Course Code: Bio 12

Course Title: General Biology (Lecture)

Modular Learning Guide # 2 (Part 1)

TOPIC: THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE

Time Allotted: 3 hours

LECTURE: The Cell: Cell Theory and Cell Structure and Function

A. LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Distinguish the parts of animal and plant cells
2. Appreciate the plant cell and animal cell structure and function

INTRODUCTION

• The CELL THEORY, or cell doctrine, states that all organisms are composed of similar units of
organization, called cells. The concept was formally articulated in 1839 by Schleiden &
Schwann and has remained as the foundation of modern biology. The idea predates other
great paradigms of biology including Darwin's theory of evolution (1859), Mendel’s laws of
inheritance (1865), and the establishment of comparative biochemistry (1940). Ultrastructure
research and modern molecular biology have added many tenets to the cell theory, but it
remains as the preeminent theory of biology. The correct interpretation of cell formation by
division was finally promoted by others and formally announced in Rudolph Virchow's powerful
statement, "Omnis cellula e cellula". “All cells only arise from pre-existing cells".

• The invention of the microscope made possible for

the
discovery of cells. The first lenses were used in
Europe in
the late 1500s by merchants who needed to
determine
the quality of cloth through the quality of thread
and
the precision of the weave. From these simple
lenses,
combination of lenses was put together.

• In the late 1600s, Dutch businessman Anton van

Leeuwenhoek became one of the first people
to use a microscope (Figure 3) to study nature.
Using only a single powerful lens, van Leeuwenhoek
crafted instruments that could produce magnified images of very small
objects. His simple microscope enabled him to see things no one had ever seen before. He
was the first person to see tiny living organisms in a drop of water.

• In 1665, English physicist Robert Hooke used of the first light microscopes to look at thin slices of
plant tissues. One of these, a slice of cork, especially caught his eye. Under the microscope, cork
seemed to be made of thousands of tiny chambers. Hooke called this chambers “cells” because
they reminded him of a monastery’s tiny rooms, which were also known as cells.

• Cells can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are lacking special structures such as
nucleus and organelles while eukaryotic cells have a nuclear membrane (a well-defined
nucleus), membrane-bounded subcellular organelles, and mitotic cell division. An
example of an organism under prokaryotic is a bacterium while for eukaryotic are plant
and animal cells.
 2 general classes of the cell

1. Prokaryotic cells
�Cells that lack well defined nuclei and
most
organelles
E.g. Bacteria

2. Eukaryotic cells
�Cells with definite nuclei as well as the
cell
organelles
E.g. animal and plant cells
*Note: Viruses are acellular.

Now let us start to know more about cells like plant and animal cells. Do you think there are
similarities and differences of both?

A diagram of plant and animal cell

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• All eukaryotic cells have at least three components. These are plasma membrane, cytoplasm
and nucleus.
• The plasma membrane is also called the cell membrane or plasmalemma. This is a double layer
(bilayer) of phospholipids in which are embedded different kinds of proteins. It is remarkably
changeable, multipurpose membrane. It acts as a differentially permeable barrier to
substances that enter and leave the cell. Meaning, the plasma membrane allows some
substances to pass through it but others cannot. Partly because of its outer position. Its function
is to receive and translate chemical and environmental signals from outside the cell. Signals
translated by the plasma membrane change cellular metabolism. For example, hormones
received by the plasma membrane can initiate a series of enzymatic reactions that cause the
cell to enlarge. Also, plasma membrane accepts packets of raw materials from other
membranes inside the cell and directs the assembly of these materials into cell-wall microfibrils.
 o Cell walls are dynamic part of plant cells that can grow and change their shape and
composition. Their composition varies in different cell types and from one species to
another. Up to 60% of a cell wall may be cellulose; other components hemicelluloses,
pectins, lignins, and protein. Almost all plant cells have cellulose containing cell walls.
This wall also can be found in fungi and algae.

• Cytoplasm is a ground substance or matrix that serves as the general storage and working area
of the cell. The cytosol is the semifluid matrix between organelles. The cytoplasm houses the
organelles.

