on the chromosomes that control the sex of the plant in animals, these are called SEX-LINKED
traits. The chromosomes that control sex in most animals are not perfectly matched. The result is
that not all of the genes on these chromosomes occur in pairs, when this happens, some traits show
only in males and some only in females. Genes normally duplicate themselves accurately. However
sometimes accidents or changes occur. This genetic accident or changes in the genes are called
mutation. Sometimes, this mutation result results in changes in organisms that are desirable.
MENDEL’S WORK IN GENETICS
Mendel peeped on the garden pea (Pisum sativum) at experiment land. This plant gave him
some advantages
1. The plant has clear cut characters.
2. The plant is a handy plant
3. Self pollination is natural
4. Flower construction allows for artificial pollination

WATER, P.H AND BUFFERS

WATER
WATER: It is the most abundant component of organisms and individual cells of man
containing approximately 80% water while the whole body is made up of over 60%.
 Water is important to living things because it provides the medium for biochemical reactions.
Water can also play a major role in the evolution of biological systems. Water provides an
environment for organisms to live in, as 75% of the earth is covered by water.
The importance of water as a medium of life comes from four of the characteristics which are
as follows.
1. Solvent properties
2. Heat capacity or thermal property
3. Surface tension
4. Freezing properties
SOLVENT PROPERTIES
Water is an important solvent because of its polar molecules. The distribution of electric
charge is permanently in a way that centers of positive and negative charges are separated by close
distance, this is because of the configuration of the water molecules. Instead of being arranged in a
straight line, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms are situated asymmetrically.

The oxygen part of the molecule has a net negative charge and hydrogen part of the molecule
has a net or amount of positive charge (that makes it neutrally electrical).
Water effectively weakens the attraction between ions of opposite charge because of the
presence of both positive and negative charges in it, it attracts both. Water is therefore a good
solvent with ionic solids and polar molecules readily dissolve in it. This is of great biological
importance because all chemical reactions that take place in cells do so by aqueous solutions.
HEAT CAPACITY
This can be defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram by
one degree Celsius. Water has very high heat capacity compared with the other liquids. In other
words, a large increase in heat results in a comparatively small rise in the temperature of the water...
This means that water is good at maintain it temperature regardless of the fluctuations in the
temperature of the surrounding environment. The biological importance of this is that the range of
temperature in which biochemical processes can proceed is narrow and most organisms cannot
tolerate wide variation in temperature
SURFACE TENSION
It is the force that causes the surface of a liquid to contract so that it occupies the least
possible area. Surface tension is caused by the inward acting cohesive forces between the molecules
end. It is of high biological importance because molecules dissolve in water lower its surface
tension and tend to collect at the interface between its liquid phase and other phases. This is
important in the development of plasma membrane and the movement of molecules across it. The
high surface tension of water together with the strong cohesive forces which exist between water
molecules play an important role in the movement of water off the capillary-like vessels and traced
in the stem of plants.
FREEZING PROPERTIES
 Most liquids decrease in volume and increase in density and the temperature drops. When
such a liquid freezes, the molecules become densely packed together and the resulting ice sinks.
With water, reverse is the case as it cooled below a certain temperature, its volume increases and
density decreases. This means that the ice that floats instead of sinking and allow coldest ice of
water to be at the surface being less dense that the slightly warmer below. Ice is formed at the
surface first and then bottom later. Organisms living towards the bottom of fresh water, lake, sea or
ocean are therefore protected from freezing
P.H
The acidity of a solution is expressed as its P.H. This is the negative logarithm to the base ten
of the H+ concentration in mol/dm3 of solution. In other words, it is a measure of the H+ of the
solution. A P.H. of 7.0 represents neutrality. A solution of P.H less than 7 is acidic and the lower
the figure, the higher the acidity. I.e. the greater the H+ concentration. A solution whose P.H. is
greater than 7 is basic or alkaline. The higher the figure, the higher the basicity of the solution.

