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In 1665, Robert
Hooke, an English
physicist
discovered and
described cell
 In 1676, Anton van
Leeuwenhoek published his
observations of single-cell
organism (animalcules). He
was the first person to
observe a red blood cell and a
sperm cell. He is also the
father of microscopy.
In 1802, Robert Brown of
Scotland named the center of
cell “nucleus” who also
discovered the random Brownian
motion of molecules. But, Franz
Bauer first described nucleus.
 Henri Dutrochet (1776-1847) made the connection
between plant cells and animal cells explicit, and he
proposed that the cell was not just s structural but
also a physiological unit. He also proposed that new
cells arise from within old ones.

 Francois Raspail (1794-1878) was the first to state one

of the major tenets of cell theory: Omnis cellula e
cellula” which means “every cell is derived from
another cell”. However his proposed mechanism of
cell generation was incorrect.
 In 1839, Theodor Schwann proposed
that in animals too every structural
element is composed of cells or cell
products.
 Johannes Purkinje (1787-1869) was
the premier cytologist of his day,
and one of the most influential
formulators of the cell theory.
 Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow was a
German doctor, anthropologist,
pathologist, prehistorian, biologist and
politician, known for his advancement
of public health. Referred to as "the
father of modern pathology," he is
considered one of the founders of social
medicine. Virchow's cell theory, "omnis
cellula e cellula" means every living cell
comes from another living cell.
 All living organisms are made up of cells.

 Cell is the basic unit of life.

 Cell arise from pre-existing cells.

Cells are not all the same size.
Some are large as 5 cm long like
marine alga (Acetabularia).
Most of cells are typically from 5
to 20 micrometer in diameter.
Why are most cells so tiny?
Prokaryotic Cell
Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus
are called prokaryotes (from the Greek
meaning before nuclei). These cells have few
internal structures that are distinguishable
under a microscope. Cells in the monera
kingdom such as bacteria and cyanobacteria
(also known as blue-green algae) are
prokaryotes.
 Both cells have genetic material – DNA.
 Both have also RNA
 Both have a cell membrane covering them.
 Both cells are made up of carbohydrates,
proteins, nucleic acid, minerals, fats and
vitamins.
 Both cells have ribosomes, cytoplasm,
cytoskeleton, glycocalyces and have lipid
bilayer.
Multicellular organisms are
organisms with more than
one cell.
Unicellular organisms such
as bacteria have singled-cell
body.
General functions of organelles
1. genetic control
2. manufacture of macromolecules
3. maintenance of cells
4. energy processing
5. support movement and
communication
Contains all the necessary life-sustaining
components
 Cytosol
 Cytomembrane
Consist of organic and inorganic compound
serves as the reservoir for the materials in
the cell
 Ranging 7.5 to 10nm
 It consists of double layer of fats and lipids
 It is differentially permeable