• Cell organelles is a specialized structures of the cell which perform specific function. They are
called as organelles because they are like tiny “organs”. They are either membrane or non
membrane bound. The membrane-bound organelles are the golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
mitochondria, plastids, vacuoles and microbodies. The non membrane-bound organelles are
the ribosomes, centrosome, cytoskeleton, and the locomotor organelles.

a. Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of tubules or channels that occupies the entire

cytoplasm. It has 2 portions, which are the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The RER is studded or peppered with ribosomes
in its outer surface that functions for protein synthesis, meanwhile the SER lacks
ribosomes and functions for the production of lipids and carbohydrates (like
cholesterol and glycogen for animals and cutin, suberin, oil, fragrances and nectars
of the plants).
b. Golgi Apparatus is also called as golgi bodies or golgi complex and in plant
specifically termed also as dictyosome. It consists of flattened smooth-surfaced
vacuoles stacked one upon another and it serves to be the site for processing and
packaging of cell secretions/ products (e.g. proteins synthesized in ribosomes and
lumen of endoplasmic reticulum – transported to the golgi apparatus where they
become enclosed in membranes called the vesicles ready for release to the different
parts of the cell and out of the cell membrane.)
c. Lysosome is a vesicle that is surrounded by a membrane and contains hydrolytic
enzymes that break down large food molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,
nucleic acids) into simple forms. Also it is also responsible for protection against
invading microorganisms. This structure is absent in plants.
d. Mitochondrion (mitochondria, plural form) is a slender rod or filament enclosed by 2
membranes – the outer is smooth and the inner forms are thrown into folds called
cristae. It contains enzymes that are ultimately involved to synthesize ATP. It is also the
powerhouse of the cell where cellular respiration takes place. A cell may contain
several hundred mitochondria. Normally in a cell, the actual number of mitochondria
is usually proportional to its requirements for ATP. So, for dividing cells and cells that
are metabolically active need large amounts of ATP and usually have the largest
numbers in of mitochondria.
e. Plastid is round or oval body that contain pigments. This is absent in animal cells. It has
3 types which are the chloroplasts, chromaplasts, and leucoplasts. The chloroplast
contains pigments (chlorophyll) which traps light for photosynthesis. The chromoplast
contains anthocyanin and carotenoids pigments. Anthocyanin is any red or blue
pigment while carotenoid is any compound in a class of yellow, orange, or red fat
soluble accessory pigments found in carrots, tomatoes, flowers etc. The most
widespread carotenoid in plants is beta carotene. The leucoplast contains pigment
for colorless appearance that functions for storage like amyloplast (store starch) of
rice, potatoes, radish and elaioplast (store oil) of seeds.
f. Vacuole is a membrane bounded body containing various kinds of substances in dilute
solution. In animals, it contains fluid or solid particles to be digested, excreted or
stored. It stores fats and glycogen. For plants, it is filled with water to create pressure
called the turgor pressure which contributes to structural rigidity of the cell. When a
plant receives too little water, turgor pressure decreases and the plant wilts. In
addition to water, plant vacuoles contain enzymes and other proteins, water soluble
pigments, growth hormones, and ions (potassium and chloride). Also, it stores
anthocyanin, oxalic acid and toxic alkaloids or other secondary products. Alkaloids
may deter insects and other animals from eating the plants that contain them.
 Moreover, plants vacuole size is large while for animal’s vacuole is small.
g. Microbodies are the smallest membrane-bound organelles. These are bound by a
single membrane, spherical and 0.5 to 1.5 µm in diameter. These tiny organelles are
often associated with membranes of the ER, but they may also be closely associated
with chloroplasts and mitochondria. Two of the most important kinds of microbodies
are peroxisomes, which occur primarily in leaves, and glyoxysomes, which are
common in germinating oil-bearing seeds and the young seedlings that grow from
them. Peroxisomes break down some of the toxic products of cell metabolism by
oxidizing them with hydrogen peroxide while for glyoxysomes, it links the breakdown
of fatty acids to the synthesis of carbohydrates. Unlike peroxisomes, glyoxysomes
rarely occur in animals. Consequently, plants can convert lipids to carbohydrates, but
animals generally cannot.