PH= -log10 [H+]

OR
Log10 1/ [H+]

BUFFER
This is a compound which behaves in such a way as to resist change in its P.H on dilution or
addition of moderate amount of acid or alkaline. In the case of increased acidity, NaHCO3 acts as a
compound by combining with free hydrogen ion H+ . If the alkalinity is increased, it can react with
the free hydroxyl ion OH- to form carbonate ion CO3- and water H2O.
NaHCO3  Na+ + HCO3-
HCO3- + H+  H2CO3
HCO3- + OH-  CO32- + H2O
Cells and tissues can only function properly at or around neutrality; they cannot tolerate
fluctuations in P.H. of more than a unit of 2. It is essential therefore that the P.H. of the body fluid
should be kept at constant as possible. Any tendency for the acidity to increase is contracted by the
buffer which mops up the excess H+ thereby helping to maintain constant concentrations in the cell.

TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
It is the movement of materials within the body of a living thing. Essential materials such as
food, oxygen and hormones are moved from their sources to where they can be utilized or stored
while waste products such as carbondioxied, urea etc are moved to the excretory organs where they
can be eliminated out of the body. These materials are moved in solution inside transport vessels. In
higher animals, the solution or medium is blood while it is sap in higher plants. The organs of
transportation in higher animals are the heart and the blood vessels while they are xylem and
phloem in higher plants.
TRANSPORTAION IN PLANTS
Materials that are transported in plants are water, mineral salts, products of photosynthesis
and hormones. Water and mineral salts are transported by the xylem vessels from the soil upwards
to other plant parts. Products of photosynthesis are transported from the green leaves to the other
parts of the plant for growth, respiration or storage through the phloem through the process of
translocation. Water vapour evaporates from the leaves or stem of plants in a process of
transpiration. It results in water uptake from the soil by roots. Plants have two transport systems
called the vascular bundles.
XYLEM: They are involved in the movement of water through a plant from its roots to its leaves
via the stem. During this process
-water is absorbed from the soil through hair cells
- Water moves by osmosis from the root hair cells to the root cells until it reaches the xylem vessels
- Water is transported through the xylem vessels up the stem to the leaves and finally, water
evaporates from the leaves inform of water vapour from transpiration.
The xylem tubes are made from dead cells
PHLOEM: They are involved in translocation. Dissolved sugars, produced during photosynthesis
and other soluble food molecules are moved from the leaves to growing tissues and storage tissues.
In contrast to the xylem, it consists of living cells. Movement of materials in the phloem is multi-
directional, in xylem it is unidirectional. The movement of materials in xylem is driven by
transpiration pull most of the time while the movement of materials in the phloem is by hydrostatic
pressure. Transpiration is affected by light, temperature, wind, relative humidity, atmospheric
pressure and water supply. The most important internal factor affecting transpiration is the shape of
the stomata.

EXCRETION
It is the process by which waste products of metabolism that are toxic and not useful are
removed from the body of an organism. It is an essential process in all forms of life. The main
excretory products in animals are carbon dioxide, ammonia, urea, uric acids and salts. In unicellular
organism, waste products re excreted through the surface of the cell into the organism’s external
environment. Contractile vacuoles are organelles of water balance found in many unicellular
organisms. Nephridia are found in worms while the malphigian tubules are the excretory organs of
insects. In vertebrates, the excretory organs are the skin, lung s and kidneys. The skin has sweat
glands which excrete sweat. The lungs remove excess carbondioxide and water vapour during
breathing. The kidney removes excess water, salts and urea from the blood. The main products of
excretion in plants are carbondioxide, water vapour, oxygen, resins, tannins, gums, rubber and
essential oils. Plants have no special excretory organs because catabolism is much slower that in
animals thereby making accumulation of waste products much slower that in animals. Excretion is
carried out though the following ways:
1. Gaseous waste products such as oxygen and water vapour are removed through stomata of leaves
and lenticels of stems. Some waste products collect on the leaves and part of trees (bark of trees).
When the leaves and barks are shed, wastes are also eliminated.
2. Some wastes are rendered harmless and then stored in the plants as solid bodies e.g. resins,
tannins, rubbers and gums.
Plants also excrete some waste products into the soil around them through the root hairs