 Separates the contents of the cell from the

external environment
 Regulates the passage of materials into and out of
the cell
 allows communication with other cells
 Oval-shaped or spherical-shaped structure
 It is double membrane
 It has nuclear pores
 It contains the nucleolus, which composed
the RNA
 It composed of chromatin, which composed
the DNA, chromosome
ORGANELLES
IN
CYTOPLASM
Powerhouse of the cell
It stores ATP
(cristae, matrix,
membranes)
Site of protein
synthesis
Some are bound in
endoplasmic reticulum
Refers to a network
pathways through which
materials flow to the
different part of the
cytoplasm
Consists of flattened sheets, sacs
and tubes of membranes that
extend throughout the
cytoplasm
 Smooth ER
 Rough ER
Is a system of flattened, membrane-
bound sacs that look like a stack of
pancakes
Involved in modifying, sorting and
packaging macromolecules for
secretion or for delivery to other
organelles
Produced by golgi apparatus
“digestive sacs”
Play a role in the destruction
or repair of defective parts of
the cell
Have enzymes for oxidizing certain
organic molecules resulting in the
formation of hydrogen peroxide
Large membranous storage sacs in
cells
Some are storage of water or food
Protect plants from herbivorous
animals
In protists, they rid the cell of excess
water
 SPECIAL
ORGANELLES IN
THE CYTOPLASM
Found outside the nucleus
 Two pairs of centrioles
Function in the formation
of spindle fiber
Network of interconnected
protein filaments
 Actin filaments
 Intermediate filaments
 microtubules
 Double membrane organelles found in plant
and photosynthetic protists
 Storage of starch molecules
 Chloroplasts
 Chromoplasts
 leucoplasts
Structural Elements
 Cytoskeleton – network of protein filaments
for structural and cell movement.
 Flagella and Cilia – cellular extensions
arrangement of pairs of microtubules for
motility or moving fluids over surfaces.
Endomembrane System
 Plasma Membrane – a lipid bilayer in which
proteins embedded. It regulates what passes
into and out of the cell, it is also for cell to cell
recognition.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum – it is a network of
internal membranes that forms
compartments and vesicles.
 Nucleus – spherical structure bounded by
double membrane that contains
chromosomes. It serves as the control center
of the cell. It directs protein synthesis and cell
reproduction.
 Golgi Complex – stacks of flattened vesicles
that modifies and packages proteins for
export from the cell. It also forms secretory
vesicles.
 Lysosomes – vesicles derived from golgi
complex that contain hydrolytic digestive
enzymes. It digest worn-out organelles and
cell debris, play role in cell death.
 Peroxisomes – vesicles that contain two sets
of enzymes; one set converts fats to
carbohydrates and the other set detoxifies
various potentially harmful molecules.
Energy – Producing Organelles
 Mitochondria – bacteria - like elements with
inner membrane that serves as power plant of the
cell and site for oxidative metabolism.
 Chloroplasts – bacteria -like organelle found in
plants and algae, they have complex inner
membrane consists of stacked vesicles.
 Centrioles – anchor and assemble microtubules
from tubulin subunits in the cell of animals and
most protists.
Elements of Gene Expression
 Chromosomes – are long threads of DNA that
form a complex with protein. They contain
hereditary information or traits.
 Nucleolus – is the site of genes for rRNA synthesis
that assembles ribosomes.
 Ribosomes – are small and complex assemblies of
protein and RNA and often bound to ER, serve as
sites of protein synthesis.
Special Things about Plant Cells
 Vacuoles – the center of plant cell usually
contains a large, apparently empty space but
not really empty because it contains large
amount of water and other materials.
 Cell Walls – present in fungi and some
protists. They are composed of fibers of the
polysaccharide cellulose.
ENTRY AND EXIT
OF MATERIALS
IN CELLS
- is the movement of a substance against its
concentration gradient using energy. In cells this is
usually concerned with accumulating high
concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such
as ions, glucose, amino acids. Active transport uses
energy, unlike passive transport, which does not use
any energy. Active transport is a good example of a
process for which cells require energy. Examples of
active transport include the uptake of glucose in the
intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions
into root hair cells of plants.
 Endocytosis is the process by which cells
absorb molecules (such as proteins) from
outside the cell by engulfing them with their
cell membrane. It is used by all cells of the
body because most substances important to
them are large polar molecules that cannot
pass through the hydrophobic plasma or cell
membrane.
 Pinocytosis ("cell-drinking", "bulk-phase
pinocytosis", "fluid endocytosis") is a form of
endocytosis in which small particles are brought
into the cell suspended within small vesicles which
subsequently fuse with lysosomes to hydrolyze, or
to break down, the particles. This process requires
energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate, the
chemical compound used as energy in the majority
of cells.
 Phagocytosis (from Greek , phago- "eating", -cyte
"vessel", -osis a process) is the cellular process of
phagocytes and protists engulfing solid particles by
the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome.
Phagocytosis is a specific form of endocytosis
involving the vesicular internalization of solid
particles, such as bacteria, and is therefore distinct
from other forms of endocytosis such as the
vesicular internalization of various liquids.
 Exocytosis (ɛks.oʊ.saɪ.'toʊ.sɪs; from Greek ἔξω
"out" and English cyto- "cell" from Gk. κύτος
"receptacle"), also known as 'reverse pino-cytosis',is
the durable process by which a cell directs the
contents of secretory vesicles out of the cell
membrane. These membrane-bound vesicles
contain soluble proteins to be secreted to the
extracellular environment, as well as membrane
proteins and lipids that are sent to become
components of the cell membrane.
- means moving biochemicals and atomic or
molecular substances across the cell
membrane. Unlike active transport, this
process does not involve chemical energy.
The four main kinds of passive transport are
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration and
osmosis.
 Diffusion describes the spread of particles through
random motion from regions of higher
concentration to regions of lower concentration.
The time dependence of the statistical distribution
in space is given by the diffusion equation. The
concept of diffusion is tied to that of mass transfer
driven by a concentration gradient, but diffusion can
still occur when there is no concentration gradient
(but there will be no net flux).
 Facilitated diffusion (also known as facilitated
transport or passive-mediated transport) is a
process of passive transport, facilitated by transport
proteins. Facilitated diffusion is the spontaneous
passage of molecules or ions across a biological
membrane passing through specific transmembrane
transport proteins. The facilitated diffusion may
occur either across biological membranes or
through aqueous compartments of an organism.
 Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation
which is used for the separation of solids from fluids
(liquids or gases) by interposing a medium through
which only the fluid can pass. Oversize solids in the
fluid are retained, but the separation is not
complete; solids will be contaminated with some
fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles
(depending on the pore size and filter thickness).
 Osmosis is the diffusion (or spreading) of
water molecules across a semi-permeable
membrane from a region of high
concentration to a region of low
concentration until a state of dynamic
equilibrium is reached.
- is the pressure applied by a solution to prevent the
inward flow of water across a semi permeable
membrane.
The phenomenon of osmotic pressure arises from
the tendency of a pure solvent to move through a
semi-permeable membrane and into a solution
containing a solute to which the membrane is
impermeable. This process is of vital importance in
biology as the cell's membrane is selective towards
many of the solutes found in living organisms.
 is a measure of the osmotic pressure (as defined by the
water potential of the two solutions) of two solutions
separated by a semi permeable membrane. It is
commonly used when describing the response of cells
immersed in an external solution. Like osmotic
pressure, tonicity is influenced only by solutes that
cannot cross the membrane, as only these exert an
osmotic pressure. Solutes able to freely cross the
membrane do not affect tonicity because they will
always be in equal concentrations on both sides of the
membrane.
 Hypertonic solution contains a greater concentration of impermeable
solutes than the solution on the other side of the membrane. When a
cell’s cytoplasm is bathed in a hypertonic solution the water will be
drawn into the solution and out of the cell by osmosis. If water molecules
continue to diffuse out of the cell, it will cause the cell to shrink, or
crenate. Solution having greater solute concentration than the cytosol.
 Hypotonic solution contains a lesser concentration of impermeable
solutes than the solution on the other side of the membrane. When a
cell’s cytoplasm is bathed in a hypotonic solution the water will be drawn
out of the solution and into the cell by osmosis. If water molecules
continue to diffuse into the cell, it will cause the cell to swell, up to the
point that lysis (rupture) may occur.
 Isotonic solutions contain equal concentrations of impermeable solutes
on either side of the membrane.