h. Ribosome converts the instructions found in messengers into the chains of amino-acids
that make up proteins therefore it is the site of protein synthesis. They are about 20 nm
in diameter and consist of approximately equal amounts of protein and ribosomal
RNA (rRNA). Each ribosome is assembled from two subunits that are produced in the
nucleus and exported to the cytosol. Ribosomes usually occurs in clusters, called
polysomes, on a single molecule of mRNA. The number of ribosomes varies among
cell types and in different stages of cell development. In growing cells, it can make
about 10, 000 ribosomes per minute. In addition, it is abundant specially in dividing
cells that make large amount of proteins.
i. Centrioles are granular bodies located just outside the nucleus of animal cell. It is
involved in the movement of chromosomes during cell division. This structure is absent
in plants.
j. Cytoskeleton is a flexible framework of molecules that functions for anchoring
organelles, providing support, and permitting shape changes and movement in some
cells. It has 3 types which are the microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules. Microfilaments (also called actin filaments) are thin protein strands
which are 4-7 nm in diameter that are attached to the cell membrane and form a
network through the cytoplasm. Some microfilaments are responsible for organelles
streaming in the cytoplasm in a cyclic pattern. This is found in the animal muscle
tissue and leaf tissue of the plant. Intermediate filaments are made of fibrous proteins
wound into coils having diameters of 8-12 nm. Several kinds of proteins in
intermediate filaments occur in animals, but little is known about them in plants. Its
proteins are probably similar in both plants and animals because of the cytochemical
studies shows that antibodies made against intermediate filaments from animal bind
to intermediate filaments from plants. Microtubules are the largest filaments which
are hollow tubes about 18 -25 nm in diameter. This functions for maintaining the cell
shape and for transport of substances from one part of a cell to another. Also, the
spindle fibers during mitosis are made up of microtubules. These spindle fibers allow
chromosomes movement by attaching to the kinetochore. Likewise, microtubule is
responsible for the movement of cilia (absent in plants) and flagella.

• There are 2 types of Locomotor Organelles which are the Cilium and Flagellum. The Cilium (cilia,
plural form) is a slender, microscopic, hair-like structure that beats in rhythmic waves. The
Flagellum (flagella, plural form) is a long, lash like/whip-like appendage that exhibits rotary
motion.

• The Nucleus (nuclei, plural form) is the most conspicuous organelle in a cell; when stained, it can
be seen easily with a light microscope. The nucleus contains most of a cell’s DNA, which occurs
with protein in threadlike chromosomes. The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes,
together called the nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane. The outer membrane is
continuous with the membrane of the ER. The inner and outer nuclear membranes are
separated by a space of 20 – 40 nm, except where they fuse to form pores in the envelope.
These nuclear pores are small circular openings, 30 – 100 nm in diameter, bordered by proteins
that probably influence the passage of molecules between the nucleus and the rest of the
cell. For example, certain proteins move into the nucleus, where they join with ribosomal RNA
to make the subunits of ribosomes. In turn, ribosomal subunits and other RNA- containing
 molecules that are made in the nucleus move out into the cytosol through the nuclear pores.
But these pores do not allow DNA to pass through. In the nucleus also is a nuclear sap called
the nucleoplasm that suspends the nucleolus and chromatin. The nucleolus is a deeply stained
spherical bodies containing1 or more RNA and it is where the ribosome sub-units are
assembled, hence it regulates regular proteins synthesis. It is also referred as the “pacemaker
of the cell”. Chromatin is a DNA-protein complex that forms chromosomes.

Before looking more specifically at the types of tissues, we will first examine how cells are held
together to form tissues.

• In plants, the cell wall is made up

of
primary and secondary. Primary
cell walls have thin areas where
many tiny connections, called
plasmodesma (plural,
plasmodesmata), occur
between adjacent cells.
Plasmodesmata are lined by the
plasma membrane, thereby
forming uninterrupted channel
for the movement of materials
from one cell to another. This
means that all cells in a plant are
interconnected and have the
potential to exchange
substances through
plasmodesmata. In addition, it
often occurs in clusters where
primary cell walls are particularly
thin. These regions are called
primary pit-fields. Primary pit-fields and plasmodesmata are abundant in conducting cells and
secretory cells, such as those in nectar glands or oil glands. Plasmodesmatal channels are usually
about 30 nm in diameter, but they can be much larger in some cells.

Middle lamella is the pectin-containing layer between cells that probably acts as the glue to hold
plant cells together.

• In animals, most epithelial cells and

some muscle and nerve cells are
tightly
joined into functional units. Cell
junctions
are contact points between the
plasma
membranes of tissue cells. Here we
consider the five most important types
of
cell junctions: tight junctions, adherens
junctions, desmosomes,
hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions.
Cellular metabolism refers to the sum total of chemical and physical processes that occur in living organisms.
Metabolism involves 2 phases which are the Constructive phase or anabolism and the Destructive phase or catabolism.
In order for these 2 processes/phases to occur, cells require a continuous supply of nutrients that are obtained from the
surrounding extracellular fluid. Living cells, like man-made machines, do not work and consequently require fuels. This
fuel is in the form of organic molecules which is derived/supplied in the diet (for animals) or manufactured by the cell
(for plants). This fuel traverses the cell membrane in order to enter the cells.